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<html>
<head>
<title>Type Traits</title>
<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
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<h1><img src="../../boost.png" width="276" height="86">Header <<a href="../../boost/type_traits.hpp">boost/type_traits.hpp</a>></h1>
<h2>Contents</h2>
<pre><a href="#intro">Introduction</a>
<a href="#primary">Primary Type Categorisation</a>
<a href="#secondary">Secondary Type Categorisation</a>
<a href="#properties">Type Properties</a>
<a href="#relationships">Relationships Between Types</a>
<a href="#transformations">Transformations Between Types</a>
<a href="#synthesized">Synthesizing Types</a>
<a href="#function_traits">Function Traits</a>
<a href="#headers">Type traits headers</a><BR><A href="#specializations">User defined specializations</A>
<a href="#example">Example Code</a></pre>
<h2><a name="intro"></a>Introduction</h2>
<p>The contents of <boost/type_traits.hpp> are declared in namespace boost.</p>
<p>The file <<a href="../../boost/type_traits.hpp">boost/type_traits.hpp</a>>
defines three kinds of type trait:</p>
<ol>
<li>
The properties of a specific type.
<li>
The relationship between two types.
<li>
A transformation from one type to another.</li>
</ol>
<p>If you are new to this library then the accompanying <a href="cxx_type_traits.htm">
article</a> provides the background information and motivation.</p>
<p>All of the integral expressions in this library are <a href="../../more/int_const_guidelines.htm">
<em>integral constant expressions</em></a>, these can sometimes cause
compiler problems in use, so there is a related set of <a href="../../more/int_const_guidelines.htm">
coding guidelines</a> to help you write portable code using this library.</p>
<h2><a name="primary"></a>Primary Type Categorisation</h2>
<p>The following type traits templates identify which type category the type
belongs to. For any given type, exactly one of the following expressions will
evaluate to true. Note that this means that <code>is_integral<T>::value</code>
and <code>is_float<T>::value</code> will only every be true for built-in
types; if you want to check for a user-defined type that may behave "as if" it
is an integral or floating point type, then use the std::numeric_limits
template instead.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Expression</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Description</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Reference</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Compiler
requirements</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_void<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is a
cv-qualified void type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.1p9</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_integral<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is an
cv-qualified integral type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.1p7</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_float<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is a
cv-qualified floating point type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.1p8</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_pointer<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is
cv-qualified pointer type (includes function pointers, but excludes pointers to
members).</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.2p2</p>
<p align="center">8.3.1</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_reference<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is a
reference type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.2</p>
<p align="center">8.3.2</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template may report the
wrong result for function types.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_member_pointer<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is a
cv-qualified pointer to a data-member or member-function.</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.2</p>
<p align="center">8.3.3</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_array<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is an
array type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.2</p>
<p align="center">8.3.4</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template can give the
wrong result with function types.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_union<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is of
union type. Currently requires some kind of compiler support, otherwise unions
are identified as classes.</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.2</p>
<p align="center">9.5</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Without (some as yet unspecified)
help from the compiler, we cannot distinguish between union and class types, as
a result this expression will never evaluate to true.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_class<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is of
class/struct type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.2</p>
<p align="center">9.2</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Without (some as yet unspecified)
help from the compiler, we cannot distinguish between union and class types, as
a result this expression will erroneously evaluate to true for union types.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_enum<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is of
enum type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="16%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.2</p>
<p align="center">7.2</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Requires a correctly functioning
is_convertible template; this means that is_enum is currently broken under
Borland C++ Builder 5, and for the Metrowerks compiler prior to version 8,
other compilers should handle this template just fine.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_function<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is a function type
(note not a reference or pointer to function).</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.2p1</p>
<p align="center">8.3.5</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template does not compile
for reference types.</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> </p>
<h2><a name="secondary"></a>Secondary Type Categorisation</h2>
<p>The following type categories are made up of the union of one or more primary
type categorisations. A type may belong to more than one of these categories,
in addition to one of the primary categories.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="24%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Expression</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Description</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="15%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Reference</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Compiler
requirements</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="24%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_arithmetic<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is a
cv-qualified arithmetic type. That is either an integral or floating point
type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="15%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.1p8</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="24%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_fundamental<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is an
cv-qualified fundamental type. That is either an integral, a floating point, or
a void type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="15%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.1</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="24%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_object<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is a
cv-qualified object type. That is not a function, reference, or void type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="15%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9p9</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="24%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_scalar<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is
cv-qualified scalar type. That is an arithmetic, enumeration, pointer or a
pointer to member type.</td>
<td valign="top" width="15%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9p10</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template can not be used
with function types.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="24%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_compound<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="26%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">
Evaluates to true only if T is a compound type. (Any type that is not a
fundamental type is a compound type).</td>
<td valign="top" width="15%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.2</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"></td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_member_function_pointer<T>::value</code></td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is a pointer to a member
function (and not a pointer to a member object). This template splits
is_member_pointer into two sub-categories.</td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.2</p>
<p align="center">8.3.3</p>
</td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> </p>
<h2><a name="properties"></a>Type Properties</h2>
<p>The following templates identify the properties that a type has.</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Expression</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Description</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Reference</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Compiler
requirements</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::alignment_of<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">
<P>Identifies the alignment requirements of T. Actually returns a value that is
only guaranteed to be a multiple of the actual alignment requirements of T.</P>
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_empty<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">
<P>True if T is an empty struct or class. If the compiler implements the "zero
sized empty base classes" optimisation, then is_empty will correctly guess
whether T is empty. Relies upon is_class to determine whether T is a class
type.
</P>
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">10p5</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">Relies on the compiler
implementing zero sized empty base classes in order to detect empty classes.
</p>
<p align="left">Can not be used with incomplete types.</p>
<p align="left">Can not be used with union types, until is_union can be made to
work.</p>
<p align="left">If the compiler does not support partial-specialization of class
templates, then this template can not be used with abstract types.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_const<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is top-level
const-qualified.</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.3</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_volatile<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is
volatile-qualified.</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9.3</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<TR>
<TD vAlign="top" width="5%"></TD>
<TD vAlign="top" bgColor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_abstract<T>::value</code></TD>
<TD vAlign="top" bgColor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates true only if T is abstract class.</TD>
<TD vAlign="top" bgColor="#c0c0c0">10.3</TD>
<TD vAlign="top" bgColor="#c0c0c0">Compiler must support DR337 (as Jan 2004: GCC
3.4,<BR>
VC++ 7.1, Intel C++ 7, Comeau 4.3.2).</TD>
<TD vAlign="top" width="5%"></TD>
</TR>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_polymorphic<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is a polymorphic
type.
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">10.3</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Requires knowledge of the compilers ABI, does
actually seem to work with the majority of compilers though.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_pod<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true only if T is a cv-qualified
POD type.
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">3.9p10</p>
<p align="center">9p4</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Without some (as yet unspecified) help from the
compiler, is_pod will never report that a class or struct is a POD; this is
always safe, if possibly sub-optimal.<p>If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template can not be used
with function types.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::has_trivial_constructor<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">True if T has a trivial default constructor.</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">12.1p5</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">Without some (as yet unspecified)
help from the compiler, <code>has_trivial_constructor </code>will never report
that a class or struct has a trivial constructor; this is always safe, if
possibly sub-optimal.</p>
<p>If the compiler does not support partial-specialization of class templates,
then this template can not be used with function types.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::has_trivial_copy<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">True if T has a trivial copy constructor.
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">12.8p6</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">Without some (as yet unspecified)
help from the compiler, <code>has_trivial_copy </code>will never report that a
class or struct has a trivial copy constructor; this is always safe, if
possibly sub-optimal.</p>
<p>If the compiler does not support partial-specialization of class templates,
then this template can not be used with function types.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::has_trivial_assign<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">True if T has a trivial assignment operator.
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">12.8p11</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">Without some (as yet unspecified)
help from the compiler, <code>has_trivial_assign </code>will never report that
a class or struct has a trivial assignment operator; this is always safe, if
possibly sub-optimal.</p>
<p>If the compiler does not support partial-specialization of class templates,
then this template can not be used with function types.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::has_trivial_destructor<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">True if T has a trivial destructor.
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">12.4p3</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">Without some (as yet unspecified)
help from the compiler, <code>has_trivial_destructor </code>will never report
that a class or struct has a trivial destructor; this is always safe, if
possibly sub-optimal.</p>
<p>If the compiler does not support partial-specialization of class templates,
then this template can not be used with function types.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_stateless<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">True if T is stateless, meaning that T has no
storage and its constructors and destructors are trivial.
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">Without some (as yet unspecified)
help from the compiler, <code>is_stateless </code>will never report that a
class or struct is_stateless; this is always safe, if possibly sub-optimal.</p>
<p align="left">Will report true only if all of the following also report true:</p>
<div align="left"><pre>::boost::has_trivial_constructor<T>::value,
::boost::has_trivial_copy<T>::value,
::boost::has_trivial_destructor<T>::value,
::boost::is_class<T>::value,
::boost::is_empty<T>::value</pre>
</div>
<p>If the compiler does not support partial-specialization of class templates,
then this template can not be used with function types.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::has_nothrow_constructor<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">True if T has a non-throwing default
constructor.
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td align="center" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">Without some (as yet
unspecified) help from the compiler, <code>has_nothrow_constructor </code>will
never report that a class or struct has a non-throwing constructor; this is
always safe, if possibly sub-optimal.</p>
<p align="left">If the compiler does not support partial-specialization of class
templates, then this template can not be used with function types.</p>
</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::has_nothrow_copy<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">True if T has a non-throwing copy constructor.
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td align="center" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">Without some (as yet
unspecified) help from the compiler, <code>has_nothrow_copy </code>will never
report that a class or struct has a non-throwing copy constructor; this is
always safe, if possibly sub-optimal.</p>
<p align="left">If the compiler does not support partial-specialization of class
templates, then this template can not be used with function types.</p>
</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::has_nothrow_assign<T>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">True if T has a non-throwing assignment
operator.
<P>T must be a complete type.</P>
</td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td align="center" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">Without some (as yet
unspecified) help from the compiler, <code>has_nothrow_assign </code>will never
report that a class or struct has a non-throwing assignment operator; this is
always safe, if possibly sub-optimal.</p>
<p align="left">If the compiler does not support partial-specialization of class
templates, then this template can not be used with function types.</p>
</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p> </p>
<h2><a name="relationships"></a>Relationships Between Types</h2>
<p>The following templates determine the whether there is a relationship between
two types:</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Expression</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="27%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Description</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="15%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Reference</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Compiler
requirements</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><div align="left"><pre><code>::boost::is_same<T,U>::value</code></pre>
</div>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="27%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">Evaluates to true if T
and U are the same type.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="15%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template can not be used
with abstract, incomplete or function types.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_convertible<T,U>::value</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="27%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true if an imaginary
lvalue of type T is convertible to type U.<p>Type T must not be an incomplete
type.</p>
<p>Type U must not be an incomplete, abstract or function type.</p>
<p>No types are considered to be convertible to an array type.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="15%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="center">4</p>
<p align="center">8.5</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Note that this template is
currently broken with Borland C++ Builder 5 (and earlier), for
constructor-based conversions, and for the Metrowerks 7 (and earlier) compiler
in all cases.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::is_base_and_derived<T,U>::value</code></td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Evaluates to true if type T is a base class to type U.<p>Will
detect non-public base classes, and ambiguous base classes.</p>
<p>Note that a class is not considered to be it's own base class, likewise, if
either T or U are non-class types, then the result will always be false.</p>
<p>Types T and U must not be incomplete types.</p>
</td>
<td align="center" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">10</td>
<td align="center" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template can not be used
with function types.</p>
</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>Note that both <code>is_convertible</code>, and <code>is_base_and_derived</code>
can produce compiler errors if the convertion is ambiguous:</p>
<pre>struct A {};
struct B : A {};
struct C : A {};
struct D : B, C {};
bool const x = boost::is_base_and_derived<A,D>::value; // error
bool const y = boost::is_convertible<D*,A*>::value; // error
</pre>
<h2><a name="transformations"></a>Transformations Between Types</h2>
<p>The following templates transform one type to another, based upon some
well-defined rule. Each template has a single member called <i>type</i> that is
the result of applying the transformation to the template argument T:</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Expression</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Description</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Reference</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Compiler
requirements</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::remove_const<T>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Creates a type the same as T but
with any top level const qualifier removed. For example "const int" would
become "int", but "const int*" would remain unchanged.</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">3.9.3</td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template will compile, but
will have no effect, except where noted below.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::remove_volatile<T>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Creates a type the same as T but
with any top level volatile qualifier removed. For example "volatile int" would
become "int".</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">3.9.3</p>
</td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template will compile, but
will have no effect, except where noted below.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::remove_cv<T>::type</code></td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Creates a type the same as T but with any top level
cv-qualifiers removed. For example "const volatile int" would become "int".</td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0">3.9.3</td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template will compile, but
will have no effect, except where noted below.</p>
</td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::remove_reference<T>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">If T is a reference type then
removes the reference, otherwise leaves T unchanged. For example "int&"
becomes "int" but "int*" remains unchanged.</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">8.3.2</td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template will compile, but
will have no effect, except where noted below.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::remove_bounds<T>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">If T is an array type then removes
the top level array qualifier from T, otherwise leaves T unchanged. For example
"int[2][3]" becomes "int[3]".</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">8.3.4</td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template will compile, but
will have no effect.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::remove_pointer<T>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">If T is a pointer type, then
removes the top-level indirection from T, otherwise leaves T unchanged. For
example "int*" becomes "int", but "int&" remains unchanged.</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">8.3.1</td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template will compile, but
will have no effect, except where noted below.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::add_reference<T>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">If T is a reference type then
leaves T unchanged, otherwise converts T to a reference type. For example
"int&" remains unchanged, but "double" becomes "double&".</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">8.3.2</td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::add_pointer<T>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">A type that is the same as
<SPAN class="SpellE">
<CODE>
<SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt">remove_reference</SPAN></CODE></SPAN><CODE><SPAN style="FONT-SIZE: 10pt"><T>::type*</SPAN></CODE>.
For example "int" and "int&" both become "int*".</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">8.3.1</td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><p align="left">If the compiler does not support
partial-specialization of class templates, then this template will not compile
with reference types.</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::add_const<T>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">The same as "T const" for all T.</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">3.9.3</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::add_volatile<T>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">The same as "T volatile" for all T.</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">3.9.3</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::add_cv<T>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">The same as "T const volatile" for all T.</td>
<td valign="top" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">3.9.3</td>
<td bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>As the table above indicates, support for partial specialization of class
templates is required to correctly implement the type transformation templates.
On the other hand, practice shows that many of the templates from this category
are very useful, and often essential for implementing some generic libraries.
Lack of these templates is often one of the major limiting factors in porting
those libraries to compilers that do not yet support this language feature. As
some of these compilers are going to be around for a while, and at least one of
them is very wide-spread, it was decided that the library should provide
workarounds where possible. The basic idea behind the workaround is</p>
<ol>
<li>
To manually define full specializations of all type transformation templates
for all fundamental types, and all their 1st and 2nd rank cv-[un]qualified
derivative pointer types, and to
<li>
Provide a user-level macro that will define such explicit specializations for
any user-defined type T.</li>
</ol>
<p>The first part guarantees the successful compilation of something like this:</p>
<pre>BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((is_same<char, remove_reference<char&>::type>::value));</pre>
<pre>BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((is_same<char const, remove_reference<char const&>::type>::value));</pre>
<pre>BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((is_same<char volatile, remove_reference<char volatile&>::type>::value));</pre>
<pre>BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((is_same<char const volatile, remove_reference<char const volatile&>::type>::value));</pre>
<pre>BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((is_same<char*, remove_reference<char*&>::type>::value));</pre>
<pre>BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((is_same<char const*, remove_reference<char const*&>::type>::value));</pre>
<pre>...</pre>
<pre>BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((is_same<char const volatile* const volatile* const volatile, remove_reference<char const volatile* const volatile* const volatile&>::type>::value));</pre>
<p>and the second part provides library's users with a mechanism to make the above
code work not only for 'char', 'int' or other built-in type, but for they own
types too:</p>
<pre>struct my {};</pre>
<pre>BOOST_BROKEN_COMPILER_TYPE_TRAITS_SPECIALIZATION(my)</pre>
<pre>BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((is_same<my, remove_reference<my&>::type>::value));</pre>
<pre>BOOST_STATIC_ASSERT((is_same<my, remove_const<my const>::type>::value));</pre>
<pre>// etc.</pre>
<p>Note that the macro BOOST_BROKEN_COMPILER_TYPE_TRAITS_SPECIALIZATION evaluates
to nothing on those compilers that do support partial specialization.</p>
<h2><a name="synthesized"></a>Synthesizing Types</h2>
<p>The following template synthesizes a type with the desired properties.
</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Expression</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Description</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Reference</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Compiler
requirements</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::type_with_alignment<Align>::type</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Attempts to find a built-in or POD
type with an alignment that is a multiple of Align.
</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2><a name="function_traits"></a>Function Traits</h2>
<p>The <code>::boost::function_traits</code> class template extracts information
from function types.
</p>
<table border="0" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" width="100%">
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Expression</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Description</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Reference</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="25%" bgcolor="#008080"><p align="center">Compiler
requirements</p>
</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::function_traits<F>::arity</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Determine the arity of the function
type <code>F</code>.
</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Without partial specialisation support, this
template does not compile for reference types.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::function_traits<F>::result_type</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">The type returned by function type <code>
F</code>.
</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Does not compile without support for partial
specialization of class templates.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
<td valign="top" width="23%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"><code>::boost::function_traits<F>::arg</code><code><em>N</em></code><code>_type</code></td>
<td valign="top" width="28%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">The <code><em>N</em></code>th
argument type of function type <code>F</code>, where <code>1<=</code><code><em>N</em></code><code><=</code>arity
of <code>F</code>.</td>
<td valign="top" width="13%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0"> </td>
<td width="25%" bgcolor="#c0c0c0">Does not compile without support for partial
specialization of class templates.</td>
<td valign="top" width="5%"> </td>
</tr>
</table>
<h2><a name="compiler"></a><a name="headers"></a>Type Traits Headers</h2>
<p>The type traits library is normally included with:</p>
<pre>#include <boost/type_traits.hpp></pre>
<p>However the library is actually split up into a number of smaller headers,
sometimes it can be convenient to include one of these directly in order to get
just those type traits classes you actually need. The split headers
always have the same name as the template you require, and are located in
boost/type_traits/. So if for example some code requires
is_class<>, then just include:</p>
<pre><boost/type_traits/is_class.hpp></pre>
<h2><A name="specializations"></A>User defined specializations</h2>
<P>Occationally the end user may need to provide their own specialization for one
of the type traits - typically where intrinsic compiler support is required to
implement a specific trait fully. These specializations should derive
from boost::mpl::true_ or boost::mpl::false_ as appropriate:</P>
<PRE># include <boost/type_traits/is_pod.hpp>
# include <boost/type_traits/is_class.hpp>
# include <boost/type_traits/is_union.hpp>
struct my_pod{};
struct my_union
{
char c;
int i;
};
namespace boost
{
template<>
struct is_pod<my_pod>
: public mpl::true_{};
template<>
struct is_pod<my_union>
: public mpl::true_{};
template<>
struct is_union<my_union>
: public mpl::true_{};
template<>
struct is_class<my_union>
: public mpl::false_{};
}
</PRE>
<H2>Example code</H2>
<p>Type-traits comes with four example programs that illustrate some of the ways
in which the type traits templates may be used:</p>
<h4>Copy_example.cpp</h4>
<p>Demonstrates a version of std::copy that uses memcpy where appropriate to
optimise the copy operation;</p>
<pre>//
// opt::copy
// same semantics as std::copy
// calls memcpy where appropiate.
//
namespace detail{
template<typename I1, typename I2>
I2 copy_imp(I1 first, I1 last, I2 out)
{
while(first != last)
{
*out = *first;
++out;
++first;
}
return out;
}
template <bool b>
struct copier
{
template<typename I1, typename I2>
static I2 do_copy(I1 first, I1 last, I2 out)
{ return copy_imp(first, last, out); }
};
template <>
struct copier<true>
{
template<typename I1, typename I2>
static I2* do_copy(I1* first, I1* last, I2* out)
{
memcpy(out, first, (last-first)*sizeof(I2));
return out+(last-first);
}
};
}
template<typename I1, typename I2>
inline I2 copy(I1 first, I1 last, I2 out)
{
typedef typename boost::remove_cv<typename std::iterator_traits<I1>::value_type>::type v1_t;
typedef typename boost::remove_cv<typename std::iterator_traits<I2>::value_type>::type v2_t;
return detail::copier<
::boost::type_traits::ice_and<
::boost::is_same<v1_t, v2_t>::value,
::boost::is_pointer<I1>::value,
::boost::is_pointer<I2>::value,
::boost::has_trivial_assign<v1_t>::value
>::value>::do_copy(first, last, out);
}</pre>
<h4>fill_example.cpp</h4>
<p>Demonstrates a version of std::fill that uses memset where appropriate to
optimise fill operations. Also uses call_traits to optimise parameter passing,
to avoid aliasing issues:</p>
<pre>namespace opt{
//
// fill
// same as std::fill, uses memset where appropriate, along with call_traits
// to "optimise" parameter passing.
//
namespace detail{
template <typename I, typename T>
void do_fill_(I first, I last, typename boost::call_traits<T>::param_type val)
{
while(first != last)
{
*first = val;
++first;
}
}
template <bool opt>
struct filler
{
template <typename I, typename T>
struct rebind
{
static void do_fill(I first, I last, typename boost::call_traits<T>::param_type val)
{ do_fill_<I,T>(first, last, val); }
};
};
template <>
struct filler<true>
{
template <typename I, typename T>
struct rebind
{
static void do_fill(I first, I last, T val)
{
std::memset(first, val, last-first);
}
};
};
}
template <class I, class T>
inline void fill(I first, I last, const T& val)
{
typedef detail::filler<
::boost::type_traits::ice_and<
::boost::is_pointer<I>::value,
::boost::is_arithmetic<T>::value,
(sizeof(T) == 1)
>::value> filler_t;
typedef typename filler_t:: template rebind<I,T> binder;
binder::do_fill(first, last, val);
}
}; // namespace opt</pre>
<h4>iter_swap_example.cpp</h4>
<p>Demonstrates a version of std::iter_swap that works with proxying iterators, as
well as regular ones; calls std::swap for regular iterators, otherwise does a
"slow but safe" swap:</p>
<pre>namespace opt{
//
// iter_swap:
// tests whether iterator is a proxying iterator or not, and
// uses optimal form accordingly:
//
namespace detail{
template <bool b>
struct swapper
{
template <typename I>
static void do_swap(I one, I two)
{
typedef typename std::iterator_traits<I>::value_type v_t;
v_t v = *one;
*one = *two;
*two = v;
}
};
template <>
struct swapper<true>
{
template <typename I>
static void do_swap(I one, I two)
{
using std::swap;
swap(*one, *two);
}
};
}
template <typename I1, typename I2>
inline void iter_swap(I1 one, I2 two)
{
typedef typename std::iterator_traits<I1>::reference r1_t;
typedef typename std::iterator_traits<I2>::reference r2_t;
detail::swapper<
::boost::type_traits::ice_and<
::boost::is_reference<r1_t>::value,
::boost::is_reference<r2_t>::value,
::boost::is_same<r1_t, r2_t>::value
>::value>::do_swap(one, two);
}
}; // namespace opt</pre>
<h4>Trivial_destructor_example.cpp</h4>
<p>This algorithm is the reverse of std::unitialized_copy; it takes a block of
initialized memory and calls destructors on all objects therein. This would
typically be used inside container classes that manage their own memory:</p>
<pre>namespace opt{
//
// algorithm destroy_array:
// The reverse of std::unitialized_copy, takes a block of
// initialized memory and calls destructors on all objects therein.
//
namespace detail{
template <bool>
struct array_destroyer
{
template <class T>
static void destroy_array(T* i, T* j){ do_destroy_array(i, j); }
};
template <>
struct array_destroyer<true>
{
template <class T>
static void destroy_array(T*, T*){}
};
template <class T>
void do_destroy_array(T* first, T* last)
{
while(first != last)
{
first->~T();
++first;
}
}
}; // namespace detail
template <class T>
inline void destroy_array(T* p1, T* p2)
{
detail::array_destroyer<boost::has_trivial_destructor<T>::value>::destroy_array(p1, p2);
}
} // namespace opt</pre>
<hr>
<p>Revised 22 April 2001</p>
<p>Documentation Copyright John Maddock 2001. Permission to copy, use, modify,
sell and distribute this document is granted provided this copyright notice
appears in all copies. This document is provided "as is" without express or
implied warranty, and with no claim as to its suitability for any purpose.</p>
<p>The type traits library is based on contributions by Steve Cleary, Beman Dawes,
Aleksey Gurtovoy, Howard Hinnant, Jesse Jones, Mat Marcus, John Maddock and
Jeremy Siek.</p>
<p>Mat Marcus and Jesse Jones have worked on, and published a <a href="http://opensource.adobe.com/project4/project.shtml">
paper</a> describing the partial specialisation workarounds used in this
library.</p>
<p>The is_convertible template is based on code originally devised by Andrei
Alexandrescu, see "<a href="http://www.cuj.com/experts/1810/alexandr.htm?topic=experts">Generic<Programming>:
Mappings between Types and Values</a>".</p>
<p>Maintained by <a href="../../people/john_maddock.htm">John Maddock</a>, the
latest version of this file can be found at <a href="http://www.boost.org/">www.boost.org</a>,
and the boost discussion list at <a href="mailto:boost@lists.boost.org">boost@lists.boost.org</a>
(see <a href="http://www.boost.org/more/mailing_lists.htm#main">http://www.boost.org/more/mailing_lists.htm#main</a>).</p>
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