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[/
 / Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0. (See accompanying
 / file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt)
 /]

[section Tutorial]

[section Terminology]

First, let's cover some terminology that we'll be using throughout the docs:

A /semantic action/ is an arbitrary bit of logic associated with a parser,
that is only executed when the parser matches.

Simpler parsers can be combined to form more complex parsers.  Given some
combining operation `C`, and parsers `P0`, `P1`, ..., `PN`, `C(P0, P1, ..., PN)`
creates a new parser `Q`.  This creates a /parse tree/.  `Q` is the parent of
`P1`, `P2` is the child of `Q`, etc.  The parsers are applied in the top-down
fashion implied by this topology.  When you use `Q` to parse a string, it
will use `P0`, `P1`, etc. to do the actual work.  If `P3` is being used to
parse the input, that means that `Q` is as well, since the way `Q` parses is
by dispatching to its children to do some or all of the work.  At any point in
the parse, there will be exactly one parser without children that is being
used to parse the input; all other parsers being used are its ancestors in the
parse tree.

A /subparser/ is a parser that is the child of another parser.

The /top-level parser/ is the root of the tree of parsers.

The /current parser/ or /bottommost parser/ is the parser with no children that
is currently being used to parse the input.

A /rule/ is a kind of parser that makes building large, complex parsers
easier.  A /subrule/ is a rule that is the child of some other rule.  The
/current rule/ or /bottommost rule/ is the one rule currently being used to
parse the input that has no subrules.  Note that while there is always exactly
one current parser, there may or may not be a current rule _emdash_ rules are
one kind of parser, and you may or may not be using one at a given point in
the parse.

The /top-level parse/ is the parse operation being performed by the top-level
parser.  This term is necessary because, though most parse failures are local
to a particular parser, some parse failures cause the call to _p_ to indicate
failure of the entire parse.  For these cases, we say that such a local
failure "causes the top-level parse to fail".

Throughout the _Parser_ documentation, I will refer to "the call to _p_".
Read this as "the call to any one of the functions described in _p_api_".
That includes _pp_, _cbp_, and _cbpp_.

There are some special kinds of parsers that come up often in this
documentation.

One is a /sequence parser/; you will see it created using `operator>>`, as
in `p1 >> p2 >> p3`.  A sequence parser tries to match all of its subparsers
to the input, one at a time, in order.  It matches the input iff all its
subparsers do.

Another is an /alternative parser/; you will see it created using
`operator|`, as in `p1 | p2 | p3`.  An alternative parser tries to match all
of its subparsers to the input, one at a time, in order; it stops after
matching at most one subparser.  It matches the input iff one of its
subparsers does.

Finally, there is a /permutation parser/; it is created using `operator||`,
as in `p1 || p2 || p3`.  A permutation parser tries to match all of its
subparsers to the input, in any order.  So the parser `p1 || p2 || p3` is equivalent to `(p1 >> p2 >> p3) | (p1 >> p3 >> p2) | (p2 >> p1 >> p3) | (p2 >> p3 >> p1) | (p3 >> p1 >> p2) | (p3 >> p2 >> p1)`.  Hopefully the advantage of its terseness is self-explanatory.  It matches the
input iff all of its subparsers do, regardless of the order they match in.

_Parser_ parsers each have an /attribute/ associated with them, or explicitly
have no attribute.  An attribute is a value that the parser generates when it
matches the input.  For instance, the parser _d_ generates a `double` when it
matches the input.  _ATTR_ is a notional macro that expands to the attribute
type of the parser passed to it; `_ATTR_np_(_d_)` is `double`.  This is
similar to the _attr_ type trait.

Next, we'll look at some simple programs that parse using _Parser_.  We'll
start small and build up from there.

[endsect]

[section Hello, Whomever]

This is just about the most minimal example of using _Parser_ that one could
write.  We take a string from the command line, or `"World"` if none is given,
and then we parse it:

[hello_example]

The expression `*bp::char_` is a parser-expression.  It uses one of the many
parsers that _Parser_ provides: _ch_.  Like all _Parser_ parsers, it has
certain operations defined on it.  In this case, `*bp::char_` is using an
overloaded `operator*` as the C++ version of a _kl_ operator.  Since C++ has
no postfix unary `*` operator, we have to use the one we have, so it is used
as a prefix.

So, `*bp::char_` means "any number of characters".  In other words, it really
cannot fail.  Even an empty string will match it.

The parse operation is performed by calling the _p_ function, passing the
parser as one of the arguments:

    bp::parse(input, *bp::char_, result);

The arguments here are: `input`, the range to parse; `*bp::char_`, the parser
used to do the parse; and `result`, an out-parameter into which to put the
result of the parse.  Don't get too caught up on this method of getting the
parse result out of _p_; there are multiple ways of doing so, and we'll cover
all of them in subsequent sections.

Also, just ignore for now the fact that _Parser_ somehow figured out that the
result type of the `*bp::char_` parser is a _std_str_.  There are clear rules
for this that we'll cover later.

The effects of this call to _p_ are not very interesting _emdash_ since the
parser we gave it cannot ever fail, and because we're placing the output in
the same type as the input, it just copies the contents of `input` to
`result`.

[endsect]

[section A Trivial Example]

Let's look at a slightly more complicated example, even if it is still
trivial.  Instead of taking any old `char`s we're given, let's require some
structure.  Let's parse one or more `double`s, separated by commas.

The _Parser_ parser for `double` is _d_.  So, to parse a single `double`, we'd
just use that.  If we wanted to parse two `double`s in a row, we'd use:

    boost::parser::double_ >> boost::parser::double_

`operator>>` in this expression is the sequence-operator; read it as "followed
by".  If we combine the sequence-operator with _kl_, we can get the parser we
want by writing:

    boost::parser::double_ >> *(',' >> boost::parser::double_)

This is a parser that matches at least one `double` _emdash_ because of the
first _d_ in the expression above _emdash_ followed by zero or more instances
of a-comma-followed-by-a-`double`.  Notice that we can use `','` directly.
Though it is not a parser, `operator>>` and the other operators defined on
_Parser_ parsers have overloads that accept character/parser pairs of
arguments; these operator overloads will create the right parser to recognize
`','`.

[trivial_example]

The first example filled in an out-parameter to deliver the result of the
parse.  This call to _p_ returns a result instead.  As you can see, the result
is contextually convertible to `bool`, and `*result` is some sort of range.
In fact, the return type of this call to _p_ is
`std::optional<std::vector<double>>`.  Naturally, if the parse fails,
`std::nullopt` is returned.  We'll look at how _Parser_ maps the type of the
parser to the return type, or the filled in out-parameter's type, a bit later.

[note There's a type trait that can tell you the attribute type for a parser,
_attr_ (and an associated alias _attr_t_).  We'll discuss it more in the
_attr_gen_ section.]

If I run it in a shell, this is the result:

[pre
$ example/trivial
Enter a list of doubles, separated by commas.  No pressure. 5.6,8.9
Great! It looks like you entered:
5.6
8.9
$ example/trivial
Enter a list of doubles, separated by commas.  No pressure. 5.6, 8.9
Good job!  Please proceed to the recovery annex for cake.
]

It does not recognize `"5.6, 8.9"`.  This is because it expects a comma
followed /immediately/ by a `double`, but I inserted a space after the comma.
The same failure to parse would occur if I put a space before the comma, or
before or after the list of `double`s.

One more thing: there is a much better way to write the parser above.  Instead
of repeating the `double_` subparser, we could have written this:

    bp::double_ % ','

That's semantically identical to `bp::double_ >> *(',' >> bp::double_)`.  This
pattern _emdash_ some bit of input repeated one or more times, with a
separator between each instance _emdash_ comes up so often that there's an
operator specifically for that, `operator%`.  We'll be using that operator
from now on.

[endsect]

[section A Trivial Example That Gracefully Handles Whitespace]

Let's modify the trivial parser we just saw to ignore any spaces it might find
among the `double`s and commas.  To skip whitespace wherever we find it, we
can pass a /skip parser/ to our call to _p_ (we don't need to touch the parser
passed to _p_).  Here, we use `ws`, which matches any Unicode whitespace
character.

[trivial_skipper_example]

The skip parser, or /skipper/, is run between the subparsers within the
parser passed to _p_.  In this case, the skipper is run before the first
`double` is parsed, before any subsequent comma or `double` is parsed, and at
the end.  So, the strings `"3.6,5.9"` and `" 3.6 , \t 5.9 "` are parsed the
same by this program.

Skipping is an important concept in _Parser_.  You can skip anything, not just
whitespace; there are lots of other things you might want to skip.  The
skipper you pass to _p_ can be an arbitrary parser.  For example, if you write
a parser for a scripting language, you can write a skipper to skip whitespace,
inline comments, and end-of-line comments.

We'll be using skip parsers almost exclusively in the rest of the
documentation.  The ability to ignore the parts of your input that you don't
care about is so convenient that parsing without skipping is a rarity in
practice.

[endsect]

[section Semantic Actions]

Like all parsing systems (lex & yacc, _Spirit_, etc.), _Parser_ has a
mechanism for associating semantic actions with different parts of the parse.
Here is nearly the same program as we saw in the previous example, except that
it is implemented in terms of a semantic action that appends each parsed
`double` to a result, instead of automatically building and returning the
result.  To do this, we replace the _d_ from the previous example with
`_d_[action]`; `action` is our semantic action:

[semantic_action_example]

Run in a shell, it looks like this:

[pre
$ example/semantic_actions 
Enter a list of doubles, separated by commas. 4,3
Got one!
Got one!
You entered:
4
3
]

In _Parser_, semantic actions are implemented in terms of invocable objects
that take a single parameter to a parse-context object.  The parse-context
object represents the current state of the parse.  In the example we used this
lambda as our invocable:

[semantic_action_example_lambda]

We're both printing a message to `std::cout` and recording a parsed result in
the lambda.  It could do both, either, or neither of these things if you like.
The way we get the parsed `double` in the lambda is by asking the parse
context for it. `_attr(ctx)` is how you ask the parse context for the
attribute produced by the parser to which the semantic action is attached.
There are lots of functions like `_attr()` that can be used to access the
state in the parse context.  We'll cover more of them later on.  _parse_ctx_
defines what exactly the parse context is and how it works.

Note that you can't write an unadorned lambda directly as a semantic action.
Otherwise, the compile will see two `'['` characters and think it's about to
parse an attribute.  Parentheses fix this:

    p[([](auto & ctx){/*...*/})]

Before you do this, note that the lambdas that you write as semantic actions
are almost always generic (having an `auto & ctx` parameter), and so are very
frequently re-usable.  Most semantic action lambdas you write should be
written out-of-line, and given a good name.  Even when they are not reused,
named lambdas keep your parsers smaller and easier to read.

[important Attaching a semantic action to a parser removes its attribute.
That is, `_ATTR_np_(p[a])` is always the special no-attribute type _n_,
regardless of what type `_ATTR_np_(p)` is.]

[heading Semantic actions inside rules]

There are some other forms for semantic actions, when they are used inside of
_rs_.  See _more_about_rules_ for details.

[endsect]

[section Parsing to Find Subranges]

So far we've seen examples that parse some text and generate associated
attributes.  Sometimes, you want to find some subrange of the input that
contains what you're looking for, and you don't want to generate attributes at
all.

There are two ['directive]s that affect the attribute type of any parser, _raw_
and _string_view_.  (We'll get to directives in more detail in the
_directives_ section later.  For now, you just need to know that a directive
wraps a parser, and changes some aspect of how it functions.)

[heading _raw_]

_raw_ changes the attribute of its parser to be a _v_ whose `begin()` and
`end()` return the bounds of the sequence being parsed that match `p`.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto int_parser = bp::int_ % ',';            // ATTR(int_parser) is std::vector<int>
    auto subrange_parser = bp::raw[int_parser];  // ATTR(subrange_parser) is a subrange

    // Parse using int_parser, generating integers.
    auto ints = bp::parse("1, 2, 3, 4", int_parser, bp::ws);
    assert(ints);
    assert(*ints == std::vector<int>({1, 2, 3, 4}));

    // Parse again using int_parser, but this time generating only the
    // subrange matched by int_parser.  (prefix_parse() allows matches that
    // don't consume the entire input.)
    auto const str = std::string("1, 2, 3, 4, a, b, c");
    auto first = str.begin();
    auto range = bp::prefix_parse(first, str.end(), subrange_parser, bp::ws);
    assert(range);
    assert(range->begin() == str.begin());
    assert(range->end() == str.begin() + 10);

    static_assert(std::is_same_v<
                  decltype(range),
                  std::optional<bp::subrange<std::string::const_iterator>>>);

Note that the _v_ has the iterator type `std::string::const_iterator`, because
that's the iterator type passed to _pp_.  If we had passed `char const *`
iterators to _pp_, that would have been the iterator type.  The only exception
to this comes from Unicode-aware parsing (see _unicode_).  In some of those
cases, the iterator being used in the parse is not the one you passed.  For
instance, if you call _pp_ with `char8_t *` iterators, it will create a UTF-8
to UTF-32 transcoding view, and parse the iterators of that view.  In such a
case, you'll get a _v_ whose iterator type is a transcoding iterator.  When
that happens, you can get the underlying iterator _emdash_ the one you passed
to _pp_ _emdash_ by calling the `.base()` member function on each transcoding
iterator in the returned _v_.

    auto const u8str = std::u8string(u8"1, 2, 3, 4, a, b, c");
    auto u8first = u8str.begin();
    auto u8range = bp::prefix_parse(u8first, u8str.end(), subrange_parser, bp::ws);
    assert(u8range);
    assert(u8range->begin().base() == u8str.begin());
    assert(u8range->end().base() == u8str.begin() + 10);

[heading _string_view_]

_string_view_ has very similar semantics to _raw_, except that it produces a
`std::basic_string_view<CharT>` (where `CharT` is the type of the underlying
range begin parsed) instead of a _v_.  For this to work, the underlying range
must be contiguous.  Contiguity of iterators is not detectable before C++20,
so this directive is only available in C++20 and later.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto int_parser = bp::int_ % ',';              // ATTR(int_parser) is std::vector<int>
    auto sv_parser = bp::string_view[int_parser];  // ATTR(sv_parser) is a string_view

    auto const str = std::string("1, 2, 3, 4, a, b, c");
    auto first = str.begin();
    auto sv1 = bp::prefix_parse(first, str.end(), sv_parser, bp::ws);
    assert(sv1);
    assert(*sv1 == str.substr(0, 10));

    static_assert(std::is_same_v<decltype(sv1), std::optional<std::string_view>>);

Since _string_view_ produces `string_view`s, it cannot return transcoding
iterators as described above for _raw_.  If you parse a sequence of `CharT`
with _string_view_, you get exactly a `std::basic_string_view<CharT>`.  If the
parse is using transcoding in the Unicode-aware path, _string_view_ will
decompose the transcoding iterator as necessary.  If you pass a transcoding
view to _p_ or transcoding iterators to _pp_, _string_view_ will still see
through the transcoding iterators without issue, and give you a `string_view`
of part of the underlying range.

    auto sv2 = bp::parse("1, 2, 3, 4" | bp::as_utf32, sv_parser, bp::ws);
    assert(sv2);
    assert(*sv2 == "1, 2, 3, 4");

    static_assert(std::is_same_v<decltype(sv2), std::optional<std::string_view>>);

[endsect]

[section The Parse Context]

Now would be a good time to describe the parse context in some detail.  Any
semantic action that you write will need to use state in the parse context, so
you need to know what's available.

The parse context is an object that stores the current state of the parse
_emdash_ the current- and end-iterators, the error handler, etc.  Data may
seem to be "added" to or "removed" from it at different times during the
parse.  For instance, when a parser `p` with a semantic action `a` succeeds,
the context adds the attribute that `p` produces to the parse context, then
calls `a`, passing it the context.

Though the context object appears to have things added to or removed from it,
it does not.  In reality, there is no one context object.  Contexts are formed
at various times during the parse, usually when starting a subparser.  Each
context is formed by taking the previous context and adding or changing
members as needed to form a new context object.  When the function containing
the new context object returns, its context object (if any) is destructed.
This is efficient to do, because the parse context has only about a dozen data
members, and each data member is less than or equal to the size of a pointer.
Copying the entire context when mutating the context is therefore fast.  The
context does no memory allocation.

[tip All these functions that take the parse context as their first parameter
will be found by Argument-Dependent Lookup.  You will probably never need
to qualify them with `boost::parser::`.]

[heading Accessors for data that are always available]

By convention, the names of all _Parser_ functions that take a parse context,
and are therefore intended for use inside semantic actions, contain a leading
underscore.

[heading _pass_]

_pass_ returns a reference to a `bool` indicating the success or failure of
the current parse.  This can be used to force the current parse to pass or
fail:

    [](auto & ctx) {
        // If the attribute fails to meet this predicate, fail the parse.
        if (!necessary_condition(_attr(ctx)))
            _pass(ctx) = false;
    }

Note that for a semantic action to be executed, its associated parser must
already have succeeded.  So unless you previously wrote `_pass(ctx) = false`
within your action, `_pass(ctx) = true` does nothing; it's redundant.

[heading _begin_, _end_ and _where_]

_begin_ and _end_ return the beginning and end of the range that you passed to
_p_, respectively.  _where_ returns a _v_ indicating the bounds of the input
matched by the current parse.  _where_ can be useful if you just want to parse
some text and return a result consisting of where certain elements are
located, without producing any other attributes.  _where_ can also be
essential in tracking where things are located, to provide good diagnostics at
a later point in the parse.  Think mismatched tags in XML; if you parse a
close-tag at the end of an element, and it does not match the open-tag, you
want to produce an error message that mentions or shows both tags.  Stashing
`_where_np_(ctx).begin()` somewhere that is available to the close-tag parser
will enable that.  See _eh_debugging_ for an example of this.

[heading _error_handler_]

_error_handler_ returns a reference to the error handler associated with the
parser passed to _p_.  Using _error_handler_, you can generate errors and
warnings from within your semantic actions.  See _eh_debugging_ for concrete
examples.

[heading Accessors for data that are only sometimes available]

[heading __attr_]

__attr_ returns a reference to the value of the current parser's attribute.  It
is available only when the current parser's parse is successful.  If the
parser has no semantic action, no attribute gets added to the parse context.
It can be used to read and write the current parser's attribute:

    [](auto & ctx) { _attr(ctx) = 3; }

If the current parser has no attribute, a _n_ is returned.

[heading _val_]

_val_ returns a reference to the value of the attribute of the current rule
being used to parse (if any), and is available even before the rule's parse is
successful.  It can be used to set the current rule's attribute, even from a
parser that is a subparser inside the rule.  Let's say we're writing a parser
with a semantic action that is within a rule.  If we want to set the current
rule's value to some function of subparser's attribute, we would write this
semantic action:

    [](auto & ctx) { _val(ctx) = some_function(_attr(ctx)); }

If there is no current rule, or the current rule has no attribute, a _n_ is
returned.

You need to use _val_ in cases where the default attribute for a _r_'s parser
is not directly compatible with the attribute type of the _r_.  In these
cases, you'll need to write some code like the example above to compute the
_r_'s attribute from the _r_'s parser's generated attribute.  For more info on
_rs_, see the next page, and _more_about_rules_.

[heading _globals_]

_globals_ returns a reference to a user-supplied object that contains whatever
data you want to use during the parse.  The "globals" for a parse is an object
_emdash_ typically a struct _emdash_ that you give to the top-level parser.
Then you can use _globals_ to access it at any time during the parse.  We'll
see how globals get associated with the top-level parser in _p_api_ later.  As
an example, say that you have an early part of the parse that needs to record
some black-listed values, and that later parts of the parse might need to
parse values, failing the parse if they see the black-listed values.  In the
early part of the parse, you could write something like this.

    [](auto & ctx) {
        // black_list is a std::unordered_set.
        _globals(ctx).black_list.insert(_attr(ctx));
    }

Later in the parse, you could then use `black_list` to check values as they
are parsed.

    [](auto & ctx) {
        if (_globals(ctx).black_list.contains(_attr(ctx)))
            _pass(ctx) = false;
    }

[heading _locals_]

_locals_ returns a reference to one or more values that are local to the
current rule being parsed, if any.  If there are two or more local values,
_locals_ returns a reference to a _bp_tup_.  Rules with locals are something
we haven't gotten to yet (see _more_about_rules_), but for now all you need to
know is that you can provide a template parameter (`LocalState`) to _r_, and
the rule will default construct an object of that type for use within the
rule.  You access it via _locals_:

    [](auto & ctx) {
        auto & local = _locals(ctx);
        // Use local here.  If 'local' is a hana::tuple, access its members like this:
        using namespace hana::literals;
        auto & first_element = local[0_c];
        auto & second_element = local[1_c];
    }

If there is no current rule, or the current rule has no locals, a _n_ is
returned.

[heading _params_]

_params_, like _locals_, applies to the current rule being used to parse, if
any (see _more_about_rules_).  It also returns a reference to a single value,
if the current rule has only one parameter, or a _bp_tup_ of multiple values
if the current rule has multiple parameters.  If there is no current rule, or
the current rule has no parameters, a _n_ is returned.

Unlike with _locals_, you *do not* provide a template parameter to _r_.
Instead you call the _r_'s `with()` member function (again, see
_more_about_rules_).

[note _n_ is a type that is used as a return value in _Parser_ for parse
context accessors.  _n_ is convertible to anything that has a default
constructor, convertible from anything, assignable form anything, and has
templated overloads for all the overloadable operators.  The intention is that
a misuse of _val_, _globals_, etc. should compile, and produce an assertion at
runtime.  Experience has shown that using a debugger for investigating the
stack that leads to your mistake is a far better user experience than sifting
through compiler diagnostics.  See the _rationale_ section for a more detailed
explanation.]

[heading _no_case_func_]

_no_case_func_ returns `true` if the current parse context is inside one or
more (possibly nested) _no_case_ directives.  I don't have a use case for
this, but if I didn't expose it, it would be the only thing in the context
that you could not examine from inside a semantic action.  It was easy to add,
so I did.

[endsect]

[section Rule Parsers]

This example is very similar to the others we've seen so far.  This one is
different only because it uses a _r_.  As an analogy, think of a parser like
_ch_ or _d_ as an individual line of code, and a _r_ as a function.  Like a
function, a _r_ has its own name, and can even be forward declared.  Here is
how we define a _r_, which is analogous to forward declaring a function:

[rule_intro_rule_definition_rule]

This declares the rule itself.  The _r_ is a parser, and we can immediately
use it in other parsers.  That definition is pretty dense; take note of these
things:

* The first template parameter is a tag type `struct doubles`.  Here we've
  declared the tag type and used it all in one go; you can also use a
  previously declared tag type.

* The second template parameter is the attribute type of the parser.  If you
  don't provide this, the rule will have no attribute.

* This rule object itself is called `doubles`.

* We've given `doubles` the diagnostic text `"doubles"` so that _Parser_ knows
  how to refer to it when producing a trace of the parser during debugging.

Ok, so if `doubles` is a parser, what does it do?  We define the rule's
behavior by defining a separate parser that by now should look pretty
familiar:

[rule_intro_rule_definition_rule_def]

This is analogous to writing a definition for a forward-declared function.
Note that we used the name `doubles_def`.  Right now, the `doubles` rule
parser and the `doubles_def` non-rule parser have no connection to each other.
That's intentional _emdash_ we want to be able to define them separately.  To
connect them, we declare functions with an interface that _Parser_
understands, and use the tag type `struct doubles` to connect them together.
We use a macro for that:

[rule_intro_rule_definition_macro]

This macro expands to the code necessary to make the rule `doubles` and its
parser `doubles_def` work together.  The `_def` suffix is a naming convention
that this macro relies on to work.  The tag type allows the rule parser,
`doubles`, to call one of these overloads when used as a parser.

_RULES_ expands to two overloads of a function called `parse_rule()`.  In the
case above, the overloads each take a `struct doubles` parameter (to
distinguish them from the other overloads of `parse_rule()` for other rules)
and parse using `doubles_def`.  You will never need to call any overload of
`parse_rule()` yourself; it is used internally by the parser that implements
_rs_, `rule_parser`.

Here is the definition of the macro that is expanded for each rule:

[define_rule_definition]

Now that we have the `doubles` parser, we can use it like we might any other
parser:

[rule_intro_parse_call]

The full program:

[rule_intro_example]

All this is intended to introduce the notion of _rs_.  It still may be a bit
unclear why you would want to use _rs_.  The use cases for, and lots of detail
about, _rs_ is in a later section, _more_about_rules_.

[note The existence of _rs_ means that you will probably never have to write a
low-level parser.  You can just put existing parsers together into _rs_
instead.]

[endsect]

[section Parsing into `struct`s and `class`es]

So far, we've seen only simple parsers that parse the same value repeatedly
(with or without commas and spaces).  It's also very common to parse a few
values in a specific sequence.  Let's say you want to parse an employee record.
Here's a parser you might write:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto employee_parser = bp::lit("employee")
        >> '{'
        >> bp::int_ >> ','
        >> quoted_string >> ','
        >> quoted_string >> ','
        >> bp::double_
        >> '}';

The attribute type for `employee_parser` is `_bp_tup_<int, std::string,
std::string, double>`.  That's great, in that you got all the parsed data for
the record without having to write any semantic actions.  It's not so great
that you now have to get all the individual elements out by their indices,
using `get()`.  It would be much nicer to parse into the final data structure
that your program is going to use.  This is often some `struct` or `class`.
_Parser_ supports parsing into arbitrary aggregate `struct`s, and
non-aggregates that are constructible from the tuple at hand.

[heading Aggregate types as attributes]

If we have a `struct` that has data members of the same types listed in the
_bp_tup_ attribute type for `employee_parser`, it would be nice to parse
directly into it, instead of parsing into a tuple and then constructing our
`struct` later.  Fortunately, this just works in _Parser_.  Here is an example
of parsing straight into a compatible aggregate type.

[parsing_into_a_struct_example]

Unfortunately, this is taking advantage of the loose attribute assignment
logic; the `employee_parser` parser still has a _bp_tup_ attribute.  See
_p_api_ for a description of attribute out-param compatibility.

For this reason, it's even more common to want to make a rule that returns a
specific type like `employee`.  Just by giving the rule a `struct` type, we
make sure that this parser always generates an `employee` struct as its
attribute, no matter where it is in the parse.  If we made a simple parser `P`
that uses the `employee_p` rule, like `bp::int >> employee_p`, `P`'s attribute
type would be `_bp_tup_<int, employee>`.

[struct_rule_example]

Just as you can pass a `struct` as an out-param to `parse()` when the parser's
attribute type is a tuple, you can also pass a tuple as an out-param to
`parse()` when the parser's attribute type is a struct:

    // Using the employee_p rule from above, with attribute type employee...
    _bp_tup_<int, std::string, std::string, double> tup;
    auto const result = bp::parse(input, employee_p, bp::ws, tup); // Ok!

[important This automatic use of `struct`s as if they were tuples depends on a
bit of metaprogramming.  Due to compiler limits, the metaprogram that detects
the number of data members of a `struct` is limited to a maximum number of
members.  Fortunately, that limit is configurable; see _AGGR_SIZE_.]

[heading General `class` types as attributes]

Many times you don't have an aggregate struct that you want to produce from
your parse.  It would be even nicer than the aggregate code above if _Parser_
could detect that the members of a tuple that is produced as an attribute are
usable as the arguments to some type's constructor.  So, _Parser_ does that.

[parsing_into_a_class_example]

Let's look at the first parse.

[parsing_into_a_class_str]

Here, we use the parser `string_uint_uint`, which produces a
`_bp_tup_<std::string, unsigned int, unsigned int>` attribute.  When we try to
parse that into an out-param `std::string` attribute, it just works.  This is
because `std::string` has a constructor that takes a `std::string`, an offset,
and a length.  Here's the other parse:

[parsing_into_a_class_vec_of_strs]

Now we have the parser `uint_string`, which produces `_bp_tup_<unsigned int,
std::string>` attribute _emdash_ the two `char`s at the end combine into a
`std::string`.  Those two values can be used to construct a
`std::vector<std::string>`, via the count, `T` constructor.

Just like with using aggregates in place of tuples, non-aggregate `class`
types can be substituted for tuples in most places.  That includes using a
non-aggregate `class` type as the attribute type of a _r_.

However, while compatible tuples can be substituted for aggregates, you
*can't* substitute a tuple for some `class` type `T` just because the tuple
could have been used to construct `T`.  Think of trying to invert the
substitution in the second parse above.  Converting a
`std::vector<std::string>` into a `_bp_tup_<unsigned int, std::string>` makes
no sense.

[endsect]

[section Alternative Parsers]

Frequently, you need to parse something that might have one of several forms.
`operator|` is overloaded to form alternative parsers.  For example:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const parser_1 = bp::int_ | bp::eps;

`parser_1` matches an integer, or if that fails, it matches /epsilon/, the
empty string.  This is equivalent to writing:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const parser_2 = -bp::int_;

However, neither `parser_1` nor `parser_2` is equivalent to writing this:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const parser_3 = bp::eps | bp::int_; // Does not do what you think.

The reason is that alternative parsers try each of their subparsers, one at a
time, and stop on the first one that matches.  /Epsilon/ matches anything,
since it is zero length and consumes no input.  It even matches the end of
input.  This means that `parser_3` is equivalent to _e_ by itself.

[note For this reason, writing `_e_ | p` for any parser p is considered a bug.
Debug builds will assert when `_e_ | p` is encountered. ]

[warning This kind of error is very common when _e_ is involved, and also very
easy to detect.  However, it is possible to write `P1 >> P2`, where `P1` is a
prefix of `P2`, such as `int_ | int >> int_`, or `repeat(4)[hex_digit] |
repeat(8)[hex_digit]`.  This is almost certainly an error, but is impossible
to detect in the general case _emdash_ remember that _rs_ can be separately
compiled, and consider a pair of rules whose associated `_def` parsers are
`int_` and `int_ >> int_`, respectively.]

[endsect]

[section Parsing Quoted Strings]

It is very common to need to parse quoted strings.  Quoted strings are
slightly tricky, though, when using a skipper (and you should be using a
skipper 99% of the time).  You don't want to allow arbitrary whitespace in the
middle of your strings, and you also don't want to remove all whitespace from
your strings.  Both of these things will happen with the typical skipper,
_ws_.

So, here is how most people would write a quoted string parser:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    const auto string = bp::lexeme['"' >> *(bp::char_ - '"') > '"'];

Some things to note:

* the result is a string;

* the quotes are not included in the result;

* there is an expectation point before the close-quote;

* the use of _lexeme_ disables skipping in the parser, and it must be written
  around the quotes, not around the `operator*` expression; and

* there's no way to write a quote in the middle of the string.

This is a very common pattern.  I have written a quoted string parser like
this dozens of times.  The parser above is the quick-and-dirty version.  A
more robust version would be able to handle escaped quotes within the string,
and then would immediately also need to support escaped escape characters.

_Parser_ provides _quot_str_ to use in place of this very common pattern.  It
supports quote- and escaped-character-escaping, using backslash as the escape
character.

[quoted_string_example_1_2]

As common as this use case is, there are very similar use cases that it does
not cover.  So, _quot_str_ has some options.  If you call it with a single
character, it returns a _quot_str_ that uses that single character as the
quote-character.

[quoted_string_example_3]

You can also supply a range of characters.  One of the characters from the
range must quote both ends of the string; mismatches are not allowed.  Think
of how Python allows you to quote a string with either `'"'` or `'\''`, but
the same character must be used on both sides.

[quoted_string_example_4]

Another common thing to do in a quoted string parser is to recognize escape
sequences.  If you have simple escape sequences that do not require any real
parsing, like say the simple escape sequences from C++, you can provide a
_symbols_ object as well.  The template parameter `T` to _symbols_t_ must be
`char` or `char32_t`.  You don't need to include the escaped backslash or the
escaped quote character, since those always work.

[quoted_string_example_5]

Additionally, with each of the forms shown above, you can optionally provide a
parser as a final argument, which will be used to parse each character inside
the quotes.  You have to provide an actual full parser here; you cannot
provide a character or string literal.  If you do not provide a character
parser, _ch_ is used.

[quoted_string_example_6]

[endsect]

[section Parsing In Detail]

Now that you've seen some examples, let's see how parsing works in a bit more
detail.  Consider this example.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto int_pair = bp::int_ >> bp::int_;         // Attribute: tuple<int, int>
    auto int_pairs_plus = +int_pair >> bp::int_;  // Attribute: tuple<std::vector<tuple<int, int>>, int>

`int_pairs_plus` must match a pair of `int`s (using `int_pair`) one or more
times, and then must match an additional `int`.  In other words, it matches
any odd number (greater than 1) of `int`s in the input.  Let's look at how
this parse proceeds.

    auto result = bp::parse("1 2 3", int_pairs_plus, bp::ws);

At the beginning of the parse, the top level parser uses its first subparser
(if any) to start parsing.  So, `int_pairs_plus`, being a sequence parser,
would pass control to its first parser `+int_pair`.  Then `+int_pair` would
use `int_pair` to do its parsing, which would in turn use `bp::int_`.  This
creates a stack of parsers, each one using a particular subparser.

Step 1) The input is `"1 2 3"`, and the stack of active parsers is
`int_pairs_plus` -> `+int_pair` -> `int_pair` -> `bp::int_`.  (Read "->" as
"uses".)  This parses `"1"`, and the whitespace after is skipped by `bp::ws`.
Control passes to the second `bp::int_` parser in `int_pair`.

Step 2) The input is `"2 3"` and the stack of parsers looks the same, except
the active parser is the second `bp::int_` from `int_pair`.  This parser
consumes `"2"` and then `bp::ws` skips the subsequent space.  Since we've
finished with `int_pair`'s match, its `_bp_tup_<int, int>` attribute is
complete.  It's parent is `+int_pair`, so this tuple attribute is pushed onto
the back of `+int_pair`'s attribute, which is a `std::vector<_bp_tup_<int,
int>>`.  Control passes up to the parent of `int_pair`, `+int_pair`.  Since
`+int_pair` is a one-or-more parser, it starts a new iteration; control passes
to `int_pair` again.

Step 3) The input is `"3"` and the stack of parsers looks the same, except the
active parser is the first `bp::int_` from `int_pair` again, and we're in the
second iteration of `+int_pair`.  This parser consumes `"3"`.  Since this is
the end of the input, the second `bp::int_` of `int_pair` does not match.
This partial match of `"3"` should not count, since it was not part of a full
match.  So, `int_pair` indicates its failure, and `+int_pair` stops iterating.
Since it did match once, `+int_pair` does not fail; it is a zero-or-more
parser; failure of its subparser after the first success does not cause it to
fail.  Control passes to the next parser in sequence within `int_pairs_plus`.

Step 4) The input is `"3"` again, and the stack of parsers is `int_pairs_plus`
-> `bp::int_`.  This parses the `"3"`, and the parse reaches the end of input.
Control passes to `int_pairs_plus`, which has just successfully matched with
all parser in its sequence.  It then produces its attribute, a
`_bp_tup_<std::vector<_bp_tup_<int, int>>, int>`, which gets returned from
`bp::parse()`.

Something to take note of between Steps #3 and #4: at the beginning of #4, the
input position had returned to where it was at the beginning of #3.  This kind
of backtracking happens in alternative parsers when an alternative fails.  The
next page has more details on the semantics of backtracking.

[heading Parsers in detail]

So far, parsers have been presented as somewhat abstract entities.  You may be
wanting more detail.  A _Parser_ parser `P` is an invocable object with a pair
of call operator overloads.  The two functions are very similar, and in many
parsers one is implemented in terms of the other.  The first function does the
parsing and returns the default attribute for the parser.  The second function
does exactly the same parsing, but takes an out-param into which it writes the
attribute for the parser.  The out-param does not need to be the same type as
the default attribute, but they need to be compatible.

Compatibility means that the default attribute is assignable to the out-param
in some fashion.  This usually means direct assignment, but it may also mean a
tuple -> aggregate or aggregate -> tuple conversion.  For sequence types,
compatibility means that the sequence type has `insert` or `push_back` with
the usual semantics.  This means that the parser `+boost::parser::int_` can
fill a `std::set<int>` just as well as a `std::vector<int>`.

Some parsers also have additional state that is required to perform a match.
For instance, `char_` parsers can be parameterized with a single code point to
match; the exact value of that code point is stored in the parser object.

No parser has direct support for all the operations defined on parsers
(`operator|`, `operator>>`, etc.).  Instead, there is a template called
_p_iface_ that supports all of these operations.  _p_iface_ wraps each parser,
storing it as a data member, adapting it for general use.  You should only
ever see _p_iface_ in the debugger, or possibly in some of the reference
documentation.  You should never have to write it in your own code.

[endsect]

[section Backtracking]

As described in the previous page, backtracking occurs when the parse attempts
to match the current parser `P`, matches part of the input, but fails to match
all of `P`.  The part of the input consumed during the parse of `P` is
essentially "given back".

This is necessary because `P` may consist of subparsers, and each subparser
that succeeds will try to consume input, produce attributes, etc.  When a
later subparser fails, the parse of `P` fails, and the input must be rewound
to where it was when `P` started its parse, not where the latest matching
subparser stopped.

Alternative parsers will often evaluate multiple subparsers one at a time,
advancing and then restoring the input position, until one of the subparsers
succeeds.  Consider this example.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const parser = repeat(53)[other_parser] | repeat(10)[other_parser];

Evaluating `parser` means trying to match `other_parser` 53 times, and if that
fails, trying to match `other_parser` 10 times.  Say you parse input that
matches `other_parser` 11 times.  `parser` will match it.  It will also
evaluate `other_parser` 21 times during the parse.

The attributes of the `repeat(53)[other_parser]` and
`repeat(10)[other_parser]` are each `std::vector<_ATTR_np_(other_parser)>`;
let's say that `_ATTR_np_(other_parser)` is `int`.  The attribute of `parser`
as a whole is the same, `std::vector<int>`.  Since `other_parser` is busy
producing `int`s _emdash_ 21 of them to be exact _emdash_ you may be wondering
what happens to the ones produced during the evaluation of
`repeat(53)[other_parser]` when it fails to find all 53 inputs.  Its
`std::vector<int>` will contain 11 `int`s at that point.

When a repeat-parser fails, and attributes are being generated, it clears its
container.  This applies to parsers such as the ones above, but also all the
other repeat parsers, including ones made using `operator+` or `operator*`.

So, at the end of a successful parse by `parser` of 10 inputs (since the right
side of the alternative only eats 10 repetitions), the `std::vector<int>`
attribute of `parser` would contain 10 `int`s.

[note Users of Boost.Spirit may be familiar with the `hold[]` directive.
Because of the behavior described above, there is no such directive in
_Parser_.]

[heading Expectation points]

Ok, so if parsers all try their best to match the input, and are
all-or-nothing, doesn't that leave room for all kinds of bad input to be
ignored?  Consider the top-level parser from the _ex_json_ example.

    auto const value_p_def =
        number | bp::bool_ | null | string | array_p | object_p;

What happens if I use this to parse `"\""`?  The parse tries `number`, fails.
It then tries `bp::bool_`, fails.  Then `null` fails too.  Finally, it starts
parsing `string`.  Good news, the first character is the open-quote of a JSON
string.  Unfortunately, that's also the end of the input, so `string` must
fail too.  However, we probably don't want to just give up on parsing `string`
now and try `array_p`, right?  If the user wrote an open-quote with no
matching close-quote, that's not the prefix of some later alternative of
`value_p_def`; it's ill-formed JSON.  Here's the parser for the `string` rule:

    auto const string_def = bp::lexeme['"' >> *(string_char - '"') > '"'];

Notice that `operator>` is used on the right instead of `operator>>`.  This
indicates the same sequence operation as `operator>>`, except that it also
represents an expectation.  If the parse before the `operator>` succeeds,
whatever comes after it *must* also succeed.  Otherwise, the top-level parse
is failed, and a diagnostic is emitted.  It will say something like "Expected
'"' here.", quoting the line, with a caret pointing to the place in the input
where it expected the right-side match.

Choosing to use `>` versus `>>` is how you indicate to _Parser_ that parse
failure is or is not a hard error, respectively.

[endsect]

[section Symbol Tables]

When writing a parser, it often comes up that there is a set of strings that,
when parsed, are associated with a set of values one-to-one.  It is tedious to
write parsers that recognize all the possible input strings when you have to
associate each one with an attribute via a semantic action.  Instead, we can
use a symbol table.

Say we want to parse Roman numerals, one of the most common work-related
parsing problems.  We want to recognize numbers that start with any number of
"M"s, representing thousands, followed by the hundreds, the tens, and the
ones.  Any of these may be absent from the input, but not all.  Here are three
symbol _Parser_ tables that we can use to recognize ones, tens, and hundreds
values, respectively:

[roman_numeral_symbol_tables]

A _symbols_ maps strings of `char` to their associated attributes.  The type
of the attribute must be specified as a template parameter to _symbols_
_emdash_ in this case, `int`.

Any "M"s we encounter should add 1000 to the result, and all other values come
from the symbol tables.  Here are the semantic actions we'll need to do that:

[roman_numeral_actions]

`add_1000` just adds `1000` to `result`.  `add` adds whatever attribute is
produced by its parser to `result`.

Now we just need to put the pieces together to make a parser:

[roman_numeral_parser]

We've got a few new bits in play here, so let's break it down.  `'M'_l` is a
/literal parser/.  That is, it is a parser that parses a literal `char`, code
point, or string.  In this case, a `char` `'M'` is being parsed.  The `_l` bit
at the end is a _udl_ suffix that you can put after any `char`, `char32_t`, or
`char const *` to form a literal parser.  You can also make a literal parser
by writing _lit_, passing an argument of one of the previously mentioned
types.

Why do we need any of this, considering that we just used a literal `','` in
our previous example?  The reason is that `'M'` is not used in an expression
with another _Parser_ parser.  It is used within `*'M'_l[add_1000]`.  If we'd
written `*'M'[add_1000]`, clearly that would be ill-formed; `char` has no
`operator*`, nor an `operator[]`, associated with it.

[tip Any time you want to use a `char`, `char32_t`, or string literal in a
_Parser_ parser, write it as-is if it is combined with a preexisting _Parser_
subparser `p`, as in `'x' >> p`.  Otherwise, you need to wrap it in a call to
_lit_, or use the `_l` _udl_ suffix.]

On to the next bit: `-hundreds[add]`.  By now, the use of the index operator
should be pretty familiar; it associates the semantic action `add` with the
parser `hundreds`.  The `operator-` at the beginning is new.  It means that
the parser it is applied to is optional.  You can read it as "zero or one".
So, if `hundreds` is not successfully parsed after `*'M'[add_1000]`, nothing
happens, because `hundreds` is allowed to be missing _emdash_ it's optional.
If `hundreds` is parsed successfully, say by matching `"CC"`, the resulting
attribute, `200`, is added to `result` inside `add`.

Here is the full listing of the program.  Notice that it would have been
inappropriate to use a whitespace skipper here, since the entire parse is a
single number, so it was removed.

[roman_numeral_example]

[important _symbols_ stores all its strings in UTF-32 internally.  If you do
Unicode or ASCII parsing, this will not matter to you at all.  If you do
non-Unicode parsing of a character encoding that is not a subset of Unicode
(EBCDIC, for instance), it could cause problems.  See the section on _unicode_
for more information.]

[heading Diagnostic messages]

Just like with a _r_, you can give a _symbols_ a bit of diagnostic text that
will be used in error messages generated by _Parser_ when the parse fails at
an expectation point, as described in _eh_debugging_.  See the _symbols_
constructors for details.

[endsect]

[section Mutable Symbol Tables]

The previous example showed how to use a symbol table as a fixed lookup table.
What if we want to add things to the table during the parse?  We can do that,
but we need to do so within a semantic action.  First, here is our symbol
table, already with a single value in it:

[self_filling_symbol_table_table]

No surprise that it works to use the symbol table as a parser to parse the one
string in the symbol table.  Now, here's our parser:

[self_filling_symbol_table_parser]

Here, we've attached the semantic action not to a simple parser like _d_, but
to the sequence parser `(bp::char_ >> bp::int_)`.  This sequence parser
contains two parsers, each with its own attribute, so it produces two
attributes as a tuple.

[self_filling_symbol_table_action]

Inside the semantic action, we can get the first element of the attribute
tuple using _udls_ provided by Boost.Hana, and
`boost::hana::tuple::operator[]()`.  The first attribute, from the _ch_, is
`_attr(ctx)[0_c]`, and the second, from the _i_, is `_attr(ctx)[1_c]` (if
_bp_tup_ aliases to _std_tup_, you'd use `std::get` or _bp_get_ instead).  To
add the symbol to the symbol table, we call `insert()`.

[self_filling_symbol_table_parser]

During the parse, `("X", 9)` is parsed and added to the symbol table.  Then,
the second `'X'` is recognized by the symbol table parser.  However:

[self_filling_symbol_table_after_parse]

If we parse again, we find that `"X"` did not stay in the symbol table.  The
fact that `symbols` was declared const might have given you a hint that this
would happen.

The full program:

[self_filling_symbol_table_example]

[important _symbols_ stores all its strings in UTF-32 internally.  If you do
Unicode or ASCII parsing, this will not matter to you at all.  If you do
non-Unicode parsing of a character encoding that is not a subset of Unicode
(EBCDIC, for instance), it could cause problems.  See the section on _unicode_
for more information.]

It is possible to add symbols to a _symbols_ permanently.  To do so, you
have to use a mutable _symbols_ object `s`, and add the symbols by calling
`s.insert_for_next_parse()`, instead of `s.insert()`.  These two operations
are orthogonal, so if you want to both add a symbol to the table for the
current top-level parse, and leave it in the table for subsequent top-level
parses, you need to call both functions.

It is also possible to erase a single entry from the symbol table, or to clear
the symbol table entirely.  Just as with insertion, there are versions of
erase and clear for the current parse, and another that applies only to
subsequent parses.  The full set of operations can be found in the _symbols_
API docs.

[note There are two versions of each of the _symbols_ `*_for_next_parse()`
functions _emdash_ one that takes a context, and one that does not.  The one
with the context is meant to be used within a semantic action.  The one
without the context is for use outside of any parse.]

[endsect]

[section The Parsers And Their Uses]

_Parser_ comes with all the parsers most parsing tasks will ever need.  Each
one is a `constexpr` object, or a `constexpr` function.  Some of the
non-functions are also callable, such as _ch_, which may be used directly, or
with arguments, as in _ch_`('a', 'z')`.  Any parser that can be called,
whether a function or callable object, will be called a /callable parser/ from
now on.  Note that there are no nullary callable parsers; they each take one
or more arguments.

Each callable parser takes one or more /parse arguments/.  A parse argument
may be a value or an invocable object that accepts a reference to the parse
context.  The reference parameter may be mutable or constant.  For example:

    struct get_attribute
    {
        template<typename Context>
        auto operator()(Context & ctx)
        {
            return _attr(ctx);
        }
    };

This can also be a lambda.  For example:

    [](auto const & ctx) { return _attr(ctx); }

The operation that produces a value from a parse argument, which may be a
value or a callable taking a parse context argument, is referred to as
/resolving/ the parse argument.  If a parse argument `arg` can be called with
the current context, then the resolved value of `arg` is `arg(ctx)`;
otherwise, the resolved value is just `arg`.

Some callable parsers take a /parse predicate/.  A parse predicate is not
quite the same as a parse argument, because it must be a callable object, and
cannot be a value.  A parse predicate's return type must be contextually
convertible to `bool`.  For example:

    struct equals_three
    {
        template<typename Context>
        bool operator()(Context const & ctx)
        {
            return _attr(ctx) == 3;
        }
    };

This may of course be a lambda:

    [](auto & ctx) { return _attr(ctx) == 3; }

The notional macro _RES_ expands to the result of resolving a parse argument
or parse predicate.  You'll see it used in the rest of the documentation.

An example of how parse arguments are used:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    // This parser matches one code point that is at least 'a', and at most
    // the value of last_char, which comes from the globals.
    auto last_char = [](auto & ctx) { return _globals(ctx).last_char; }
    auto subparser = bp::char_('a', last_char);

Don't worry for now about what the globals are for now; the take-away is that
you can make any argument you pass to a parser depend on the current state of
the parse, by using the parse context:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    // This parser parses two code points.  For the parse to succeed, the
    // second one must be >= 'a' and <= the first one.
    auto set_last_char = [](auto & ctx) { _globals(ctx).last_char = _attr(x); };
    auto parser = bp::char_[set_last_char] >> subparser;

Each callable parser returns a new parser, parameterized using the arguments
given in the invocation.

[table_parsers_and_their_semantics]

[note A slightly more complete description of the attributes generated by
these parsers is in a subsequent section.  The attributes are repeated here so
you can use see all the properties of the parsers in one place.]

If you have an integral type `IntType` that is not covered by any of the
_Parser_ parsers, you can explicitly specify a base/radix or bounds on the
number of digits.  You do this by calling the `base()` and `digits()` member
functions on an existing parser of the right integral type.  So if `IntType`
were unsigned, you would use `uint_`.  If it were signed, you would use
`int_`.  For example:

    constexpr auto hex_int = bp::uint_.base<16>();

You simply chain together the constraints you want to use, like
`.base<16>().digits<2>()` or `.digits<4>().base<8>()`.

So, if you wanted to parse exactly eight hexadecimal digits in a row in order
to recognize Unicode character literals like C++ has (e.g. `\Udeadbeef`), you
could use this parser for the digits at the end:

    constexpr auto hex_4_def = bp::uint_.base<16>().digits<8>();

If you want to specify an acceptable range of digits, use `.digits<LO, HI>()`.
Both `HI` and `LO` are inclusive bounds.

[endsect]

[section Directives]

A directive is an element of your parser that doesn't have any meaning by
itself.  Some are second-order parsers that need a first-order parser to do
the actual parsing.  Others influence the parse in some way.  You can often
spot a directive lexically by its use of `[]`; directives always `[]`.
Non-directives might, but only when attaching a semantic action.

The directives that are second order parsers are technically directives, but
since they are also used to create parsers, it is more useful just to focus on
that.  The directives _rpt_ and _if_ were already described in the section on
parsers; we won't say much about them here.

[heading Interaction with sequence, alternative, and permutation parsers]

Sequence, alternative, and permutation parsers do not nest in most cases.
(Let's consider just sequence parsers to keep things simple, but most of this
logic applies to alternative parsers as well.)  `a >> b >> c` is the same as
`(a >> b) >> c` and `a >> (b >> c)`, and they are each represented by a single
_seq_p_ with three subparsers, `a`, `b`, and `c`.  However, if something
prevents two _seq_ps_ from interacting directly, they *will* nest.  For
instance, `lexeme[a >> b] >> c` is a _seq_p_ containing two parsers, `lexeme[a
>> b]` and `c`.  This is because _lexeme_ takes its given parser and wraps it
in a _lex_p_.  This in turn turns off the sequence parser combining logic,
since both sides of the second `operator>>` in `lexeme[a >> b] >> c` are not
_seq_ps_.  Sequence parsers have several rules that govern what the overall
attribute type of the parser is, based on the positions and attributes of its
subparsers (see _attr_gen_).  Therefore, it's important to know which
directives create a new parser (and what kind), and which ones do not; this is
indicated for each directive below.

[heading The directives]

[heading _rpt_]

See _parsers_uses_.  Creates a _rpt_p_.

[heading _if_]

See _parsers_uses_.  Creates a _seq_p_.

[heading _omit_]

`_omit_np_[p]` disables attribute generation for the parser `p`.  Not only
does `_omit_np_[p]` have no attribute, but any attribute generation work that
normally happens within `p` is skipped.

This directive can be useful in cases like this: say you have some fairly
complicated parser `p` that generates a large and expensive-to-construct
attribute.  Now say that you want to write a function that just counts how
many times `p` can match a string (where the matches are non-overlapping).
Instead of using `p` directly, and building all those attributes, or rewriting
`p` without the attribute generation, use _omit_.

Creates an _omt_p_.

[heading _raw_]

`_raw_np_[p]` changes the attribute from `_ATTR_np_(p)` to a view that
delimits the subrange of the input that was matched by `p`.  The type of the
view is `_v_<I>`, where `I` is the type of the iterator used within the parse.
Note that this may not be the same as the iterator type passed to _p_.  For
instance, when parsing UTF-8, the iterator passed to _p_ may be `char8_t const
*`, but within the parse it will be a UTF-8 to UTF-32 transcoding (converting)
iterator.  Just like _omit_, _raw_ causes all attribute-generation work within
`p` to be skipped.

Similar to the re-use scenario for _omit_ above, _raw_ could be used to find
the *locations* of all non-overlapping matches of `p` in a string.

Creates a _raw_p_.

[heading _string_view_]

`_string_view_np_[p]` is very similar to `_raw_np_[p]`, except that it changes
the attribute of `p` to `std::basic_string_view<C>`, where `C` is the
character type of the underlying range being parsed.  _string_view_ requires
that the underlying range being parsed is contiguous.  Since this can only be
detected in C++20 and later, _string_view_ is not available in C++17 mode.

Similar to the re-use scenario for _omit_ above, _string_view_ could be used
to find the *locations* of all non-overlapping matches of `p` in a string.
Whether _raw_ or _string_view_ is more natural to use to report the locations
depends on your use case, but they are essentially the same.

Creates a _sv_p_.

[heading _no_case_]

`_no_case_np_[p]` enables case-insensitive parsing within the parse of `p`.
This applies to the text parsed by `_ch_()`, _str_, and _b_ parsers.  The
number parsers are already case-insensitive.  The case-insensitivity is
achieved by doing Unicode case folding on the text being parsed and the values
in the parser being matched (see note below if you want to know more about
Unicode case folding).  In the non-Unicode code path, a full Unicode case
folding is not done; instead, only the transformations of values less than
`0x100` are done.  Examples:

    #include <boost/parser/transcode_view.hpp> // For as_utfN.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const street_parser = bp::string(u8"Tobias Straße");
    assert(!bp::parse("Tobias Strasse" | bp::as_utf32, street_parser));             // No match.
    assert(bp::parse("Tobias Strasse" | bp::as_utf32, bp::no_case[street_parser])); // Match!

    auto const alpha_parser = bp::no_case[bp::char_('a', 'z')];
    assert(bp::parse("a" | bp::as_utf32, bp::no_case[alpha_parser])); // Match!
    assert(bp::parse("B" | bp::as_utf32, bp::no_case[alpha_parser])); // Match!

Everything pretty much does what you'd naively expect inside _no_case_, except
that the two-character range version of `char_` has a limitation.  It only
compares a code point from the input to its two arguments (e.g. `'a'` and
`'z'` in the example above).  It does not do anything special for multi-code
point case folding expansions.  For instance, `char_(U'ß', U'ß')` matches the
input `U"s"`, which makes sense, since `U'ß'` expands to `U"ss"`.  However,
that same parser *does not* match the input `U"ß"`!  In short, stick to pairs
of code points that have single-code point case folding expansions.  If you
need to support the multi-expanding code points, use the other overload, like:
`char_(U"abcd/*...*/ß")`.

[note Unicode case folding is an operation that makes text uniformly one case,
and if you do it to two bits of text `A` and `B`, then you can compare them
bitwise to see if they are the same, except of case.  Case folding may
sometimes expand a code point into multiple code points (e.g. case folding
`"ẞ"` yields `"ss"`).  When such a multi-code point expansion occurs, the
expanded code points are in the NFKC normalization form.]

Creates a _noc_p_.

[heading _lexeme_]

`_lexeme_np_[p]` disables use of the skipper, if a skipper is being used,
within the parse of `p`.  This is useful, for instance, if you want to enable
skipping in most parts of your parser, but disable it only in one section
where it doesn't belong.  If you are skipping whitespace in most of your
parser, but want to parse strings that may contain spaces, you should use
_lexeme_:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const string_parser = bp::lexeme['"' >> *(bp::char_ - '"') >> '"'];

Without _lexeme_, our string parser would correctly match `"foo bar"`, but the
generated attribute would be `"foobar"`.

Creates a _lex_p_.

[heading _skip_]

_skip_ is like the inverse of _lexeme_.  It enables skipping in the parse,
even if it was not enabled before.  For example, within a call to _p_ that
uses a skipper, let's say we have these parsers in use:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const one_or_more = +bp::char_;
    auto const skip_or_skip_not_there_is_no_try = bp::lexeme[bp::skip[one_or_more] >> one_or_more];

The use of _lexeme_ disables skipping, but then the use of _skip_ turns it
back on.  The net result is that the first occurrence of `one_or_more` will
use the skipper passed to _p_; the second will not.

_skip_ has another use.  You can parameterize skip with a different parser to
change the skipper just within the scope of the directive.  Let's say we
passed _ws_ to _p_, and we're using these parsers somewhere within that _p_
call:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const zero_or_more = *bp::char_;
    auto const skip_both_ways = zero_or_more >> bp::skip(bp::blank)[zero_or_more];

The first occurrence of `zero_or_more` will use the skipper passed to _p_,
which is _ws_; the second will use _blank_ as its skipper.

Creates a _skp_p_.

[heading _merge_, _sep_, and _transform_]

These directives influence the generation of attributes.  See _attr_gen_
section for more details on them.

_merge_ and _sep_ create a copy of the given _seq_p_.

_transform_ creates a _xfm_p_.

[heading _delimiter_]

The _delimiter_np_ directive enables the use of a delimiter within a
permutation parser.  It *only* applies to permutation parsers, just as _merge_
and _sep_ only apply to sequence parsers.  Consider this permutation parser.

    constexpr auto parser = bp::int_ || bp::string("foo") || bp::char_('g');

This will match all of: an integer, `"foo"`, and `'g'`, in any order (for
example, `"foo g 42"`).  If you also want for those three elements to be
delimited by commas, you could write this parser instead.

    constexpr auto delimited_parser =
        bp::delimiter(bp::lit(','))[bp::int_ || bp::string("foo") || bp::char_('g')];

`delimited_parser` will parse the same elements as `parser`, but will also
require commas between the elements (as in `"foo, g, 42"`).

[endsect]

[section Combining Operations]

Certain overloaded operators are defined for all parsers in _Parser_.  We've
already seen some of them used in this tutorial, especially `operator>>`,
`operator|`, and `operator||`, which are used to form sequence parsers,
alternative parsers, and permutation parsers, respectively.

[table_combining_operations]

[note When looking at _Parser_ parsers in a debugger, or when looking at their
reference documentation, you may see reference to the template _p_iface_.
This template exists to provide the operator overloads described above.  It
allows the parsers themselves to be very simple _emdash_ most parsers are just
a struct with two member functions.  _p_iface_ is essentially invisible when
using _Parser_, and you should never have to name this template in your own
code. ]

[endsect]

[section Attribute Generation]

So far, we've seen several different types of attributes that come from
different parsers, `int` for _i_, `_bp_tup_<char, int>` for
`boost::parser::char_ >> boost::parser::int_`, etc.  Let's get into how this
works with more rigor.

[note Some parsers have no attribute at all.  In the tables below, the type of
the attribute is listed as "None."  There is a non-`void` type that is
returned from each parser that lacks an attribute.  This keeps the logic
simple; having to handle the two cases _emdash_ `void` or non-`void` _emdash_
would make the library significantly more complicated.  The type of this
non-`void` attribute associated with these parsers is an implementation
detail.  The type comes from the `boost::parser::detail` namespace and is
pretty useless.  You should never see this type in practice.  Within semantic
actions, asking for the attribute of a non-attribute-producing parser (using
`_attr(ctx)`) will yield a value of the special type `boost::parser::none`.
When calling _p_ in a form that returns the attribute parsed, when there is no
attribute, simply returns `bool`; this indicates the success or failure of the
parse.]

[warning _Parser_ assumes that all attributes are semi-regular (see
`std::semiregular`).  Within the _Parser_ code, attributes are assigned,
moved, copy, and default constructed.  There is no support for move-only or
non-default-constructible types.]

[heading The attribute type trait, _attr_]

You can use _attr_ (and the associated alias, _attr_t_) to determine the
attribute a parser would have if it were passed to _p_.  Since at least one
parser (_ch_) has a polymorphic attribute type, _attr_ also takes the type of
the range being parsed.  If a parser produces no attribute, _attr_ will
produce _n_, not `void`.

If you want to feed an iterator/sentinel pair to _attr_, create a range from
it like so:

    constexpr auto parser = /* ... */;
    auto first = /* ... */;
    auto const last = /* ... */;

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    // You can of course use std::ranges::subrange directly in C++20 and later.
    using attr_type = bp::attribute_t<decltype(BOOST_PARSER_SUBRANGE(first, last)), decltype(parser)>;

There is no single attribute type for any parser, since a parser can be placed
within _omit_, which makes its attribute type _n_.  Therefore, _attr_ cannot
tell you what attribute your parser will produce under all circumstances; it
only tells you what it would produce if it were passed to _p_.

[heading Parser attributes]

[table_attribute_generation]

[heading Combining operation attributes]

[table_attribute_combinations]

There are a relatively small number of rules that define how sequence parsers
and alternative parsers' attributes are generated.  (Don't worry, there are
examples below.)

[heading Sequence parser attribute rules]

The attribute generation behavior of sequence parsers is conceptually pretty
simple:

* the attributes of subparsers form a tuple of values;

* subparsers that do not generate attributes do not contribute to the
  sequence's attribute;

* subparsers that do generate attributes usually contribute an individual
  element to the tuple result; except

* when containers of the same element type are next to each other, or
  individual elements are next to containers of their type, the two adjacent
  attributes collapse into one attribute; and

* if the result of all that is a degenerate tuple `_bp_tup_<T>` (even if `T`
  is a type that means "no attribute"), the attribute becomes `T`.

More formally, the attribute generation algorithm works like this.  For a
sequence parser `p`, let the list of attribute types for the subparsers of `p`
be `a0, a1, a2, ..., an`.

We get the attribute of `p` by evaluating a compile-time left fold operation,
`left-fold({a1, a2, ..., an}, tuple<a0>, OP)`.  `OP` is the combining
operation that takes the current attribute type (initially `_bp_tup_<a0>`) and
the next attribute type, and returns the new current attribute type.  The
current attribute type at the end of the fold operation is the attribute type
for `p`.

`OP` attempts to apply a series of rules, one at a time.  The rules are noted
as `X >> Y -> Z`, where `X` is the type of the current attribute, `Y` is the
type of the next attribute, and `Z` is the new current attribute type.  In
these rules, `C<T>` is a container of `T`; `none` is a special type that
indicates that there is no attribute; `T` is a type; `CHAR` is a character
type, either `char` or `char32_t`; and `Ts...` is a parameter pack of one or
more types.  Note that `T` may be the special type `none`.  The current
attribute is always a tuple (call it `Tup`), so the "current attribute `X`"
refers to the last element of `Tup`, not `Tup` itself, except for those rules
that explicitly mention `_bp_tup_<>` as part of `X`'s type.

* `none >> T -> T`
* `CHAR` >> `CHAR` -> `std::string`
* `T >> none -> T`
* `C<T> >> T -> C<T>`
* `T >> C<T> -> C<T>`
* `C<T> >> optional<T> -> C<T>`
* `optional<T> >> C<T> -> C<T>`
* `_bp_tup_<none> >> T -> _bp_tup_<T>`
* `_bp_tup_<Ts...> >> T -> _bp_tup_<Ts..., T>`

The rules that combine containers with (possibly optional) adjacent values
(e.g. `C<T> >> optional<T> -> C<T>`) have a special case for strings.  If
`C<T>` is exactly `std::string`, and `T` is either `char` or `char32_t`, the
combination yields a `std::string`.

Again, if the final result is that the attribute is `_bp_tup_<T>`, the
attribute becomes `T`.

[note What constitutes a container in the rules above is determined by the
`container` concept:
    [container_concept]
]

[heading A sequence parser attribute example]

Note that the application of `OP` is done in the style of a left-fold, and
is therefore greedy.  This can lead to some non-obvious results.  For example,
consider this program.  Thanks to Duncan Paterson for this very nice example!

    #include <boost/parser/parser.hpp>
    #include <print>

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    int main() {
      const auto id_set_action = [](auto &ctx) {
        const auto& [left, right] = _attr(ctx);
        std::println("{} = {}", left, right);
      };

      const auto id_parser = bp::char_('a', 'z') > *bp::char_('a', 'z');

      const auto id_set = (id_parser >> '=' >> id_parser)[id_set_action];
      bp::parse("left=right", id_set);
      return 0;
    }

Perhaps surprisingly, this program prints `leftr = ight`!  Why is this?  This
happens because `id_parser` seems to impose structure, but does not.  `id_set`
is exactly equivalent to this (comments added to clarify which parts are which
below).

    const auto id_set = (
      /*A*/ bp::char_('a', 'z') > /*B*/ *bp::char_('a', 'z') >>
      /*C*/ '=' >>
      /*D*/ bp::char_('a', 'z') > /*E*/ *bp::char_('a', 'z')
    )[id_set_action];

As _Parser_ applies `OP` to this sequence parser, the individual steps are:
`A` and `B` get merged into a single _std_str_; `C` is ignored, since it
produces no attribute; and `D` gets merged into the _std_str_ formed earlier
by `A` and `B`; finally, we have `E`. `E` does not combine with `D`, as `D`
was already consumed.  `E` also does not combine with the _std_str_ we formed
from `A`, `B`, and `D`, since we don't combine adjacent containers.  In the
end, we have a 2-tuple of _std_strs_, in which the first element contains all
the characters parsed by `A`, `B`, and `D`, and in which the second element
contains all the characters parsed by `E`.

That's clearly not what we wanted here, though.  How do we get a top-level
parser that would print `left = right`?  We use a _r_.  The parser used inside
a _r_ can never combine with any parser(s) outside the _r_.  Instances of a
rule are inherently separate from all parsers with which they are used,
whether those parsers are _rs_ or non-_r_ parsers.  So, consider a _r_
equivalent to the previous `id_parser` above.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    bp::rule<struct id_parser_tag, std::string> id_parser = "identifier";
    auto const id_parser_def = bp::char_('a', 'z') > *bp::char_('a', 'z');
    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(id_parser);

Later, we can use it just as we used the previous non-rule version.

    const auto id_set = (id_parser >> '=' >> id_parser)[id_set_action];

This produces the results you might expect, since only the `bp::char_('a',
'z') > *bp::char_('a', 'z')` parser inside the `id_parser` _r_ is ever
eligible for combining via `OP`.


[heading Alternative parser attribute rules]

The rules for alternative parsers are much simpler.  For an alternative parser
`p`, let the list of attribute types for the subparsers of `p` be `a0, a1, a2,
..., an`.  The attribute of `p` is `std::variant<a0, a1, a2, ..., an>`, with
the following steps applied:

* all the `none` attributes are left out, and if any are, the attribute is
  wrapped in a `std::optional`, like `std::optional<std::variant</*...*/>>`;

* duplicates in the `std::variant` template parameters `<T1, T2, ..., Tn>` are
  removed; every type that appears does so exactly once;

* if the attribute is `std::variant<T>` or `std::optional<std::variant<T>>`,
  the attribute becomes instead `T` or `std::optional<T>`, respectively; and

* if the attribute is `std::variant<>` or `std::optional<std::variant<>>`, the
  result becomes `none` instead.

[heading Formation of containers in attributes]

The rule for forming containers from non-containers is simple.  You get a
vector from any of the repeating parsers, like `+p`, `*p`, `repeat(3)[p]`,
etc.  The value type of the vector is `_ATTR_np_(p)`.

Another rule for sequence containers is that a value `x` and a container `c`
containing elements of `x`'s type will form a single container.  However,
`x`'s type must be exactly the same as the elements in `c`.  There is an
exception to this in the special case for strings and characters noted above.
For instance, consider the attribute of `char_ >> string("str")`.  In the
non-Unicode code path, `char_`'s attribute type is guaranteed to be `char`, so
`_ATTR_np_(char_ >> string("str"))` is _std_str_.  If you are parsing UTF-8 in
the Unicode code path, `char_`'s attribute type is `char32_t`, and the special
rule makes it also produce a _std_str_.  Otherwise, the attribute for
`_ATTR_np_(char_ >> string("str"))` would be `_bp_tup_<char32_t,
std::string>`.

Again, there are no special rules for combining values and containers.  Every
combination results from an exact match, or fall into the string+character
special case.

[heading Another special case: _std_str_ assignment]

_std_str_ can be assigned from a `char`.  This is dumb.  But, we're stuck with
it.  When you write a parser with a `char` attribute, and you try to parse it
into a _std_str_, you've almost certainly made a mistake.  More importantly,
if you write this:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    std::string result;
    auto b = bp::parse("3", bp::int_, bp::ws, result);

... you are even more likely to have made a mistake.  Though this should work,
because the assignment in `std::string s; s = 3;` is well-formed, _Parser_
forbids it.  If you write parsing code like the snippet above, you will get a
static assertion.  If you really do want to assign a `float` or whatever to a
_std_str_, do it in a semantic action.

[heading Examples of attributes generated by sequence and alternative parsers]

[table_seq_or_attribute_combinations]

[heading Controlling attribute generation with _merge_ and _sep_]

As we saw in the previous _parsing_structs_ section, if you parse two strings
in a row, you get two separate strings in the resulting attribute.  The parser
from that example was this:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto employee_parser = bp::lit("employee")
        >> '{'
        >> bp::int_ >> ','
        >> quoted_string >> ','
        >> quoted_string >> ','
        >> bp::double_
        >> '}';

`employee_parser`'s attribute is `_bp_tup_<int, std::string, std::string,
double>`.  The two `quoted_string` parsers produce `std::string` attributes,
and those attributes are not combined.  That is the default behavior, and it
is just what we want for this case; we don't want the first and last name
fields to be jammed together such that we can't tell where one name ends and
the other begins.  What if we were parsing some string that consisted of a
prefix and a suffix, and the prefix and suffix were defined separately for
reuse elsewhere?

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto prefix = /* ... */;
    auto suffix = /* ... */;
    auto special_string = prefix >> suffix;
    // Continue to use prefix and suffix to make other parsers....

In this case, we might want to use these separate parsers, but want
`special_string` to produce a single `std::string` for its attribute.  _merge_
exists for this purpose.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto prefix = /* ... */;
    auto suffix = /* ... */;
    auto special_string = bp::merge[prefix >> suffix];

_merge_ only applies to sequence parsers (like `p1 >> p2`), and forces all
subparsers in the sequence parser to use the same variable for their
attribute.

Another directive, _sep_, also applies only to sequence parsers, but does the
opposite of _merge_.  It forces all the attributes produced by the subparsers
of the sequence parser to stay separate, even if they would have combined.
For instance, consider this parser.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto string_and_char = +bp::char_('a') >> ' ' >> bp::cp;

`string_and_char` matches one or more `'a'`s, followed by some other
character.  As written above, `string_and_char` produces a `std::string`, and
the final character is appended to the string, after all the `'a'`s.  However,
if you wanted to store the final character as a separate value, you would use
_sep_.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto string_and_char = bp::separate[+bp::char_('a') >> ' ' >> bp::cp];

With this change, `string_and_char` produces the attribute
`_bp_tup_<std::string, char32_t>`.

[heading _merge_ and _sep_ in more detail]

As mentioned previously, _merge_ applies only to sequence parsers.  All
subparsers must have the same attribute, or produce no attribute at all.  At
least one subparser must produce an attribute.  When you use _merge_, you
create a /combining group/.  Every parser in a combining group uses the same
variable for its attribute.  No parser in a combining group interacts with the
attributes of any parsers outside of its combining group.  Combining groups
are disjoint; `merge[/*...*/] >> merge[/*...*/]` will produce a tuple of two
attributes, not one.

_sep_ also applies only to sequence parsers.  When you use _sep_, you disable
interaction of all the subparsers' attributes with adjacent attributes,
whether they are inside or outside the _sep_ directive; you force each
subparser to have a separate attribute.

The rules for _merge_ and _sep_ overrule the steps of the algorithm described
above for combining the attributes of a sequence parser.  Consider an example.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    constexpr auto parser =
        bp::char_ >> bp::merge[(bp::string("abc") >> bp::char_ >> bp::char_) >> bp::string("ghi")];

You might think that `_ATTR_np_(parser)` would be `bp::tuple<char,
std::string>`.  It is not.  The parser above does not even compile.  Since we
created a merge group above, we disabled the default behavior in which the
`char_` parsers would have collapsed into the `string` parser that preceded
them.  Since they are all treated as separate entities, and since they have
different attribute types, the use of _merge_ is an error.

Many directives create a new parser out of the parser they are given.  _merge_
and _sep_ do not.  Since they operate only on sequence parsers, all they do is
create a copy of the sequence parser they are given.  The _seq_p_ template has
a template parameter `CombiningGroups`, and all _merge_ and _sep_ do is take a
given _seq_p_ and create a copy of it with a different `CombiningGroups`
template parameter.  This means that _merge_ and _sep_ can be ignored in
`operator>>` expressions much like parentheses are.  Consider an example.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    constexpr auto parser1 = bp::separate[bp::int_ >> bp::int_] >> bp::int_;
    constexpr auto parser2 = bp::lexeme[bp::int_ >> ' ' >> bp::int_] >> bp::int_;

Note that _sep_ is a no-op here; it's only being used this way for this
example.  These parsers have different attribute types. `_ATTR_np_(parser1)`
is `_bp_tup_(int, int, int)`.  `_ATTR_np_(parser2)` is `_bp_tup_(_bp_tup_(int,
int), int)`.  This is because `bp::lexeme[]` wraps its given parser in a new
parser.  _merge_ does not.  That's why, even though `parser1` and `parser2`
look so structurally similar, they have different attributes.

[heading _transform_]

_transform_ is a directive that transforms the attribute of a parser using the
given function `f`.  For example:

[transform_directive_example]

Here, we have a function `str_sum` that we use for `f`.  It assumes each
character in the given _std_str_ `s` is a digit, and returns the sum of all
the digits in `s`.  Our parser `parser` would normally return a _std_str_.
However, since `str_sum` returns a different type _emdash_ `int` _emdash_ that
is the attribute type of the full parser,
`bp::transform(by_value_str_sum)[parser]`, as you can see from the
`static_assert`.

As is the case with attributes all throughout _Parser_, the attribute passed
to `f` will be moved.  You can take it by `const &`, `&&`, or by value.

No distinction is made between parsers with and without an attribute, because
there is a Regular special no-attribute type that is generated by parsers with
no attribute.  You may therefore write something like
`_transform_np_(f)[_e_]`, and _Parser_ will happily call `f` with this special
no-attribute type.

[heading Other directives that affect attribute generation]

`_omit_np_[p]` disables attribute generation for the parser `p`.
`_raw_np_[p]` changes the attribute from `_ATTR_np_(p)` to a view that
indicates the subrange of the input that was matched by `p`.
`_string_view_np_[p]` is just like `_raw_np_[p]`, except that it produces
`std::basic_string_view`s.  See _directives_ for details.

[endsect]

[section The `parse()` API]

There are multiple top-level parse functions.  They have some things in
common:

* They each return a value contextually convertible to `bool`.

* They each take at least a range to parse and a parser.  The "range to parse"
  may be an iterator/sentinel pair or a single range object.

* They each require forward iterability of the range to parse.

* They each accept any range with a character element type.  This means that
  they can each parse ranges of `char`, `wchar_t`, `char8_t`, `char16_t`, or
  `char32_t`.

* The overloads with `prefix_` in their name take an iterator/sentinel pair.
  For example `_pp_np_(first, last, p, _ws_)`, which parses the range `[first,
  last)`, advancing `first` as it goes.  If the parse succeeds, the entire
  input may or may not have been matched.  The value of `first` will indicate
  the last location within the input that `p` matched.  The *whole* input was
  matched if and only if `first == last` after the call to _p_.

* When you call any of the range overloads of _p_, for example `_p_np_(r,
  p, _ws_)`, _p_ only indicates success if *all* of `r` was matched by `p`.

[note `wchar_t` is an accepted value type for the input.  Please note that
this is interpreted as UTF-16 on MSVC, and UTF-32 everywhere else.]

[heading The overloads]

There are eight overloads of _p_ and _pp_ combined, because there are three
either/or options in how you call them.

[heading Iterator/sentinel versus range]

You can call _pp_ with an iterator and sentinel that delimit a range of
character values.  For example:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const p = /* some parser ... */;

    char const * str_1 = /* ... */;
    // Using null_sentinel, str_1 can point to three billion characters, and
    // we can call prefix_parse() without having to find the end of the string first.
    auto result_1 = bp::prefix_parse(str_1, bp::null_sentinel, p, bp::ws);

    char str_2[] = /* ... */;
    auto result_2 = bp::prefix_parse(std::begin(str_2), std::end(str_2), p, bp::ws);

The iterator/sentinel overloads can parse successfully without matching the
entire input.  You can tell if the entire input was matched by checking if
`first == last` is true after _pp_ returns.

By contrast, you call _p_ with a range of character values.  When the range is
a reference to an array of characters, any terminating `0` is ignored; this
allows calls like `_p_np_("str", p)` to work naturally.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const p = /* some parser ... */;

    std::u8string str_1 = "str";
    auto result_1 = bp::parse(str_1, p, bp::ws);

    // The null terminator is ignored.  This call parses s-t-r, not s-t-r-0.
    auto result_2 = bp::parse(U"str", p, bp::ws);

    char const * str_3 = "str";
    auto result_3 = bp::parse(bp::null_term(str_3) | bp::as_utf16, p, bp::ws);

Since there is no way to indicate that `p` matches the input, but only a
prefix of the input was matched, the range (non-iterator/sentinel) overloads
of _p_ indicate failure if the entire input is not matched.

[heading With or without an attribute out-parameter]

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const p = '"' >> *(bp::char_ - '"') >> '"';
    char const * str = "\"two words\"" ;

    std::string result_1;
    bool const success = bp::parse(str, p, result_1);   // success is true; result_1 is "two words"
    auto result_2 = bp::parse(str, p);                  // !!result_2 is true; *result_2 is "two words"

When you call _p_ *with* an attribute out-parameter and parser `p`, the
expected type is *something like* `_ATTR_np_(p)`.  It doesn't have to be
exactly that; I'll explain in a bit.  The return type is `bool`.

When you call _p_ *without* an attribute out-parameter and parser `p`, the
return type is `std::optional<_ATTR_np_(p)>`.  Note that when `_ATTR_np_(p)`
is itself an `optional`, the return type is
`std::optional<std::optional<...>>`.  Each of those optionals tells you
something different.  The outer one tells you whether the parse succeeded.  If
so, the parser was successful, but it still generates an attribute that is an
`optional` _emdash_ that's the inner one.

[heading With or without a skipper]

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const p = '"' >> *(bp::char_ - '"') >> '"';
    char const * str = "\"two words\"" ;

    auto result_1 = bp::parse(str, p);         // !!result_1 is true; *result_1 is "two words"
    auto result_2 = bp::parse(str, p, bp::ws); // !!result_2 is true; *result_2 is "twowords"

[heading Compatibility of attribute out-parameters]

For any call to _p_ that takes an attribute out-parameter, like `_p_np_("str",
p, bp::ws, out)`, the call is well-formed for a number of possible types of
`out`; `decltype(out)` does not need to be exactly `_ATTR_np_(p)`.

For instance, this is well-formed code that does not abort (remember that the
attribute type of _str_ is _std_str_):

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const p = bp::string("foo");

    std::vector<char> result;
    bool const success = bp::parse("foo", p, result);
    assert(success && result == std::vector<char>({'f', 'o', 'o'}));

Even though `p` generates a _std_str_ attribute, when it actually takes the
data it generates and writes it into an attribute, it only assumes that the
attribute is a `container` (see _concepts_), not that it is some particular
container type.  It will happily `insert()` into a _std_str_ or a
_std_vec_char_ all the same.  _std_str_ and _std_vec_char_ are both containers
of `char`, but it will also insert into a container with a different element
type.  `p` just needs to be able to insert the elements it produces into the
attribute-container.  As long as an implicit conversion allows that to work,
everything is fine:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const p = bp::string("foo");

    std::deque<int> result;
    bool const success = bp::parse("foo", p, result);
    assert(success && result == std::deque<int>({'f', 'o', 'o'}));

This works, too, even though it requires inserting elements from a generated
sequence of `char32_t` into a container of `char` (remember that the attribute
type of `+_cp_` is _std_vec_char32_):

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const p = +bp::cp;

    std::string result;
    bool const success = bp::parse("foo", p, result);
    assert(success && result == "foo");

This next example works as well, even though the change to a container is not
at the top level.  It is an element of the result tuple:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const p = +(bp::cp - ' ') >> ' ' >> string("foo");

    using attr_type = decltype(bp::parse(u8"", p));
    static_assert(std::is_same_v<
                  attr_type,
                  std::optional<bp::tuple<std::string, std::string>>>);

    using namespace bp::literals;

    {
        // This is similar to attr_type, with the first std::string changed to a std::vector<int>.
        bp::tuple<std::vector<int>, std::string> result;
        bool const success = bp::parse(u8"rôle foo" | bp::as_utf8, p, result);
        assert(success);
        assert(bp::get(result, 0_c) == std::vector<int>({'r', U'ô', 'l', 'e'}));
        assert(bp::get(result, 1_c) == "foo");
    }
    {
        // This time, we have a std::vector<char> instead of a std::vector<int>.
        bp::tuple<std::vector<char>, std::string> result;
        bool const success = bp::parse(u8"rôle foo" | bp::as_utf8, p, result);
        assert(success);
        // The 4 code points "rôle" get transcoded to 5 UTF-8 code points to fit in the std::string.
        assert(bp::get(result, 0_c) == std::vector<char>({'r', (char)0xc3, (char)0xb4, 'l', 'e'}));
        assert(bp::get(result, 1_c) == "foo");
    }

As indicated in the inline comments, there are a couple of things to take away
from this example:

* If you change an attribute out-param (such as _std_str_ to
  `std::vector<int>`, or _std_vec_char32_ to `std::deque<int>`), the call to
  _p_ will often still be well-formed.

* When changing out a container type, if both containers contain character
  values, the removed container's element type is `char32_t` (or `wchar_t` for
  non-MSVC builds), and the new container's element type is `char` or
  `char8_t`, _Parser_ assumes that this is a UTF-32-to-UTF-8 conversion, and
  silently transcodes the data when inserting into the new container.

Let's look at a case where another simple-seeming type replacement does *not*
work.  First, the case that works:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto parser = -(bp::char_ % ',');
    std::vector<int> result;
    auto b = bp::parse("a, b", parser, bp::ws, result);

`_ATTR_np_(parser)` is `std::optional<std::string>`.  Even though we pass a
`std::vector<int>`, everything is fine.  However, if we modify this case only
sightly, so that the `std::optional<std::string>` is nested within the
attribute, the code becomes ill-formed.

    struct S
    {
        std::vector<int> chars;
        int i;
    };
    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto parser = -(bp::char_ % ',') >> bp::int_;
    S result;
    auto b = bp::parse("a, b 42", parser, bp::ws, result);

If we change `chars` to a `std::vector<char>`, the code is still ill-formed.
Same if we change `chars` to a `std::string`.  We must actually use
`std::optional<std::string>` exactly to make the code well-formed again.

The reason the same looseness from the top-level parser does not apply to a
nested parser is that, at some point in the code, the parser `-(bp::char_ %
',')` would try to assign a `std::optional<std::string>` _emdash_ the element
type of the attribute type it normally generates _emdash_ to a `chars`.  If
there's no implicit conversion there, the code is ill-formed.

The take-away for this last example is that the ability to arbitrarily swap
out data types within the type of the attribute you pass to _p_ is very
flexible, but is also limited to structurally simple cases.  When we discuss
_rs_ in the next section, we'll see how this flexibility in the types of
attributes can help when writing complicated parsers.

Those were examples of swapping out one container type for another.  They make
good examples because that is more likely to be surprising, and so it's
getting lots of coverage here.  You can also do much simpler things like parse
using a _ui_, and writing its attribute into a `double`.  In general, you can
swap any type `T` out of the attribute, as long as the swap would not result
in some ill-formed assignment within the parse.

Here is another example that also produces surprising results, for a different
reason.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    constexpr auto parser = bp::char_('a') >> bp::char_('b') >> bp::char_('c') |
                            bp::char_('x') >> bp::char_('y') >> bp::char_('z');
    std::string str = "abc";
    bp::tuple<char, char, char> chars;
    bool b = bp::parse(str, parser, chars);
    assert(b);
    assert(chars == bp::tuple('c', '\0', '\0'));

This looks wrong, but is expected behavior.  At every stage of the parse that
produces an attribute, _Parser_ tries to assign that attribute to some part of
the out-param attribute provided to _p_, if there is one.  Note that
`_ATTR_np_(parser)` is `std::string`, because each sequence parser is three
`char_` parsers in a row, which forms a `std::string`; there are two such
alternatives, so the overall attribute is also `std::string`.  During the
parse, when the first parser `bp::char_('a')` matches the input, it produces
the attribute `'a'` and needs to assign it to its destination.  Some logic
inside the sequence parser indicates that this `'a'` contributes to the value
in the `0`th position in the result tuple, if the result is being written into
a tuple.  Here, we passed a `bp::tuple<char, char, char>`, so it writes `'a'`
into the first element.  Each subsequent `char_` parser does the same thing,
and writes over the first element.  If we had passed a `std::string` as the
out-param instead, the logic would have seen that the out-param attribute is a
string, and would have appended `'a'` to it.  Then each subsequent parser
would have appended to the string.

_Parser_ never looks at the arity of the tuple passed to _p_ to see if there
are too many or too few elements in it, compared to the expected attribute for
the parser.  In this case, there are two extra elements that are never
touched.  If there had been too few elements in the tuple, you would have seen
a compilation error.  The reason that _Parser_ never does this kind of
type-checking up front is that the loose assignment logic is spread out among
the individual parsers; the top-level parse can determine what the expected
attribute is, but not whether a passed attribute of another type is a suitable
stand-in.

[heading Compatibility of `variant` attribute out-parameters]

The use of a variant in an out-param is compatible if the default attribute
can be assigned to the `variant`.  No other work is done to make the
assignment compatible.  For instance, this will work as you'd expect:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    std::variant<int, double> v;
    auto b = bp::parse("42", bp::int_, v);
    assert(b);
    assert(v.index() == 0);
    assert(std::get<0>(v) == 42);

Again, this works because `v = 42` is well-formed.  However, other kinds of
substitutions will not work.  In particular, the _bp_tup_ to aggregate or
aggregate to _bp_tup_ transformations will not work.  Here's an example.

    struct key_value
    {
        int key;
        double value;
    };

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    std::variant<key_value, double> kv_or_d;
    key_value kv;
    bp::parse("42 13.0", bp::int_ >> bp::double_, kv);      // Ok.
    bp::parse("42 13.0", bp::int_ >> bp::double_, kv_or_d); // Error: ill-formed!

In this case, it would be easy for _Parser_ to look at the alternative types
covered by the variant, and do a conversion.  However, there are many cases in
which there is no obviously correct variant alternative type, or in which the
user might expect one variant alternative type and get another.  Consider a
couple of cases.

    struct i_d { int i; double d; };
    struct d_i { double d; int i; };
    using v1 = std::variant<i_d, d_i>;

    struct i_s { int i; short s; };
    struct d_d { double d1; double d2; };
    using v2 = std::variant<i_s, d_d>;

    using tup_t = boost::parser::tuple<short, short>;

If we have a parser that produces a `tup_t`, and we have a `v1` attribute
out-param, the correct variant alternative type clearly does not exist
_emdash_ this case is ambiguous, and anyone can see that neither variant
alternative is a better match.  If we were assigning a `tup_t` to `v2`, it's
even worse.  The same ambiguity exists, but to the user, `i_s` is clearly
"closer" than `d_d`.

So, _Parser_ only does assignment.  If some parser `P` generates a default
attribute that is not assignable to a variant alternative that you want to
assign it to, you can just create a _r_ that creates either an exact variant
alternative type, or the variant itself, and use `P` as your rule's parser.

[heading Unicode versus non-Unicode parsing]

A call to _p_ either considers the entire input to be in a UTF format (UTF-8,
UTF-16, or UTF-32), or it considers the entire input to be in some unknown
encoding.  Here is how it deduces which case the call falls under:

* If the range is a sequence of `char8_t`, or if the input is a
  `boost::parser::utf8_view`, the input is UTF-8.

* Otherwise, if the value type of the range is `char`, the input is in an
  unknown encoding.

* Otherwise, the input is in a UTF encoding.

[tip If you want to parse in ASCII-only mode, or in some other
non-Unicode encoding, use only sequences of `char`, like _std_str_ or `char
const *`.]

[tip If you want to ensure all input is parsed as Unicode, pass the input
range `r` as `r | boost::parser::as_utf32` _emdash_ that's the first thing that
happens to it inside _p_ in the Unicode parsing path anyway.]

[note Since passing `boost::parser::utfN_view` is a special case, and since a
sequence of `char`s `r` is otherwise considered an unknown encoding,
`boost::parser::parse(r | boost::parser::as_utf8, p)` treats `r` as UTF-8,
whereas `boost::parser::parse(r, p)` does not.]

[heading The `trace_mode` parameter to _p_]

Debugging parsers is notoriously difficult once they reach a certain size.  To
get a verbose trace of your parse, pass `_trace_::on` as the
final parameter to _p_.  It will show you the current parser being matched,
the next few characters to be parsed, and any attributes generated.  See the
_eh_debugging_ section of the tutorial for details.

[heading Globals and error handlers]

Each call to _p_ can optionally have a globals object associated with it.  To
use a particular globals object with your parser, you call _w_glb_ to create a
new parser with the globals object in it:

    struct globals_t
    {
        int foo;
        std::string bar;
    };
    auto const parser = /* ... */;
    globals_t globals{42, "yay"};
    auto result = boost::parser::parse("str", boost::parser::with_globals(parser, globals));

Every semantic action within that call to _p_ can access the same `globals_t`
object using `_globals(ctx)`.

The default error handler is great for most needs, but if you want to change
it, you can do so by creating a new parser with a call to _w_eh_:

    auto const parser = /* ... */;
    my_error_handler error_handler;
    auto result = boost::parser::parse("str", boost::parser::with_error_handler(parser, error_handler));

[tip If your parsing environment does not allow you to report errors to a
terminal, you may want to use [classref boost::parser::callback_error_handler
`callback_error_handler`] instead of the default error handler.]

[important Globals and the error handler are ignored, if present, on any
parser except the top-level parser.]

[endsect]

[section More About Rules]

In the earlier page about _rs_ (_rule_parsers_), I described _rs_ as being
analogous to functions.  _rs_ are, at base, organizational.  Here are the
common use cases for _rs_.  Use a _r_ if you want to:

* fix the attribute type produced by a parser to something other than the
  default;

* control the attributes generated by adjacent sequence parsers;

* create a parser that produces useful diagnostic text;

* create a recursive rule (more on this below);

* create a set of mutually-recursive parsers;

* do callback parsing.

Let's look at the use cases in detail.

[heading Fixing the attribute type]

We saw in the previous section how _p_ is flexible in what types it will
accept as attribute out-parameters.  Here's another example.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto result = bp::parse(input, bp::int % ',', result);

`result` can be one of many different types.  It could be `std::vector<int>`.
It could be `std::set<long long>`.  It could be a lot of things.  Often, this
is a very useful property; if you had to rewrite all of your parser logic
because you changed the desired container in some part of your attribute from
a `std::vector` to a `std::deque`, that would be annoying.  However, that
flexibility comes at the cost of type checking.  If you want to write a parser
that *always* produces exactly a `std::vector<unsigned int>` *and no other
type*, you also probably want a compilation error if you accidentally pass
that parser a `std::set<unsigned int>` attribute instead.  There is no way
with a plain parser to enforce that its attribute type may only ever be a
single, fixed type.

Fortunately, _rs_ allow you to write a parser that has a fixed attribute type.
Every rule has a specific attribute type, provided as a template parameter.
If one is not specified, the rule has no attribute.  The fact that the
attribute is a specific type allows you to remove attribute flexibility.  For
instance, say we have a rule defined like this:

[rule_intro_rule_definition]

You can then use it in a call to _p_, and _p_ will return a
`std::optional<std::vector<double>>`:

[rule_intro_parse_call]

If you call _p_ with an attribute out-parameter, it must be exactly
`std::vector<double>`:

    std::vector<double> vec_result;
    bp::parse(input, doubles, bp::ws, vec_result); // Ok.
    std::deque<double> deque_result;
    bp::parse(input, doubles, bp::ws, deque_result); // Ill-formed!

If we wanted to use a `std::deque<double>` as the attribute type of our rule:

    // Attribute changed to std::deque<double>.
    bp::rule<struct doubles, std::deque<double>> doubles = "doubles";
    auto const doubles_def = bp::double_ % ',';
    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(doubles);

    int main()
    {
        std::deque<double> deque_result;
        bp::parse(input, doubles, bp::ws, deque_result); // Ok.
    }

The take-away here is that the attribute flexibility is still available, but
only *within* the rule _emdash_ the parser `bp::double_ % ','` can parse into
a `std::vector<double>` or a `std::deque<double>`, but the rule `doubles` must
parse into only the exact attribute it was declared to generate.

The reason for this is that, inside the rule parsing implementation, there is
code something like this:

    using attr_t = _ATTR_np_(doubles_def);
    attr_t attr;
    parse(first, last, parser, attr);
    attribute_out_param = std::move(attr);

Where `attribute_out_param` is the attribute out-parameter we pass to _p_.  If
that final move assignment is ill-formed, the call to _p_ is too.

You can also use rules to exploit attribute flexibility.  Even though a rule
reduces the flexibility of attributes it can generate, the fact that it is so
easy to write a new rule means that we can use rules themselves to get the
attribute flexibility we want across our code:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;

    // We only need to write the definition once...
    auto const generic_doubles_def = bp::double_ % ',';

    bp::rule<struct vec_doubles, std::vector<double>> vec_doubles = "vec_doubles";
    auto const & vec_doubles_def = generic_doubles_def; // ... and re-use it,
    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(vec_doubles);

    // Attribute changed to std::deque<double>.
    bp::rule<struct deque_doubles, std::deque<double>> deque_doubles = "deque_doubles";
    auto const & deque_doubles_def = generic_doubles_def; // ... and re-use it again.
    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(deque_doubles);

Now we have one of each, and we did not have to copy any parsing logic that
would have to be maintained in two places.

Sometimes, you need to create a rule to enforce a certain attribute type, but
the rule's attribute is not constructible from its parser's attribute.  When
that happens, you'll need to write a semantic action.

    struct type_t
    {
        type_t() = default;
        explicit type_t(double x) : x_(x) {}
        // etc.

        double x_;
    };

    namespace bp = boost::parser;

    auto doubles_to_type = [](auto & ctx) {
        using namespace bp::literals;
        _val(ctx) = type_t(_attr(ctx)[0_c] * _attr(ctx)[1_c]);
    };

    bp::rule<struct type_tag, type_t> type = "type";
    auto const type_def = (bp::double_ >> bp::double_)[doubles_to_type];
    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(type);

For a rule `R` and its parser `P`, we do not need to write such a semantic
action if:

- `_ATTR_np_(R)` is an aggregate, and `_ATTR_np_(P)` is a compatible tuple;

- `_ATTR_np_(R)` is a tuple, and `_ATTR_np_(P)` is a compatible aggregate;

- `_ATTR_np_(R)` is a non-aggregate class type `C`, and `_ATTR_np_(P)` is a
  tuple whose elements can be used to construct `C`; or

- `_ATTR_np_(R)` and `_ATTR_np_(P)` are compatible types.

The notion of "compatible" is defined in _p_api_.

[heading Controlling the attributes generated]

See the _seq_parser_example_ in the _attr_gen_ section for details.

[heading Creating a parser for better diagnostics]

Each _r_ has associated diagnostic text that _Parser_ can use for failures of
that rule.  This is useful when the parse reaches a parse failure at an
expectation point (see _expect_pts_).  Let's say you have the following code
defined somewhere.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;

    bp::rule<struct value_tag> value =
        "an integer, or a list of integers in braces";

    auto const ints = '{' > (value % ',') > '}';
    auto const value_def = bp::int_ | ints;

    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(value);

Notice the two expectation points.  One before `(value % ',')`, one before the
final `'}'`.  Later, you parse in some input:

    bp::parse("{ 4, 5 a", value, bp::ws);

This runs afoul of the second expectation point, and produces output like
this:

[pre
1:7: error: Expected '}' here:
{ 4, 5 a
       ^
]

That's a pretty good error message.  Here's what it looks like if we violate
the earlier expectation:

    bp::parse("{ }", value, bp::ws);

[pre
1:2: error: Expected an integer, or a list of integers in braces % ',' here:
{ }
  ^
]

Not nearly as nice.  The problem is that the expectation is on `(value %
',')`.  So, even though we gave `value` reasonable diagnostic text, we put the
text on the wrong thing.  We can introduce a new rule to put the diagnostic
text in the right place.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;

    bp::rule<struct value_tag> value =
        "an integer, or a list of integers in braces";
    bp::rule<struct comma_values_tag> comma_values =
        "a comma-delimited list of integers";

    auto const ints = '{' > comma_values > '}';
    auto const value_def = bp::int_ | ints;
    auto const comma_values_def = (value % ',');

    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(value, comma_values);

Now when we call `bp::parse("{ }", value, bp::ws)` we get a much better
message:

[pre
1:2: error: Expected a comma-delimited list of integers here:
{ }
  ^
]

The _r_ `value` might be useful elsewhere in our code, perhaps in another
parser.  Its diagnostic text is appropriate for those other potential uses.

[heading Recursive rules]

It's pretty common to see grammars that include recursive rules.  Consider
this EBNF rule for balanced parentheses:

[pre
<parens> ::= "" | ( "(" <parens> ")" )
]

We can try to write this using _Parser_ like this:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto const parens = '(' >> parens >> ')' | bp::eps;

We had to put the `bp::eps` second, because _Parser_'s parsing algorithm is
greedy.  Otherwise, it's just a straight transliteration.  Unfortunately, it
does not work.  The code is ill-formed because you can't define a variable in
terms of itself.  Well you can, but nothing good comes of it.  If we instead
make the parser in terms of a forward-declared _r_, it works.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    bp::rule<struct parens_tag> parens = "matched parentheses";
    auto const parens_def = '(' >> parens > ')' | bp::eps;
    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(parens);

Later, if we use it to parse, it does what we want.

    assert(bp::parse("(((())))", parens, bp::ws));

When it fails, it even produces nice diagnostics.

    bp::parse("(((()))", parens, bp::ws);

[pre
1:7: error: Expected ')' here (end of input):
(((()))
       ^
]

Recursive _rs_ work differently from other parsers in one way: when re-entering
the rule recursively, only the attribute variable (`_attr(ctx)` in your
semantic actions) is unique to that instance of the rule.  All the other state
of the uppermost instance of that rule is shared.  This includes the value of
the rule (`_val(ctx)`), and the locals and parameters to the rule.  In other
words, `_val(ctx)` returns a reference to the *same object* in every instance
of a recursive _r_.  This is because each instance of the rule needs a place
to put the attribute it generates from its parse.  However, we only want a
single return value for the uppermost rule; if each instance had a separate
value in `_val(ctx)`, then it would be impossible to build up the result of a
recursive rule step by step during the evaluation of the recursive
instantiations.

Also, consider this rule:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    bp::rule<struct ints_tag, std::vector<int>> ints = "ints";
    auto const ints_def = bp::int_ >> ints | bp::eps;

What is the default attribute type for `ints_def`?  It sure looks like
`std::optional<std::vector<int>>`.  Inside the evaluation of `ints`, _Parser_
must evaluate `ints_def`, and then produce a `std::vector<int>` _emdash_ the
return type of `ints` _emdash_ from it.  How?  How do you turn a
`std::optional<std::vector<int>>` into a `std::vector<int>`?  To a human, it
seems obvious, but the metaprogramming that properly handles this simple
example and the general case is certainly beyond me.

_Parser_ has a specific semantic for what constitutes a recursive rule.  Each
rule has a tag type associated with it, and if _Parser_ enters a rule with a
certain tag `Tag`, and the currently-evaluating rule (if there is one) also
has the tag `Tag`, then rule instance being entered is considered to be a
recursion.  No other situations are considered recursion.  In particular, if
you have rules `Ra` and `Rb`, and `Ra` uses `Rb`, which in turn used `Ra`, the
second use of `Ra` is not considered recursion.  `Ra` and `Rb` are of course
mutually recursive, but neither is considered a "recursive rule" for purposes
of getting a unique value, locals, and parameters.

[heading Mutually-recursive rules]

One of the advantages of using rules is that you can declare all your rules up
front and then use them immediately afterward.  This lets you make rules that
use each other without introducing cycles:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;

    // Assume we have some polymorphic type that can be an object/dictionary,
    // array, string, or int, called `value_type`.

    bp::rule<class string, std::string> const string = "string";
    bp::rule<class object_element, bp::tuple<std::string, value_type>> const object_element = "object-element";
    bp::rule<class object, value_type> const object = "object";
    bp::rule<class array, value_type> const array = "array";
    bp::rule<class value_tag, value_type> const value = "value";

    auto const string_def = bp::lexeme['"' >> *(bp::char_ - '"') > '"'];
    auto const object_element_def = string > ':' > value;
    auto const object_def = '{'_l >> -(object_element % ',') > '}';
    auto const array_def = '['_l >> -(value % ',') > ']';
    auto const value_def = bp::int_ | bp::bool_ | string | array | object;

    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(string, object_element, object, array, value);

Here we have a parser for a JavaScript-value-like type `value_type`.
`value_type` may be an array, which itself may contain other arrays, objects,
strings, etc.  Since we need to be able to parse objects within arrays and
vice versa, we need each of those two parsers to be able to refer to each
other.

[heading Callback parsing]

Only _rs_ can be callback parsers, so if you want to get attributes supplied
to you via callbacks instead of somewhere in the middle of a giant attribute
that represents the whole parse result, you need to use _rs_.  See
_ex_cb_json_ for an extended example of callback parsing.

[heading Accessors available in semantic actions on rules]

[heading _val_]

Inside all of a rule's semantic actions, the expression `_val_np_(ctx)` is a
reference to the attribute that the rule generates.  This can be useful when
you want subparsers to build up the attribute in a specific way:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    using namespace bp::literals;

    bp::rule<class ints, std::vector<int>> const ints = "ints";
    auto twenty_zeros = [](auto & ctx) { _val(ctx).resize(20, 0); };
    auto push_back = [](auto & ctx) { _val(ctx).push_back(_attr(ctx)); };
    auto const ints_def = "20-zeros"_l[twenty_zeros] | +bp::int_[push_back];
    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(ints);

[tip That's just an example.  It's almost always better to do things without
using semantic actions.  We could have instead written `ints_def` as
`"20-zeros" >> bp::attr(std::vector<int>(20)) | +bp::int_`, which has the same
semantics, is a lot easier to read, and is a lot less code.]

[heading Locals]

The _r_ template takes another template parameter we have not discussed yet.
You can pass a third parameter `LocalState` to _r_, which will be default
constructed by the _r_, and made available within semantic actions used in the
rule as `_locals_np_(ctx)`.  This gives your rule some local state, if it
needs it.  The type of `LocalState` can be anything regular.  It could be a
single value, a struct containing multiple values, or a tuple, among others.

    struct foo_locals
    {
        char first_value = 0;
    };

    namespace bp = boost::parser;

    bp::rule<class foo, int, foo_locals> const foo = "foo";

    auto record_first = [](auto & ctx) { _locals(ctx).first_value = _attr(ctx); }
    auto check_against_first = [](auto & ctx) {
        char const first = _locals(ctx).first_value;
        char const attr = _attr(ctx);
        if (attr == first)
            _pass(ctx) = false;
        _val(ctx) = (int(first) << 8) | int(attr);
    };

    auto const foo_def = bp::cu[record_first] >> bp::cu[check_against_first];
    BOOST_PARSER_DEFINE_RULES(foo);

`foo` matches the input if it can match two elements of the input in a row,
but only if they are not the same value.  Without locals, it's a lot harder to
write parsers that have to track state as they parse.

[heading Parameters]

Sometimes, it is convenient to parameterize parsers.  Consider these parsing
rules from the _yaml_ spec:

[pre
\[80\]
s-separate(n,BLOCK-OUT) ::= s-separate-lines(n)
s-separate(n,BLOCK-IN)  ::= s-separate-lines(n)
s-separate(n,FLOW-OUT)  ::= s-separate-lines(n)
s-separate(n,FLOW-IN)   ::= s-separate-lines(n)
s-separate(n,BLOCK-KEY) ::= s-separate-in-line
s-separate(n,FLOW-KEY)  ::= s-separate-in-line

\[136\]
in-flow(n,FLOW-OUT)  ::= ns-s-flow-seq-entries(n,FLOW-IN)
in-flow(n,FLOW-IN)   ::= ns-s-flow-seq-entries(n,FLOW-IN)
in-flow(n,BLOCK-KEY) ::= ns-s-flow-seq-entries(n,FLOW-KEY)
in-flow(n,FLOW-KEY)  ::= ns-s-flow-seq-entries(n,FLOW-KEY)

\[137\]
c-flow-sequence(n,c) ::= “\[” s-separate(n,c)? in-flow(c)? “\]”

]

YAML [137] says that the parsing should proceed into two YAML subrules, both
of which have these `n` and `c` parameters.  It is certainly possible to
transliterate these YAML parsing rules to something that uses unparameterized
_Parser_ _rs_, but it is quite painful to do so.  It is better to use a
parameterized rule.

You give parameters to a _r_ by calling its `with()` member.  The values you
pass to `with()` are used to create a _bp_tup_ that is available in semantic
actions attached to the rule, using `_params_np_(ctx)`.

Passing parameters to _rs_ like this allows you to easily write parsers that
change the way they parse depending on contextual data that they have already
parsed.

Here is an implementation of YAML [137].  It also implements the two YAML
rules used directly by [137], rules [136] and [80].  The rules that *those*
rules use are also represented below, but are implemented using only _e_, so
that I don't have to repeat too much of the (very large) YAML spec.

[extended_param_yaml_example_rules]

YAML [137] (`c_flow_sequence`) parses a list.  The list may be empty, and must
be surrounded by brackets, as you see here.  But, depending on the current
YAML context (the `c` parameter to [137]), we may require certain spacing to
be matched by `s-separate`, and how sub-parser `in-flow` behaves also depends
on the current context.

In `s_separate` above, we parse differently based on the value of `c`.  This
is done above by using the value of the second parameter to `s_separate` in a
switch-parser.  The second parameter is looked up by using __p_ as a parse
argument.

`in_flow` does something similar.  Note that `in_flow` calls its subrule by
passing its first parameter, but using a fixed value for the second value.
`s_separate` only passes its `n` parameter conditionally.  The point is that a
rule can be used with and without `.with()`, and that you can pass constants
or parse arguments to `.with()`.

With those rules defined, we could write a unit test for YAML [137] like this:

[extended_param_yaml_example_use]

You could extend this with tests for different values of `n` and `c`.
Obviously, in real tests, you parse actual contents inside the `"[]"`, if the
other rules were implemented, like [138].

[heading The __p_ variable template]

Getting at one of a rule's arguments and passing it as an argument to another
parser can be very verbose.  __p_ is a variable template that allows you to
refer to the `n`th argument to the current rule, so that you can, in turn,
pass it to one of the rule's subparsers.  Using this, `foo_def` above can be
rewritten as:

    auto const foo_def = bp::repeat(bp::_p<0>)[' '_l];

Using __p_ can prevent you from having to write a bunch of lambdas that
each get an argument out of the parse context using `_params_np_(ctx)[0_c]` or
similar.

Note that __p_ is a parse argument (see _parsers_uses_), meaning that it is an
invocable that takes the context as its only parameter.  If you want to use it
inside a semantic action, you have to call it.

[heading Special forms of semantic actions usable within a rule]

Semantic actions in this tutorial are usually of the signature `void (auto &
ctx)`.  That is, they take a context by reference, and return nothing.  If
they were to return something, that something would just get dropped on the
floor.

It is a pretty common pattern to create a rule in order to get a certain kind
of value out of a parser, when you don't normally get it automatically.  If I
want to parse an `int`, _i_ does that, and the thing that I parsed is also the
desired attribute.  If I parse an `int` followed by a `double`, I get a
_bp_tup_ containing one of each.  But what if I don't want those two values,
but some function of those two values?  I probably write something like this.

    struct obj_t { /* ... */ };
    obj_t to_obj(int i, double d) { /* ... */ }

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    bp::rule<struct obj_tag, obj_t> obj = "obj";
    auto make_obj = [](auto & ctx) {
        using boost::hana::literals;
        _val(ctx) = to_obj(_attr(ctx)[0_c], _attr(ctx)[1_c]);
    };
    constexpr auto obj_def = (bp::int_ >> bp::double_)[make_obj];

That's fine, if a little verbose.  However, you can also do this instead:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    bp::rule<struct obj_tag, obj_t> obj = "obj";
    auto make_obj = [](auto & ctx) {
        using boost::hana::literals;
        return to_obj(_attr(ctx)[0_c], _attr(ctx)[1_c]);
    };
    constexpr auto obj_def = (bp::int_ >> bp::double_)[make_obj];

Above, we return the value from a semantic action, and the returned value
gets assigned to `_val_np_(ctx)`.

Finally, you can provide a function that takes the individual elements of the
attribute (if it's a tuple), and returns the value to assign to
`_val_np_(ctx)`:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    bp::rule<struct obj_tag, obj_t> obj = "obj";
    constexpr auto obj_def = (bp::int_ >> bp::double_)[to_obj];

More formally, within a rule, the use of a semantic action is determined as
follows.  Assume we have a function `APPLY` that calls a function with the
elements of a tuple, like `std::apply`.  For some context `ctx`, semantic
action `action`, and attribute `attr`, `action` is used like this:

- `_val(ctx) = APPLY(action, std::move(attr))`, if that is well-formed, and
  `attr` is a tuple of size 2 or larger;

- otherwise, `_val(ctx) = action(ctx)`, if that is well-formed;

- otherwise, `action(ctx)`.

The first case does not pass the context to the action at all.  The last case
is the normal use of semantic actions outside of rules.

[endsect]

[section Algorithms and Views That Use Parsers]

Unless otherwise noted, all the algorithms and views are constrained very much
like the way the _p_ overloads are.  The kinds of ranges, parsers, etc., that
they accept are the same.

[heading _search_]

As shown in _p_api_, the two patterns of parsing in _Parser_ are whole-parse
and prefix-parse.  When you want to find something in the middle of the range
being parsed, there's no `parse` API for that.  You can of course make a
simple parser that skips everything before what you're looking for.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    constexpr auto parser = /* ... */;
    constexpr auto middle_parser = bp::omit[*(bp::char_ - parser)] >> parser;

`middle_parser` will skip over everything, one `char_` at a time, as long as
the next `char_` is not the beginning of a successful match of `parser`.
After this, control passes to `parser` itself.  Ok, so that's not too hard to
write.  If you need to parse something from the middle in order to generate
attributes, this is what you should use.

However, it often turns out you only need to find some subrange in the parsed
range.  In these cases, it would be nice to turn this into a proper algorithm
in the pattern of the ones in `std::ranges`, since that's more idiomatic.
_search_ is that algorithm.  It has very similar semantics to
`std::ranges::search`, except that it searches not for a match to an exact
subrange, but to a match with the given parser.  Like `std::ranges::search()`,
it returns a subrange (`boost::parser::subrange` in C++17,
`std::ranges::subrange` in C++20 and later).

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto result = bp::search("aaXYZq", bp::lit("XYZ"), bp::ws);
    assert(!result.empty());
    assert(std::string_view(result.begin(), result.end() - result.begin()) == "XYZ");

Since _search_ returns a subrange, whatever parser you give it produces no
attribute.  I wrote `bp::lit("XYZ")` above; if I had written
`bp::string("XYZ")` instead, the result (and lack of `std::string`
construction) would not change.

As you can see above, one aspect of _search_ differs intentionally from the
conventions of the `std::ranges` algorithms _emdash_ it accepts C-style
strings, treating them as if they were proper ranges.

Also, _search_ knows how to accommodate your iterator type.  You can pass the
C-style string `"aaXYZq"` as in the example above, or `"aaXYZq" |
bp::as_utf32`, or `"aaXYZq" | bp::as_utf8`, or even `"aaXYZq" | bp::as_utf16`,
and it will return a subrange whose iterators are the type that you passed as
input, even though internally the iterator type might be something different
(a UTF-8 -> UTF-32 transcoding iterator in Unicode parsing, as with all the `|
bp::as_utfN` examples above).  As long as you pass a range to be parsed whose
value type is `char`, `char8_t`, `char32_t`, or that is adapted using some
combination of `as_utfN` adaptors, this accommodation will operate correctly.

_search_ has multiple overloads.  You can pass a range or an iterator/sentinel
pair, and you can pass a skip parser or not.  That's four overloads.  Also,
all four overloads take an optional _trace_ parameter at the end.  This is
really handy for investigating why you're not finding something in the input
that you expected to.

[heading _search_all_]

_search_all_ creates _search_all_vs_.  _search_all_v_ is a `std::views`-style
view.  It produces a range of subranges.  Each subrange it produces is the
next match of the given parser in the parsed range.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto r = "XYZaaXYZbaabaXYZXYZ" | bp::search_all(bp::lit("XYZ"));
    int count = 0;
    // Prints XYZ XYZ XYZ XYZ.
    for (auto subrange : r) {
        std::cout << std::string_view(subrange.begin(), subrange.end() - subrange.begin()) << " ";
        ++count;
    }
    std::cout << "\n";
    assert(count == 4);

All the details called out in the subsection on _search_ above apply to
_search_all_: its parser produces no attributes; it accepts C-style strings as
if they were ranges; and it knows how to get from the internally-used iterator
type back to the given iterator type, in typical cases.

_search_all_ can be called with, and _search_all_v_ can be constructed with, a
skip parser or not, and you can always pass _trace_ at the end of any of their
overloads.

[heading _split_]

_split_ creates _split_vs_.  _split_v_ is a `std::views`-style view.  It
produces a range of subranges of the parsed range split on matches of the
given parser.  You can think of _split_v_ as being the complement of
_search_all_v_, in that _split_v_ produces the subranges between the subranges
produced by _search_all_v_.  _split_v_ has very similar semantics to
`std::views::split_view`. Just like `std::views::split_view`, _split_v_ will
produce empty ranges between the beginning/end of the parsed range and an
adjacent match, or between adjacent matches.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto r = "XYZaaXYZbaabaXYZXYZ" | bp::split(bp::lit("XYZ"));
    int count = 0;
    // Prints '' 'aa' 'baaba' '' ''.
    for (auto subrange : r) {
        std::cout << "'" << std::string_view(subrange.begin(), subrange.end() - subrange.begin()) << "' ";
        ++count;
    }
    std::cout << "\n";
    assert(count == 5);

All the details called out in the subsection on _search_ above apply to
_split_: its parser produces no attributes; it accepts C-style strings as if
they were ranges; and it knows how to get from the internally-used iterator
type back to the given iterator type, in typical cases.

_split_ can be called with, and _split_v_ can be constructed with, a skip
parser or not, and you can always pass _trace_ at the end of any of their
overloads.

[heading _replace_]

[important _replace_ and _replace_v_ are not available on MSVC in C++17 mode.]

_replace_ creates _replace_vs_.  _replace_v_ is a `std::views`-style view.  It
produces a range of subranges from the parsed range `r` and the given
replacement range `replacement`.  Wherever in the parsed range a match to the
given parser `parser` is found, `replacement` is the subrange produced.  Each
subrange of `r` that does not match `parser` is produced as a subrange as
well.  The subranges are produced in the order in which they occur in `r`.
Unlike _split_v_, _replace_v_ does not produce empty subranges, unless
`replacement` is empty.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto card_number = bp::int_ >> bp::repeat(3)['-' >> bp::int_];
    auto rng = "My credit card number is 1234-5678-9012-3456." | bp::replace(card_number, "XXXX-XXXX-XXXX-XXXX");
    int count = 0;
    // Prints My credit card number is XXXX-XXXX-XXXX-XXXX.
    for (auto subrange : rng) {
        std::cout << std::string_view(subrange.begin(), subrange.end() - subrange.begin());
        ++count;
    }
    std::cout << "\n";
    assert(count == 3);


If the iterator types `Ir` and `Ireplacement` for the `r` and `replacement`
ranges passed are identical (as in the example above), the iterator type for
the subranges produced is `Ir`.  If they are different, an
implementation-defined type is used for the iterator.  This type is the moral
equivalent of a `std::variant<Ir, Ireplacement>`.  This works as long as `Ir`
and `Ireplacement` are compatible.  To be compatible, they must have common
reference, value, and rvalue reference types, as determined by
`std::common_type_t`.  One advantage to this scheme is that the range of
subranges represented by _replace_v_ is easily joined back into a single
range.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto card_number = bp::int_ >> bp::repeat(3)['-' >> bp::int_];
    auto rng = "My credit card number is 1234-5678-9012-3456." | bp::replace(card_number, "XXXX-XXXX-XXXX-XXXX") | std::views::join;
    std::string replace_result;
    for (auto ch : rng) {
        replace_result.push_back(ch);
    }
    assert(replace_result == "My credit card number is XXXX-XXXX-XXXX-XXXX.");

Note that we could *not* have written `std::string replace_result(r.begin(),
r.end())`.  This is ill-formed because the `std::string` range constructor
takes two iterators of the same type, but `decltype(rng.end())` is a sentinel
type different from `decltype(rng.begin())`.

Though the ranges `r` and `replacement` can both be C-style strings,
_replace_v_ must know the end of `replacement` before it does any work.  This
is because the subranges produced are all common ranges, and so if
`replacement` is not, a common range must be formed from it.  If you expect to
pass very long C-style strings to _replace_ and not pay to see the end until
the range is used, don't.

`ReplacementV` is constrained almost exactly the same as `V`.  `V` must model
`parsable_range` and `std::ranges::viewable_range`.  `ReplacementV` is the
same, except that it can also be a `std::ranges::input_range`, whereas `V`
must be a `std::ranges::forward_range`.

You may wonder what happens when you pass a UTF-N range for `r`, and a UTF-M
range for `replacement`.  What happens in this case is silent transcoding of
`replacement` from UTF-M to UTF-N by the _replace_ range adaptor.  This
doesn't require memory allocation; _replace_ just slaps `|
boost::parser::as_utfN` onto `replacement`.  However, since _Parser_ treats
`char` ranges as unknown encoding, _replace_ will not transcode from `char`
ranges.  So calls like this won't work:

    char const str[] = "some text";
    char const replacement_str[] = "some text";
    using namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto r = empty_str | bp::replace(parser, replacement_str | bp::as_utf8); // Error: ill-formed!  Can't mix plain-char inputs and UTF replacements.

This does not work, even though `char` and UTF-8 are the same size.  If `r`
and `replacement` are both ranges of `char`, everything will work of course.
It's just mixing `char` and UTF-encoded ranges that does not work.

All the details called out in the subsection on _search_ above apply to
_replace_: its parser produces no attributes; it accepts C-style strings for
the `r` and `replacement` parameters as if they were ranges; and it knows how
to get from the internally-used iterator type back to the given iterator type,
in typical cases.

_replace_ can be called with, and _replace_v_ can be constructed with, a skip
parser or not, and you can always pass _trace_ at the end of any of their
overloads.

[heading _trans_replace_]

[important _trans_replace_ and _trans_replace_v_ are not available on MSVC in
C++17 mode.]

[important _trans_replace_ and _trans_replace_v_ are not available on GCC in
C++20 mode before GCC 12.]

_trans_replace_ creates _trans_replace_vs_.  _trans_replace_v_ is a
`std::views`-style view.  It produces a range of subranges from the parsed
range `r` and the given invocable `f`.  Wherever in the parsed range a match
to the given parser `parser` is found, let `parser`'s attribute be `attr`;
`f(std::move(attr))` is the subrange produced.  Each subrange of `r` that does
not match `parser` is produced as a subrange as well.  The subranges are
produced in the order in which they occur in `r`.  Unlike _split_v_,
_trans_replace_v_ does not produce empty subranges, unless
`f(std::move(attr))` is empty.  Here is an example.

     auto string_sum = [](std::vector<int> const & ints) {
         return std::to_string(std::accumulate(ints.begin(), ints.end(), 0));
     };

     auto rng = "There are groups of [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] in the set." |
                bp::transform_replace('[' >> bp::int_ % ',' >> ']', bp::ws, string_sum);
     int count = 0;
     // Prints "There are groups of 15 in the set".
     for (auto subrange : rng) {
         for (auto ch : subrange) {
             std::cout << ch;
         }
         ++count;
     }
     std::cout << "\n";
     assert(count == 3);

Let the type `decltype(f(std::move(attr)))` be `Replacement`.  `Replacement`
must be a range, and must be compatible with `r`.  See the description of
_replace_v_'s iterator compatibility requirements in the section above for
details.

As with _replace_, _trans_replace_ can be flattened from a view of subranges
into a view of elements by piping it to `std::views::join`.  See the section
on _replace_ above for an example.

Just like _replace_ and _replace_v_, _trans_replace_ and _trans_replace_v_ do
silent transcoding of the result to the appropriate UTF, if applicable.  If
both `r` and `f(std::move(attr))` are ranges of `char`, or are both the same
UTF, no transcoding occurs.  If one of `r` and `f(std::move(attr))` is a range
of `char` and the other is some UTF, the program is ill-formed.

_trans_replace_v_ will move each attribute into `f`; `f` may move from the
argument or copy it as desired.  `f` may return an lvalue reference.  If it
does so, the address of the reference will be taken and stored within
_trans_replace_v_.  Otherwise, the value returned by `f` is moved into
_trans_replace_v_.  In either case, the value type of _trans_replace_v_ is
always a subrange.

_trans_replace_ can be called with, and _trans_replace_v_ can be constructed
with, a skip parser or not, and you can always pass _trace_ at the end of any
of their overloads.

[endsect]

[section Unicode Support]

_Parser_ was designed from the start to be Unicode friendly.  There are
numerous references to the "Unicode code path" and the "non-Unicode code path"
in the _Parser_ documentation.  Though there are in fact two code paths for
Unicode and non-Unicode parsing, the code is not very different in the two
code paths, as they are written generically.  The only difference is that the
Unicode code path parses the input as a range of code points, and the
non-Unicode path does not.  In effect, this means that, in the Unicode code
path, when you call `_p_np_(r, p)` for some input range `r` and some parser
`p`, the parse happens as if you called `_p_np_(r | boost::parser::as_utf32,
p)` instead.  (Of course, it does not matter if `r` is a proper range, or an
iterator/sentinel pair; those both work fine with `boost::parser::as_utf32`.)

Matching "characters" within _Parser_'s parsers is assumed to be a code point
match.  In the Unicode path there is a code point from the input that is
matched to each _ch_ parser.  In the non-Unicode path, the encoding is
unknown, and so each element of the input is considered to be a whole
"character" in the input encoding, analogous to a code point.  From this point
on, I will therefore refer to a single element of the input exclusively as a
code point.

So, let's say we write this parser:

    constexpr auto char8_parser = boost::parser::char_('\xcc');

For any _ch_ parser that should match a value or values, the type of the value
to match is retained.  So `char8_parser` contains a `char` that it will use
for matching.  If we had written:

    constexpr auto char32_parser = boost::parser::char_(U'\xcc');

`char32_parser` would instead contain a `char32_t` that it would use for
matching.

So, at any point during the parse, if `char8_parser` were being used to match
a code point `next_cp` from the input, we would see the moral equivalent of
`next_cp == '\xcc'`, and if `char32_parser` were being used to match
`next_cp`, we'd see the equivalent of `next_cp == U'\xcc'`.  The take-away
here is that you can write _ch_ parsers that match specific values, without
worrying if the input is Unicode or not because, under the covers, what takes
place is a simple comparison of two integral values.

[note _Parser_ actually promotes any two values to a common type using
`std::common_type` before comparing them.  This almost always works because
the input and any parameter passed to _ch_ must be character types. ]

Since matches are always done at a code point level (remember, a "code point"
in the non-Unicode path is assumed to be a single `char`), you get different
results trying to match UTF-8 input in the Unicode and non-Unicode code paths:

    namespace bp = boost::parser;

    {
        std::string str = (char const *)u8"\xcc\x80"; // encodes the code point U+0300
        auto first = str.begin();

        // Since we've done nothing to indicate that we want to do Unicode
        // parsing, and we've passed a range of char to parse(), this will do
        // non-Unicode parsing.
        std::string chars;
        assert(bp::parse(first, str.end(), *bp::char_('\xcc'), chars));

        // Finds one match of the *char* 0xcc, because the value in the parser
        // (0xcc) was matched against the two code points in the input (0xcc and
        // 0x80), and the first one was a match.
        assert(chars == "\xcc");
    }
    {
        std::u8string str = u8"\xcc\x80"; // encodes the code point U+0300
        auto first = str.begin();

        // Since the input is a range of char8_t, this will do Unicode
        // parsing.  The same thing would have happened if we passed
        // str | boost::parser::as_utf32 or even str | boost::parser::as_utf8.
        std::string chars;
        assert(bp::parse(first, str.end(), *bp::char_('\xcc'), chars));

        // Finds zero matches of the *code point* 0xcc, because the value in
        // the parser (0xcc) was matched against the single code point in the
        // input, 0x0300.
        assert(chars == "");
    }


[heading Implicit transcoding]

Additionally, it is expected that most programs will use UTF-8 for the
encoding of Unicode strings.  _Parser_ is written with this typical case in
mind.  This means that if you are parsing 32-bit code points (as you always
are in the Unicode path), and you want to catch the result in a container `C`
of `char` or `char8_t` values, _Parser_ will silently transcode from UTF-32 to
UTF-8 and write the attribute into `C`.  This means that _std_str_,
`std::u8string`, etc. are fine to use as attribute out-parameters for `*_ch_`,
and the result will be UTF-8.

[note UTF-16 strings as attributes are not supported directly.  If you want to
use UTF-16 strings as attributes, you may need to do so by transcoding a UTF-8
or UTF-32 attribute to UTF-16 within a semantic action.  You can do this by
using `boost::parser::as_utf16`.]

The treatment of strings as UTF-8 is nearly ubiquitous within _Parser_.  For
instance, though the entire interface of _symbols_ uses _std_str_ or
`std::string_view`, UTF-32 comparisons are used internally.


[heading Explicit transcoding]

I mentioned above that the use of `boost::parser::utf*_view` as the range to
parse opts you in to Unicode parsing.  Here's a bit more about these views and
how best to use them.

If you want to do Unicode parsing, you're always going to be comparing code
points at each step of the parse.  As such, you're going to implicitly convert
any parse input to UTF-32, if needed.  This is what all the parse API
functions do internally.

However, there are times when you have parse input that is a sequence of
UTF-8-encoded `char`s, and you want to do Unicode-aware parsing.  As mentioned
previously, _Parser_ has a special case for `char` inputs, and it will *not*
assume that `char` sequences are UTF-8.  If you want to tell the parse API to
do Unicode processing on them anyway, you can use the `as_utf32` range
adapter.  (Note that you can use any of the `as_utf*` adaptors and the
semantics will not differ from the semantics below.)

    namespace bp = boost::parser;

    auto const p = '"' >> *(bp::char_ - '"' - 0xb6) >> '"';
    char const * str = "\"two wörds\""; // ö is two code units, 0xc3 0xb6

    auto result_1 = bp::parse(str, p);                // Treat each char as a code point (typically ASCII).
    assert(!result_1);
    auto result_2 = bp::parse(str | bp::as_utf32, p); // Unicode-aware parsing on code points.
    assert(result_2);

The first call to _p_ treats each `char` as a code point, and since `"ö"` is
the pair of code units `0xc3` `0xb6`, the parse matches the second code unit
against the `- 0xb6` part of the parser above, causing the parse to fail.
This happens because each code unit/`char` in `str` is treated as an
independent code point.

The second call to _p_ succeeds because, when the parse gets to the code point
for `'ö'`, it is `0xf6` (U+00F6), which does not match the `- 0xb6` part of
the parser.

The other adaptors `as_utf8` and `as_utf16` are also provided for
completeness, if you want to use them.  They each can transcode any sequence
of character types.

[important The `as_utfN` adaptors are optional, so they don't come with
`parser.hpp`.  To get access to them, `#include
<boost/parser/transcode_view.hpp>`. ]

[heading (Lack of) normalization]

One thing that _Parser_ does not handle for you is normalization; _Parser_ is
completely normalization-agnostic.  Since all the parsers do their matching
using equality comparisons of code points, you should make sure that your
parsed range and your parsers all use the same normalization form.

[endsect]

[section Callback Parsing]

In most parsing cases, being able to generate an attribute that represents the
result of the parse, or being able to parse into such an attribute, is
sufficient.  Sometimes, it is not.  If you need to parse a very large chunk of
text, the generated attribute may be too large to fit in memory.  In other
cases, you may want to generate attributes sometimes, and not others.  _cb_rs_
exist for these kinds of uses. A _cb_r_ is just like a rule, except that it
allows the rule's attribute to be returned to the caller via a callback, as
long as the parse is started with a call to _cbp_ instead of _p_.  Within a
call to _p_, a _cb_r_ is identical to a regular _r_.

For a rule with no attribute, the signature of a callback function is `void
(tag)`, where `tag` is the tag-type used when declaring the rule.  For a rule
with an attribute `attr`, the signature is `void (tag, attr)`.  For instance,
with this rule:

    boost::parser::callback_rule<struct foo_tag> foo = "foo";

this would be an appropriate callback function:

    void foo_callback(foo_tag)
    {
        std::cout << "Parsed a 'foo'!\n";
    }

For this rule:

    boost::parser::callback_rule<struct bar_tag, std::string> bar = "bar";

this would be an appropriate callback function:

    void bar_callback(bar_tag, std::string const & s)
    {
        std::cout << "Parsed a 'bar' containing " << s << "!\n";
    }

[important In the case of `bar_callback()`, we don't need to do anything with
`s` besides insert it into a stream, so we took it as a `const` lvalue
reference.  _Parser_ moves all attributes into callbacks, so the signature
could also have been `void bar_callback(bar_tag, std::string s)` or `void
bar_callback(bar_tag, std::string && s)`.]

You opt into callback parsing by parsing with a call to _cbp_ instead of _p_.
If you use _cb_rs_ with _p_, they're just regular _rs_.  This allows you to
choose whether to do "normal" attribute-generating/attribute-assigning parsing
with _p_, or callback parsing with _cbp_, without rewriting much parsing code,
if any.

The only reason all _rs_ are not _cb_rs_ is that you may want to have some
_rs_ use callbacks within a parse, and have some that do not.  For instance,
if you want to report the attribute of _cb_r_ `r1` via callback, `r1`'s
implementation may use some rule `r2` to generate some or all of its
attribute.

See _ex_cb_json_ for an extended example of callback parsing.

[endsect]

[section Error Handling and Debugging]

[heading Error handling]

_Parser_ has good error reporting built into it.  Consider what happens when
we fail to parse at an expectation point (created using `operator>`).  If I
feed the parser from the _ex_cb_json_ example a file called sample.json
containing this input (note the unmatched `'['`):

[teletype]``
{
    "key": "value",
    "foo": [, "bar": []
}
``

This is the error message that is printed to the terminal:

[teletype]``
sample.json:3:12: error: Expected ']' here:
    "foo": [, "bar": []
            ^
``

That message is formatted like the diagnostics produced by Clang and GCC.  It
quotes the line on which the failure occurred, and even puts a caret under the
exact position at which the parse failed.  This error message is suitable for
many kinds of end-users, and interoperates well with anything that supports
Clang and/or GCC diagnostics.

Most of _Parser_'s error handlers format their diagnostics this way, though
you are not bound by that.  You can make an error handler type that does
whatever you want, as long as it meets the error handler interface.

The _Parser_ error handlers are:

* _default_eh_: Produces formatted diagnostics like the one above, and prints
  them to `std::cerr`.  _default_eh_ has no associated file name, and both
  errors and diagnostics are printed to `std::cerr`.  This handler is
  `constexpr`-friendly.

* _stream_eh_: Produces formatted diagnostics.  One or two streams may be
  used.  If two are used, errors go to one stream and warnings go to the
  other.  A file name can be associated with the parse; if it is, that file
  name will appear in all diagnostics.

* _cb_eh_: Produces formatted diagnostics.  Calls a callback with the
  diagnostic message to report the diagnostic, rather than streaming out the
  diagnostic.  A file name can be associated with the parse; if it is, that
  file name will appear in all diagnostics.  This handler is useful for
  recording the diagnostics in memory.

* _rethrow_eh_: Does nothing but re-throw any exception that it is asked to
  handle.  Its `diagnose()` member functions are no-ops.

* _vs_output_eh_: Directs all errors and warnings to the debugging output
  panel inside Visual Studio.  Available on Windows only.  Probably does
  nothing useful desirable when executed outside of Visual Studio.

You can set the error handler to any of these, or one of your own, using
_w_eh_ (see _p_api_).  If you do not set one, _default_eh_ will be used.

[heading How diagnostics are generated]

_Parser_ only generates error messages like the ones in this page at failed
expectation points (like `a > b`, where you have successfully parsed `a`, but
then cannot successfully parse `b`), and at an unexpected end of input.  This
may seem limited to you.  It's actually the best that we can do.

In order for error handling to happen other than at expectation points, we
have to know that there is no further processing that might take place.  This
is true because _Parser_ has `P1 | P2 | ... | Pn` parsers ("`or_parser`s").
If any one of these parsers `Pi` fails to match, it is not allowed to fail the
parse _emdash_ the next one (`Pi+1`) might match.  If we get to the end of the
alternatives of the or_parser and `Pn` fails, we still cannot fail the
top-level parse, because this `or_parser` might be a subparser within a parent
`or_parser`.  The only exception to this is when: we have finished the
top-level parse; the top-level parse is *not* a prefix parse; and there is
still a part of the input range that is left over.  In that case, there is an
implicit expectation that the end of the parse and the end of input are the
same location, and this implicit expectation has just been violated.

Note that we cannot fail the top-level parse when we run into end-of-input.
We cannot for exactly the same reason already stated.  For any parser `P`,
reaching end-of-input is a failure for `P`, but not necessarily for the whole
parse.

Ok, so what other kinds of error reporting might we do?  Perhaps we could
record the farthest point ever reached during the parse, and report that at
the top level, if the top level parser fails.  That would be little help
without knowing which parser was active when we reached that point.  This
would require some sort of repeated memory allocation, since in _Parser_ the
progress point of the parser is stored exclusively on the stack _emdash_ by
the time we fail the top-level parse, all those far-reaching stack frames are
long gone.  Not the best.

Worse still, knowing how far you got in the parse and which parser was active
is not very useful.  Consider this.

    namespace bp = boost::parser;
    auto a_b = bp::char_('a') >> bp::char_('b');
    auto c_b = bp::char_('c') >> bp::char_('b');
    auto result = bp::parse("acb", a_b | c_b);

If we reported the farthest-reaching parser and its position, it would be the
`a_b` parser, at position `"bc"` in the input.  Is this really enlightening?
Was the error in the input putting the `'a'` at the beginning or putting the
`'c'` in the middle?  If you point the user at `a_b` as the parser that
failed, and never mention `c_b`, you are potentially just steering them in the
wrong direction.

All error messages must come from failed expectation points (or unexpected end
of input).  Consider parsing JSON.  If you open a list with `'['`, you know
that you're parsing a list, and if the list is ill-formed, you'll get an error
message saying so.  If you open an object with `'{'`, the same thing is
possible _emdash_ when missing the matching `'}'`, you can tell the user,
"That's not an object", and this is useful feedback.  The same thing with a
partially parsed number, etc.  If the JSON parser does not build in
expectations like matched braces and brackets, how can _Parser_ know that a
missing `'}'` is really a problem, and that no later parser will match the
input even without the `'}'`?

[important The bottom line is that you should build expectation points into
your parsers using `operator>` as much as possible.]

[heading Using error handlers in semantic actions]

You can get access to the error handler within any semantic action by calling
`_error_handler(ctx)` (see _parse_ctx_).  Any error handler must have the
following member functions:

[error_handler_api_1]

[error_handler_api_2]

If you call the second one, the one without the iterator parameter, it will
call the first with `_where_np_(context).begin()` as the iterator parameter.  The
one without the iterator is the one you will use most often.  The one with the
explicit iterator parameter can be useful in situations where you have
messages that are related to each other, associated with multiple locations.
For instance, if you are parsing XML, you may want to report that a close-tag
does not match its associated open-tag by showing the line where the open-tag
was found.  That may of course not be located anywhere near
`_where(ctx).begin()`.  (A description of _globals_ is below.)

    [](auto & ctx) {
        // Assume we have a std::vector of open tags, and another
        // std::vector of iterators to where the open tags were parsed, in our
        // globals.
        if (_attr(ctx) != _globals(ctx).open_tags.back()) {
            std::string open_tag_msg =
                "Previous open-tag \"" + _globals(ctx).open_tags.back() + "\" here:";
            _error_handler(ctx).diagnose(
                boost::parser::diagnostic_kind::error,
                open_tag_msg,
                ctx,
                _globals(ctx).open_tags_position.back());
            std::string close_tag_msg =
                "does not match close-tag \"" + _attr(ctx) + "\" here:";
            _error_handler(ctx).diagnose(
                boost::parser::diagnostic_kind::error,
                close_tag_msg,
                ctx);

            // Explicitly fail the parse.  Diagnostics do not affect parse success.
            _pass(ctx) = false;
        }
    }

[heading _report_error_ and _report_warning_]

There are also some convenience functions that make the above code a little
less verbose, _report_error_ and _report_warning_:

    [](auto & ctx) {
        // Assume we have a std::vector of open tags, and another
        // std::vector of iterators to where the open tags were parsed, in our
        // globals.
        if (_attr(ctx) != _globals(ctx).open_tags.back()) {
            std::string open_tag_msg =
                "Previous open-tag \"" + _globals(ctx).open_tags.back() + "\" here:";
            _report_error(ctx, open_tag_msg, _globals(ctx).open_tag_positions.back());
            std::string close_tag_msg =
                "does not match close-tag \"" + _attr(ctx) + "\" here:";
            _report_error(ctx, close_tag_msg);

            // Explicitly fail the parse.  Diagnostics do not affect parse success.
            _pass(ctx) = false;
        }
    }

You should use these less verbose functions almost all the time.  The only
time you would want to use _error_handler_ directly is when you are using a
custom error handler, and you want access to some part of its interface
besides `diagnose()`.

Though there is support for reporting warnings using the functions above, none
of the error handlers supplied by _Parser_ will ever report a warning.
Warnings are strictly for user code.

For more information on the rest of the error handling and diagnostic API, see
the header reference pages for _err_fwd_hpp_ and _err_hpp_.

[heading Creating your own error handler]

Creating your own error handler is pretty easy; you just need to implement
three member functions.  Say you want an error handler that writes diagnostics
to a file.  Here's how you might do that.

[logging_error_handler]

That's it.  You just need to do the important work of the error handler in its
call operator, and then implement the two overloads of `diagnose()` that it
must provide for use inside semantic actions.  The default implementation of
these is even available as the free function `write_formatted_message()`, so
you can just call that, as you see above.  Here's how you might use it.

[using_logging_error_handler]

We just define a `logging_error_handler`, and pass it by reference to _w_eh_,
which decorates the top-level parser with the error handler.  We *could not*
have written `bp::with_error_handler(parser,
logging_error_handler("parse.log"))`, because _w_eh_ does not accept rvalues.
This is because the error handler eventually goes into the parse context.  The
parse context only stores pointers and iterators, keeping it cheap to copy.

If we run the example and give it the input `"1,"`, this shows up in the log
file:

[pre
parse.log:1:2: error: Expected int_ here (end of input):
1,
  ^
]

[heading Fixing ill-formed code]

Sometimes, during the writing of a parser, you make a simple mistake that is
diagnosed horrifyingly, due to the high number of template instantiations
between the line you just wrote and the point of use (usually, the call to
_p_).  By "sometimes", I mean "almost always and many, many times".  _Parser_
has a workaround for situations like this.  The workaround is to make the
ill-formed code well-formed in as many circumstances as possible, and then do
a runtime assert instead.

Usually, C++ programmers try whenever they can to catch mistakes as early as
they can.  That usually means making as much bad code ill-formed as possible.
Counter-intuitively, this does not work well in parser combinator situations.
For an example of just how dramatically different these two debugging
scenarios can be with _Parser_, please see the very long discussion in the
_n_is_weird_ section of _rationale_.

If you are morally opposed to this approach, or just hate fun, good news: you
can turn off the use of this technique entirely by defining
`BOOST_PARSER_NO_RUNTIME_ASSERTIONS`.

[heading Runtime debugging]

Debugging parsers is hard.  Any parser above a certain complexity level is
nearly impossible to debug simply by looking at the parser's code.  Stepping
through the parse in a debugger is even worse.  To provide a reasonable chance
of debugging your parsers, _Parser_ has a trace mode that you can turn on
simply by providing an extra parameter to _p_ or _cbp_:

    boost::parser::parse(input, parser, boost::parser::trace::on);

Every overload of _p_ and _cbp_ takes this final parameter, which is defaulted
to `_trace_::off`.

If we trace a substantial parser, we will see a *lot* of output.  Each code
point of the input must be considered, one at a time, to see if a certain rule
matches.  As an example, let's trace a parse using the JSON parser from
_ex_json_.  The input is `"null"`.  `null` is one of the types that a
JavaScript value can have; the top-level parser in the JSON parser example is:

    auto const value_p_def =
        number | bp::bool_ | null | string | array_p | object_p;

So, a JSON value can be a number, or a Boolean, a `null`, etc.  During the
parse, each alternative will be tried in turn, until one is matched.  I picked
`null` because it is relatively close to the beginning of the `value_p_def`
alternative parser.  Even so, the output is pretty huge.  Let's break it down
as we go:

[teletype]``
[begin value; input="null"]
``

Each parser is traced as `[begin foo; ...]`, then the parsing operations
themselves, and then `[end foo; ...]`.  The name of a rule is used as its name
in the `begin` and `end` parts of the trace.  Non-rules have a name that is
similar to the way the parser looked when you wrote it.  Most lines will have
the next few code points of the input quoted, as we have here
(`input="null"`).

[teletype]``
  [begin number | bool_ | null | string | ...; input="null"]
``

This shows the beginning of the parser *inside* the rule `value` _emdash_ the
parser that actually does all the work.  In the example code, this parser is
called `value_p_def`.  Since it isn't a rule, we have no name for it, so we
show its implementation in terms of subparsers.  Since it is a bit long, we
don't print the entire thing.  That's why that ellipsis is there.

[teletype]``
    [begin number; input="null"]
      [begin raw[lexeme[ >> ...]][<<action>>]; input="null"]
``

Now we're starting to see the real work being done.  `number` is a somewhat
complicated parser that does not match `"null"`, so there's a lot to wade
through when following the trace of its attempt to do so.  One thing to note
is that, since we cannot print a name for an action, we just print
`"<<action>>"`.  Something similar happens when we come to an attribute that
we cannot print, because it has no stream insertion operation.  In that case,
`"<<unprintable-value>>"` is printed.

[teletype]``
        [begin raw[lexeme[ >> ...]]; input="null"]
          [begin lexeme[-char_('-') >> char_('1', '9') >> ... | ... >> ...]; input="null"]
            [begin -char_('-') >> char_('1', '9') >> *digit | char_('0') >> -(char_('.') >> ...) >> -( >> ...); input="null"]
              [begin -char_('-'); input="null"]
                [begin char_('-'); input="null"]
                  no match
                [end char_('-'); input="null"]
                matched ""
                attribute: <<empty>>
              [end -char_('-'); input="null"]
              [begin char_('1', '9') >> *digit | char_('0'); input="null"]
                [begin char_('1', '9') >> *digit; input="null"]
                  [begin char_('1', '9'); input="null"]
                    no match
                  [end char_('1', '9'); input="null"]
                  no match
                [end char_('1', '9') >> *digit; input="null"]
                [begin char_('0'); input="null"]
                  no match
                [end char_('0'); input="null"]
                no match
              [end char_('1', '9') >> *digit | char_('0'); input="null"]
              no match
            [end -char_('-') >> char_('1', '9') >> *digit | char_('0') >> -(char_('.') >> ...) >> -( >> ...); input="null"]
            no match
          [end lexeme[-char_('-') >> char_('1', '9') >> ... | ... >> ...]; input="null"]
          no match
        [end raw[lexeme[ >> ...]]; input="null"]
        no match
      [end raw[lexeme[ >> ...]][<<action>>]; input="null"]
      no match
    [end number; input="null"]
    [begin bool_; input="null"]
      no match
    [end bool_; input="null"]
``

`number` and `boost::parser::bool_` did not match, but `null` will:

[teletype]``
    [begin null; input="null"]
      [begin "null" >> attr(null); input="null"]
        [begin "null"; input="null"]
          [begin string("null"); input="null"]
            matched "null"
            attribute: 
          [end string("null"); input=""]
          matched "null"
          attribute: null
``

Finally, this parser actually matched, and the match generated the attribute
`null`, which is a special value of the type `json::value`.  Since we were
matching a string literal `"null"`, earlier there was no attribute until we
reached the `attr(null)` parser.

[teletype]``
        [end "null"; input=""]
        [begin attr(null); input=""]
          matched ""
          attribute: null
        [end attr(null); input=""]
        matched "null"
        attribute: null
      [end "null" >> attr(null); input=""]
      matched "null"
      attribute: null
    [end null; input=""]
    matched "null"
    attribute: null
  [end number | bool_ | null | string | ...; input=""]
  matched "null"
  attribute: null
[end value; input=""]
--------------------
parse succeeded
--------------------
``

At the very end of the parse, the trace code prints out whether the top-level
parse succeeded or failed.

Some things to be aware of when looking at _Parser_ trace output:

* There are some parsers you don't know about, because they are not directly
  documented.  For instance, `p[a]` forms an `action_parser` containing the
  parser `p` and semantic action `a`.  This is essentially an implementation
  detail, but unfortunately the trace output does not hide this from you.

* For a parser `p`, the trace-name may be intentionally different from the
  actual structure of `p`.  For example, in the trace above, you see a parser
  called simply `"null"`.  This parser is actually
  `boost::parser::omit[boost::parser::string("null")]`, but what you typically
  write is just `"null"`, so that's the name used.  There are two special
  cases like this: the one described here for `omit[string]`, and another for
  `omit[char_]`.

* Since there are no other special cases for how parser names are printed, you
  may see parsers that are unlike what you wrote in your code.  In the
  sections about the parsers and combining operations, you will sometimes see
  a parser or combining operation described in terms of an equivalent parser.
  For example, `if_(pred)[p]` is described as "Equivalent to `_e_(pred) >>
  p`".  In a trace, you will not see `if_`; you will see _e_ and `p` instead.

* The values of arguments passed to parsers is printed whenever possible.
  Sometimes, a parse argument is not a value itself, but a callable that
  produces that value.  In these cases, you'll see the resolved value of the
  parse argument.

[endsect]

[section Memory Allocation]

_Parser_ seldom allocates memory.  The exceptions to this are:

* _symbols_ allocates memory for the symbol/attribute pairs it contains.  If
  symbols are added during the parse, allocations must also occur then.  The
  data structure used by _symbols_ is also a trie, which is a node-based tree.
  So, lots of allocations are likely if you use _symbols_.

* The error handlers that can take a file name allocate memory for the file
  name, if one is provided.

* If trace is turned on by passing `_trace_::on` to a top-level
  parsing function, the names of parsers are allocated.

* When a failed expectation is encountered (using `operator>`), the name of
  the failed parser is placed into a _std_str_, which will usually cause an
  allocation.

* _str_'s attribute is a _std_str_, the use of which implies allocation.  You
  can avoid this allocation by explicitly using a different string type for
  the attribute that does not allocate.

* The attribute for `_rpt_np_(p)` in all its forms, including `operator*`,
  `operator+`, and `operator%`, is `std::vector<_ATTR_np_(p)>`, the use of
  which implies allocation.  You can avoid this allocation by explicitly using
  a different sequence container for the attribute that does not allocate.
  `boost::container::static_vector` or C++26's `std::inplace_vector` may be
  useful for such replacements.

With the exception of allocating the name of the parser that was expected in a
failed expectation situation, _Parser_ does not allocate unless you
tell it to, by using _symbols_, using a particular error_handler, turning on
trace, or parsing into attributes that allocate.

[endsect]

[section Best Practices]

[heading Parse Unicode from the start]

If you want to parse ASCII, using the Unicode parsing API will not actually
cost you anything.  Your input will be parsed, `char` by `char`, and compared
to values that are Unicode code points (which are `char32_t`s).  One caveat is
that there may be an extra branch on each char, if the input is UTF-8.  If
your performance requirements can tolerate this, your life will be much easier
if you just start with Unicode and stick with it.

Starting with Unicode support and UTF-8 input will allow you to properly
handle unexpected input, like non-ASCII languages (that's most of them), with
no additional effort on your part.

[heading Write rules, and test them in isolation]

Treat rules as the unit of work in your parser.  Write a rule, test its
corners, and then use it to build larger rules or parsers.  This allows you to
get better coverage with less work, since exercising all the code paths of
your rules, one by one, keeps the combinatorial number of paths through your
code manageable.

[heading Prefer auto-generated attributes to semantic actions]

There are multiple ways to get attributes out of a parser.  You can:

* use whatever attribute the parser generates;
* provide an attribute out-argument to _p_ for the parser to fill in;
* use one or more semantic actions to assign attributes from the parser to
  variables outside the parser;
* use callback parsing to provide attributes via callback calls.

All of these are fairly similar in how much effort they require, except for
the semantic action method.  For the semantic action approach, you need to
have values to fill in from your parser, and keep them in scope for the
duration of the parse.

It is much more straight forward, and leads to more reusable parsers, to have
the parsers produce the attributes of the parse directly as a result of the
parse.

This does not mean that you should never use semantic actions.  They are
sometimes necessary.  However, you should default to using the other
non-semantic action methods, and only use semantic actions with a good reason.

[heading If your parser takes end-user input, give rules names that you would want an end-user to see]

A typical error message produced by _Parser_ will say something like,
"Expected FOO here", where FOO is some rule or parser.  Give your rules names
that will read well in error messages like this.  For instance, the JSON
examples have these rules:

    bp::rule<class escape_seq, uint32_t> const escape_seq =
        "\\uXXXX hexadecimal escape sequence";
    bp::rule<class escape_double_seq, uint32_t, double_escape_locals> const
        escape_double_seq = "\\uXXXX hexadecimal escape sequence";
    bp::rule<class single_escaped_char, uint32_t> const single_escaped_char =
        "'\"', '\\', '/', 'b', 'f', 'n', 'r', or 't'";

Some things to note:

- `escape_seq` and `escape_double_seq` have the same name-string.  To an
  end-user who is trying to figure out why their input failed to parse, it
  doesn't matter which kind of result a parser rule generates.  They just
  want to know how to fix their input.  For either rule, the fix is the same:
  put a hexadecimal escape sequence there.

- `single_escaped_char` has a terrible-looking name.  However, it's not
  actually used as a name.  In error messages, it works nicely, though.  The
  error will be "Expected '"', '\', '/', 'b', 'f', 'n', 'r', or 't' here",
  which is pretty helpful.

[heading Have a simple test that you can run to find ill-formed-code-as-asserts]

Most of these errors are found at parser construction time, so no actual
parsing is even necessary.  For instance, a test case might look like this:

    TEST(my_parser_tests, my_rule_test) {
        my_rule r;
    }

[endsect]

[section Writing Your Own Parsers]

You should probably never need to write your own low-level parser.  You have
primitives like _ch_ from which to build up the parsers that you need.  It is
unlikely that you're going to need to do things on a lower level than a single
character.

However.  Some people are obsessed with writing everything for themselves.  We
call them C++ programmers.  This section is for them.  However, this section
is not an in-depth tutorial.  It is a basic orientation to get you familiar
enough with all the moving parts of writing a parser that you can then learn
by reading the _Parser_ code.

Each parser must provide two overloads of a function `call()`.  One overload
parses, producing an attribute (which may be the special no-attribute type
`detail::nope`).  The other one parses, filling in a given attribute.  The
type of the given attribute is a template parameter, so it can take any type
that you can form a reference to.

Let's take a look at a _Parser_ parser, `opt_parser`.  This is the parser
produced by use of `operator-`.  First, here is the beginning of its
definition.

[opt_parser_beginning]

The end of its definition is:

[opt_parser_end]

As you can see, `opt_parser`'s only data member is the parser it adapts,
`parser_`.  Here is its attribute-generating overload to `call()`.

[opt_parser_attr_call]

First, let's look at the template and function parameters.

* `Iter & first` is the iterator.  It is taken as an out-param.  It is the
  responsibility of `call()` to advance `first` if and only if the parse
  succeeds.

* `Sentinel last` is the sentinel.  If the parse has not yet succeeded within
  `call()`, and `first == last` is `true`, `call()` must fail (by setting
  `bool & success` to `false`).

* `Context const & context` is the parse context.  It will be some
  specialization of `detail::parse_context`.  The context is used in any call
  to a subparser's `call()`, and in some cases a new context should be
  created, and the new context passed to a subparser instead; more on that
  below.

* `SkipParser const & skip` is the current skip parser.  `skip` should be used
  at the beginning of the parse, and in between any two uses of any
  subparser(s).

* `detail::flags flags` are a collection of flags indicating various things
  about the current state of the parse.  `flags` is concerned with whether to
  produce attributes at all; whether to apply the skip parser `skip`; whether
  to produce a verbose trace (as when `_trace_::on` is passed at the top
  level); and whether we are currently inside the utility function
  `detail::apply_parser`.

* `bool & success` is the final function parameter.  It should be set to
  `true` if the parse succeeds, and `false` otherwise.

Now the body of the function. Notice that it just dispatches to the other
`call()` overload.  This is really common, since both overloads need to do the
same parsing; only the attribute may differ.  The first line of the body
defines `attr_t`, the default attribute type of our wrapped parser `parser_`.
It does this by getting the `decltype()` of a use of `parser_.call()`.  (This
is the logic represented by _ATTR_ in the rest of the documentation.)  Since
`opt_parser` represents an optional value, the natural type for its attribute
is `std::optional<_ATTR_np_(parser)>`.  However, this does not work for all
cases.  In particular, it does not work for the "no-attribute" type
`detail::nope`, nor for `std::optional<T>` _emdash_ `_ATTR_np_(--p)` is just
`_ATTR_np_(-p)`.  So, the second line uses an alias that takes care of those
details, `detail::optional_of<>`.  The third line just calls the other
overload of `call()`, passing `retval` as the out-param.  Finally, `retval` is
returned on the last line.

Now, on to the other overload.

[opt_parser_out_param_call]

The template and function parameters here are identical to the ones from the
other overload, except that we have `Attribute & retval`, our out-param.

Let's look at the implementation a bit at a time.

[opt_parser_trace]

This defines a RAII trace object that will produce the verbose trace requested
by the user if they passed `_trace_::on` to the top-level parse.  It only has
effect if `detail::enable_trace(flags)` is `true`.  If trace is enabled, it
will show the state of the parse at the point at which it is defined, and then
again when it goes out of scope.

[important For the tracing code to work, you must define an overload of
`detail::print_parser` for your new parser type/template.  See
`<boost/parser/detail/printing.hpp>` for examples.]

[opt_parser_skip]

This one is pretty simple; it just applies the skip parser.  `opt_parser` only
has one subparser, but if it had more than one, or if it had one that it
applied more than once, it would need to repeat this line using `skip` between
every pair of uses of any subparser.

[opt_parser_no_gen_attr_path]

This path accounts for the case where we don't want to generate attributes at
all, perhaps because this parser sits inside an _omit_ directive.

[opt_parser_gen_attr_path]

This is the other, typical, path.  Here, we do want to generate attributes,
and so we do the same call to `parser_.call()`, except that we also pass
`retval`.

Note that we set `success` to `true` after the call to `parser_.call()` in
both code paths.  Since `opt_parser` is zero-or-one, if the subparser fails,
`opt_parse` still succeeds.

[heading When to make a new parse context]

Sometimes, you need to change something about the parse context before calling
a subparser.  For instance, `rule_parser` sets up the value, locals, etc.,
that are available for that rule.  `action_parser` adds the generated
attribute to the context (available as `_attr(ctx)`).  Contexts are immutable
in _Parser_.  To "modify" one for a subparser, you create a new one with the
appropriate call to `detail::make_context()`.

[heading `detail::apply_parser()`]

Sometimes a parser needs to operate on an out-param that is not exactly the
same as its default attribute, but that is compatible in some way.  To do
this, it's often useful for the parser to call itself, but with slightly
different parameters.  `detail::apply_parser()` helps with this.  See the
out-param overload of `repeat_parser::call()` for an example.  Note that since
this creates a new scope for the ersatz parser, the `scoped_trace` object
needs to know whether we're inside `detail::apply_parser` or not.

That's a lot, I know.  Again, this section is not meant to be an in-depth
tutorial.  You know enough now that the parsers in `parser.hpp` are at least
readable.

[endsect]

[endsect]