1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
364
365
366
367
368
369
370
371
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
390
391
392
393
394
395
396
397
398
399
400
401
402
403
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
413
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
430
431
432
433
434
435
436
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
451
452
453
454
455
456
457
458
459
460
461
462
463
464
465
466
467
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
477
478
479
480
481
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
496
497
498
499
500
501
502
503
504
505
506
507
508
509
510
511
512
513
514
515
516
517
518
519
520
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
531
532
533
534
535
536
537
538
539
540
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
552
553
554
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570
571
572
573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
598
599
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
641
642
643
644
645
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
715
716
717
718
719
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
730
731
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
740
741
742
743
744
745
746
747
748
749
750
751
752
753
754
755
756
757
758
759
760
761
762
763
764
765
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
775
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
795
796
797
798
799
800
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
813
814
815
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
831
832
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
856
857
858
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
920
921
922
923
924
925
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
937
938
939
940
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
950
951
952
953
954
955
|
<html>
<body BGCOLOR=FFFFE4>
<!-- JS Window Closer -----
<form>
<center>
<input type="button" onclick="window.close();" value="Close this window">
</center>
</form>
----- JS Window Closer -->
<!-- Creative Commons License -->
<a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/"><img alt="Creative Commons License" border="0" src="http://creativecommons.org/images/public/somerights20.gif" /></a>
This work is licensed under a <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/">Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 License</a>.
<!-- /Creative Commons License -->
<!--
<rdf:RDF xmlns="http://web.resource.org/cc/"
xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/"
xmlns:rdf="http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#">
<Work rdf:about="">
<dc:title>leptonica</dc:title>
<dc:date>2001</dc:date>
<dc:description>An open source C library for efficient image processing and image analysis operations</dc:description>
<dc:creator><Agent>
<dc:title>Dan S. Bloomberg</dc:title>
</Agent></dc:creator>
<dc:rights><Agent>
<dc:title>Dan S. Bloomberg</dc:title>
</Agent></dc:rights>
<dc:type rdf:resource="http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text" />
<dc:source rdf:resource="www.leptonica.com"/>
<license rdf:resource="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/" />
</Work>
<License rdf:about="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/">
<permits rdf:resource="http://web.resource.org/cc/Reproduction" />
<permits rdf:resource="http://web.resource.org/cc/Distribution" />
<requires rdf:resource="http://web.resource.org/cc/Notice" />
<requires rdf:resource="http://web.resource.org/cc/Attribution" />
<permits rdf:resource="http://web.resource.org/cc/DerivativeWorks" />
</License>
</rdf:RDF>
-->
<pre>
/*====================================================================*
- Copyright (C) 2001 Leptonica. All rights reserved.
- This software is distributed in the hope that it will be
- useful, but with NO WARRANTY OF ANY KIND.
- No author or distributor accepts responsibility to anyone for the
- consequences of using this software, or for whether it serves any
- particular purpose or works at all, unless he or she says so in
- writing. Everyone is granted permission to copy, modify and
- redistribute this source code, for commercial or non-commercial
- purposes, with the following restrictions: (1) the origin of this
- source code must not be misrepresented; (2) modified versions must
- be plainly marked as such; and (3) this notice may not be removed
- or altered from any source or modified source distribution.
*====================================================================*/
README (12 Jan 2012)
--------------------
gunzip leptonica-1.69.tar.gz
tar -xvf leptonica-1.69.tar
</pre>
<!--Navigation Panel-->
<hr>
<P>
<A HREF="#BUILDING">Building leptonica</A><br>
<A HREF="#DEPENDENCIES">I/O libraries leptonica is dependent on</A><br>
<A HREF="#DEVELOP">Developing with leptonica</A><br>
<A HREF="#CONTENTS">What's in leptonica?</A><br>
<P>
<hr>
<!--End of Navigation Panel-->
<h2> <A NAME="BUILDING">
Building leptonica
</h2>
<pre>
1. Top view
This tar includes:
(1) src: library source and function prototypes for building liblept
(2) prog: source for regression test, usage example programs, and
sample images
for building on these platforms:
- Linux on x86 (i386) and AMD 64 (x64)
- OSX (both powerPC and x86).
- Cygwin and mingw on x86
It should compile properly with any version of gcc from 2.95.3 onward.
There is an additional zip file for building with MS Visual Studio.
Libraries, executables and prototypes are easily made, as described below.
When you extract from the archive, all files are put in a
subdirectory 'leptonica-1.69'. In that directory you will
find a src directory containing the source files for the library,
and a prog directory containing source files for various
testing and example programs.
2. Building on Linux/Unix/MacOS
There are two ways to build the library:
(1) By customization: Use the existing static makefile,
src/makefile.static and customize the build by setting flags
in src/environ.h. See src/environ.h and src/makefile for details.
Note: if you are going to develop with leptonica, I encourage
you to use the static makefiles.
(2) Using autoconf. Run ./configure in this directory to
build Makefiles here and in src. Autoconf handles the
following automatically:
* architecture endianness
* enabling Leptonica I/O image read/write functions that
depend on external libraries (if the libraries exist)
* enabling functions for redirecting formatted image stream
I/O to memory (on linux only)
After running ./configure: make; make install.
In more detail:
(1) Customization using the static makefiles:
* FIRST THING: Run make-for-local. This simply renames
src/makefile.static --> src/makefile
prog/makefile.static --> prog/makefile
[Note: the autoconf build will not work if you have any files
named "makefile" in src or prog. If you've already run
make-for-local and renamed the static makefiles, and you then
want to build with autoconf, run make-for-auto to rename them
back to makefile.static.]
* You can customize for:
(a) Including Leptonica I/O functions that depend on external
libraries [use flags in src/environ.h]
(b) Adding functions for redirecting formatted image stream
I/O to memory [use flag in src/environ.h]
(c) Specifying the location of the object code. By default it
goes into a tree whose root is also the parent of the src
and prog directories. This can be changed using the
ROOT_DIR variable in makefile.
* Build the library:
- To make an optimized version of the library (in src):
make
- To make a debug version of the library (in src):
make DEBUG=yes debug
- To make a shared library version (in src):
make SHARED=yes shared
- To make the prototype extraction program (in src):
make (to make the library first)
make xtractprotos
* To use shared libraries, you need to include the location of
the shared libraries in your LD_LIBRARY_PATH.
* To make the programs in the prog directory, first make liblept
in src, and then do 'make' in the prog directory.
VERY IMPORTANT: the 190+ programs in the prog directory are
an integral part of this package. These can be divided into
three types:
(1) Programs that are complete regression tests. The most
important of these are named *_reg. We are in the process
of standardizing the regression tests, and making it easy
to write them. See regutils.h for details.
(2) Programs that were used to test library functions or
auto-gen library code. These are useful for testing
the behavior of small sets of functions, and for
providing example code.
(3) Programs that are useful applications in their own right.
Examples of these are the PostScript and pdf conversion
programs converttops, convertfilestops, convertsegfilestops,
printimage, printsplitimage, convertfilestopdf and
convertsegfilestopdf.
(2) Building using autoconf (Thanks to James Le Cuirot)
Use the standard incantation, in the root directory (the
directory with configure):
./configure [build the Makefile]
make [builds the library and shared library versions of
all the progs]
make install [as root; this puts liblept.a into /usr/local/lib/
and all the progs into /usr/local/bin/ ]
Configure also supports building in a separate directory from the
source. Run "/(path-to)/leptonica-1.69/configure" and then "make"
from the desired build directory.
Configure has a number of useful options; run "configure --help" for
details. If you're not planning to modify the library, adding the
"--disable-dependency-tracking" option will speed up the build. By
default, both static and shared versions of the library are built. Add
the "--disable-shared" or "--disable-static" option if one or the other
isn't needed.
By default, the library is built with debugging symbols. If you do not
want these, use "CFLAGS=-O2 ./configure" to eliminate symbols for
subsequent compilations, or "make CFLAGS=-O2" to override for this
compilation only.
For the debian distribution, we only build a small subset of
the programs in the prog directory..
(3) Cross-compiling for windows
You can use src/makefile.mingw for cross-compiling in linux.
3. Building on Windows
(a) Building with Visual Studio
Tom Powers has provided a set of developer notes and project files
for building the library and applications under windows with VC++ 2008:
</pre>
<p style='margin-left:5em;'>
<A href="http://www.leptonica.org/vs2008doc/index.html">
http:///www.leptonica.org/vs2008doc/index.html</A><br>
<A href="http://www.leptonica.org/download.html#VS2008">
http:///www.leptonica.org/download.html#VS2008</A>
<pre>
He has also supplied a zip file that contains the entire 'lib'
and 'include' directories needed to build Windows-based programs
using static or dynamic versions of the leptonica library
(including static library versions of zlib, libpng, libjpeg,
libtiff, and giflib).
</pre>
<p style='margin-left:5em;'>
<A href="http://www.leptonica.org/source/leptonica-1.66-win32-lib-include-dirs.zip">
leptonica-1.66-win32-lib-include-dirs.zip</A>
<pre>
You can download Tom's vs2008 package either from the download
page or from code.google.com/p/leptonica.
(b) Building for mingw with <a href="http://www.mingw.org/">MSYS</a>
(Thanks to David Bryan)
MSYS is a Unix-compatible build environment for the mingw compiler.
Installing the "MinGW Compiler Suite C Compiler" and the "MSYS Basic
System" will allow building the library with autoconf as in (2) above.
It will also allow building with the static makefile as in (1) above if
this option is added to the make command:
CC="gcc -D_BSD_SOURCE -DANSI"
Only the static library may be built this way; the autoconf method must
be used if a shared (DLL) library is desired.
External image libraries (see below) must be downloaded separately,
built, and installed before building the library. Pre-built libraries
are available from the <a href="http://gnuwin32.sourceforge.net/packages.html">GnuWin project</a>.
(c) Building for <a href="http://www.cygwin.com/">Cygwin</a>
(Thanks to David Bryan)
Cygwin is a Unix-compatible build and runtime environment. Installing
the "Base", "Devel", and "Graphics" packages will allow building the
library with autoconf as in (2) above. If the graphics libraries are
not present in the /lib, /usr/lib, or /usr/local/lib directories, you
must run make with the "LDFLAGS=-L/(path-to-image)/lib" option. It
will also allow building with the static makefile as in (1) above if
this option is added to the make command:
CC="gcc -ansi -D_BSD_SOURCE -DANSI"
Only the static library may be built this way; the autoconf method must
be used if a shared (DLL) library is desired.
</pre>
<h2> <A NAME="DEPENDENCIES">
I/O libraries leptonica is dependent on
</h2>
<pre>
Leptonica is configured to handle image I/O using these external
libraries: libjpeg, libtiff, libpng, libz, libgif, libwebp
These libraries are easy to obtain. For example, using the
debian package manager:
sudo apt-get install <package>
where <package> = {libpng12-dev, libjpeg62-dev, libtiff4-dev}.
Leptonica also allows image I/O with bmp and pnm formats, for which
we provide the serializers (encoders and decoders). It also
gives output drivers for wrapping images in PostScript, which
in turn use tiffg4, jpeg and png encoding.
There is also a programmatic interface to gnuplot. To use it, you
need only the gnuplot executable (suggest version 3.7.2 or later);
the gnuplot library is not required.
If you build with automake, libraries on your system will be
automatically found and used.
The rest of this section is for building with the static makefiles.
The entries in environ.h specify which of these libraries to use.
The default is to link to these four libraries:
libjpeg.a (standard jfif jpeg library, version 6b or 7 or 8))
libtiff.a (standard Leffler tiff library, version 3.7.4 or later;
libpng.a (standard png library, suggest version 1.4.0 or later)
libz.a (standard gzip library, suggest version 1.2.3)
current non-beta version is 3.8.2)
These libraries (and their shared versions) should be in /usr/lib.
(If they're not, you can change the LDFLAGS variable in the makefile.)
Additionally, for compilation, the following header files are
assumed to be in /usr/include:
jpeg: jconfig.h
png: png.h, pngconf.h
tiff: tiff.h, tiffio.h
If for some reason you do not want to link to specific libraries,
even if you have them, stub files are included for the eight
different output formats (bmp, jpeg, png, pnm, ps, tiff, gif and webp).
For example, if you don't want to include the tiff library,
in environ.h set:
#define HAVE_LIBTIFF 0
and the stubs will be linked in.
If additionally, you wish to read and write gif files:
(1) Download version giflib-4.1.6 from souceforge
(2) #define HAVE_LIBGIF 1 (in environ.h)
(3) If the library is installed into /usr/local/lib, you may need
to add that directory to LDFLAGS; or, equivalently, add
that path to the LD_LIBRARY_PATH environment variable.
(4) Note: do not use giflib-4.1.4: binary comp and decomp
don't pack the pixel data and are ridiculously slow.
To link these libraries, see prog/makefile for instructions on selecting
or altering the ALL_LIBS variable. It would be nice to have this
done automatically.
</pre>
<h2> <A NAME="DEVELOP">
Developing with leptonica
</h2>
<pre>
You are encouraged to use the static makefiles if you are developing
applications using leptonica. The following instructions assume
that you are using the static makefiles and customizing environ.h.
1. Automatic generation of prototypes
The prototypes are automatically generated by the program xtractprotos.
They can either be put in-line into allheaders.h, or they can be
written to a file leptprotos.h, which is #included in allheaders.h.
Note: (1) We supply the former version of allheaders.h.
(2) all .c files simply include allheaders.h.
First, make xtractprotos:
make xtractprotos
Then to generate the prototypes and make allheaders.h, do one of
these two things:
make allheaders [puts everything into allheaders.h]
make allprotos [generates a file leptprotos.h and includes it
in allheaders.h]
Things to note about xtractprotos, assuming that you are developing
in Leptonica and need to regenerate the prototypes in allheaders.h:
(1) xtractprotos is part of Leptonica. You can 'make' it in either
src or prog (see the makefile).
(2) You can output the prototypes for any C file to stdout by running:
xtractprotos <cfile> or
xtractprotos -prestring=[string] <cfile>
(3) The source for xtractprotos has been packaged up into a tar
containing just the Leptonica files necessary for building it
in linux. The tar file is available at:
www.leptonica.com/source/xtractlib-1.5.tar.gz
2. GNU runtime functions for stream redirection to memory
There are two non-standard gnu functions, fmemopen() and open_memstream(),
that only work on linux and conveniently allow memory I/O with a file
stream interface. This is convenient for compressing and decompressing
image data to memory rather than to file. Stubs are provided
for all these I/O functions. Default is not to enable them, in
deference to the OSX developers, who don't have these functions
available. To enable, #define HAVE_FMEMOPEN 1 (in environ.h).
See 19 for more details on image I/O formats.
If you're building with the autoconf programs, these two functions are
automatically enabled if available.
3. Typedefs
A deficiency of C is that no standard has been universally
adopted for typedefs of the built-in types. As a result,
typedef conflicts are common, and cause no end of havoc when
you try to link different libraries. If you're lucky, you
can find an order in which the libraries can be linked
to avoid these conflicts, but the state of affairs is aggravating.
The most common typedefs use lower case variables: uint8, int8, ...
The png library avoids typedef conflicts by altruistically
appending "png_" to the type names. Following that approach,
Leptonica appends "l_" to the type name. This should avoid
just about all conflicts. In the highly unlikely event that it doesn't,
here's a simple way to change the type declarations throughout
the Leptonica code:
(1) customize a file "converttypes.sed" with the following lines:
/l_uint8/s//YOUR_UINT8_NAME/g
/l_int8/s//YOUR_INT8_NAME/g
/l_uint16/s//YOUR_UINT16_NAME/g
/l_int16/s//YOUR_INT16_NAME/g
/l_uint32/s//YOUR_UINT32_NAME/g
/l_int32/s//YOUR_INT32_NAME/g
/l_float32/s//YOUR_FLOAT32_NAME/g
/l_float64/s//YOUR_FLOAT64_NAME/g
(2) in the src and prog directories:
- if you have a version of sed that does in-place conversion:
sed -i -f converttypes.sed *
- else, do something like (in csh)
foreach file (*)
sed -f converttypes.sed $file > tempdir/$file
end
If you are using Leptonica with a large code base that typedefs the
built-in types differently from Leptonica, just edit the typedefs
in environ.h. This should have no side-effects with other libraries,
and no issues should arise with the location in which liblept is
included.
For compatibility with 64 bit hardware and compilers, where
necessary we use the typedefs in stdint.h to specify the pointer
size (either 4 or 8 byte). This may not work properly if you use
an ancient gcc compilers before 2.95.3.
4. Compile-time control over stderr output
Leptonica provides some compile-time control over messages
and debug output. Messages are of three types: error,
warning and informational. They are all macros, and
are suppressed when NO_CONSOLE_IO is defined on the compile line.
Likewise, all debug output is conditionally compiled, within
a #ifndef NO_CONSOLE_IO clause, so these sections are
omitted when NO_CONSOLE_IO is defined. For production code
where no output is to go to stderr, compile with -DNO_CONSOLE_IO.
5. In-memory raster format (Pix)
Unlike many other open source packages, Leptonica uses packed
data for images with all bit/pixel (bpp) depths, allowing us
to process pixels in parallel. For example, rasterops works
on all depths with 32-bit parallel operations throughout.
Leptonica is also explicitly configured to work on both little-endian
and big-endian hardware. RGB image pixels are always stored
in 32-bit words, and a few special functions are provided for
scaling and rotation of RGB images that have been optimized by
making explicit assumptions about the location of the R, G and B
components in the 32-bit pixel. In such cases, the restriction
is documented in the function header. The in-memory data structure
used throughout Leptonica to hold the packed data is a Pix,
which is defined and documented in pix.h.
6. Conversion between Pix and other in-memory raster formats
. If you use Leptonica with other imaging libraries, you will need
functions to convert between the Pix and other image data
structures. To make a Pix from other image data structures, you
will need to understand pixel packing, pixel padding, component
ordering and byte ordering on raster lines. See the file pix.h
for the specification of image data in the pix.
7. Custom memory management
Leptonica allows you to use custom memory management (allocator,
deallocator). For Pix, which tend to be large, the alloc/dealloc
functions can be set programmatically. For all other structs and arrays,
the allocators are specified in environ.h. Default functions
are malloc and free. We have also provided a sample custom
allocator/deallocator for Pix, in pixalloc.c.
</pre>
<h2> <A NAME="CONTENTS">
What's in leptonica?
</h2>
<pre>
1. Rasterops
This is a source for a clean, fast implementation of rasterops.
You can find details starting at the Leptonica home page,
and also by looking directly at the source code.
The low-level code is in roplow.c and ropiplow.c, and an
interface is given in rop.c to the simple Pix image data structure.
2. Binary morphology
This is a source for efficient implementations of binary morphology
Details are found starting at the Leptonica home page, and by reading
the source code.
Binary morphology is implemented two ways:
(a) Successive full image rasterops for arbitrary
structuring elements (Sels)
(b) Destination word accumulation (dwa) for specific Sels.
This code is automatically generated. See, for example,
the code in fmorphgen.1.c and fmorphgenlow.1.c.
These files were generated by running the program
prog/fmorphautogen.c. Results can be checked by comparing dwa
and full image rasterops; e.g., prog/fmorphauto_reg.c.
Method (b) is considerably faster than (a), which is the
reason we've gone to the effort of supporting the use
of this method for all Sels. We also support two different
boundary conditions for erosion.
Similarly, dwa code for the general hit-miss transform can
be auto-generated from an array of hit-miss Sels.
When prog/fhmtautogen.c is compiled and run, it generates
the dwa C code in fhmtgen.1.c and fhmtgenlow.1.c. These
files can then be compiled into the libraries or into other programs.
Results can be checked by comparing dwa and rasterop results;
e.g., prog/fhmtauto_reg.c
Several functions with simple parsers are provided to execute a
sequence of morphological operations (plus binary rank reduction
and replicative expansion). See morphseq.c.
The structuring element is represented by a simple Sel data structure
defined in morph.h. We provide (at least) seven ways to generate
Sels in sel1.c, and several simple methods to generate hit-miss
Sels for pattern finding in selgen.c.
In use, the most common morphological Sels are separable bricks,
of dimension n x m (where either n or m, but not both, is commonly 1).
Accordingly, we provide separable morphological operations on brick
Sels, using for binary both rasterops and dwa. Parsers are provided
for a sequence of separable binary (rasterop and dwa) and grayscale
brick morphological operations, in morphseq.c. The main
advantage in using the parsers is that you don't have to create
and destroy Sels, or do any of the intermediate image bookkeeping.
We also give composable separable brick functions for binary images,
for both rasterop and dwa. These decompose each of the linear
operations into a sequence of two operations at different scales,
reducing the operation count to a sum of decomposition factors,
rather than the (un-decomposed) product of factors.
As always, parsers are provided for a sequence of such operations.
3. Grayscale morphology and rank order filters
We give an efficient implementation of grayscale morphology for brick
Sels. See the Leptonica home page and the source code.
Brick Sels are separable into linear horizontal and vertical elements.
We use the van Herk/Gil-Werman algorithm, that performs the calculations
in a time that is independent of the size of the Sels. Implementations
of tophat and hdome are also given. The low-level code is in graymorphlow.c.
We also provide grayscale rank order filters for brick filters.
The rank order filter is a generalization of grayscale morphology,
that selects the rank-valued pixel (rather than the min or max).
A color rank order filter applies the grayscale rank operation
independently to each of the (r,g,b) components.
4. Image scaling
Leptonica provides many simple and relatively efficient
implementations of image scaling. Some of them are listed here;
for the full set see the web page and the source code.
Grayscale and color images are scaled using:
- sampling
- lowpass filtering followed by sampling,
- area mapping
- linear interpolation
Scaling operations with antialiased sampling, area mapping,
and linear interpolation are limited to 2, 4 and 8 bpp gray,
24 bpp full RGB color, and 2, 4 and 8 bpp colormapped
(bpp == bits/pixel). Scaling operations with simple sampling
can be done at 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 bpp. Linear interpolation
is slower but gives better results, especially for upsampling.
For moderate downsampling, best results are obtained with area
mapping scaling. With very high downsampling, either area mapping
or antialias sampling (lowpass filter followed by sampling) give
good results. Fast area map with power-of-2 reduction are also
provided. Optional sharpening after resampling is provided to
improve appearance by reducing the visual effect of averaging
across sharp boundaries.
For fast analysis of grayscale and color images, it is useful to
have integer subsampling combined with pixel depth reduction.
RGB color images can thus be converted to low-resolution
grayscale and binary images.
For binary scaling, the dest pixel can be selected from the
closest corresponding source pixel. For the special case of
power-of-2 binary reduction, low-pass rank-order filtering can be
done in advance. Isotropic integer expansion is done by pixel replication.
We also provide 2x, 3x, 4x, 6x, 8x, and 16x scale-to-gray reduction
on binary images, to produce high quality reduced grayscale images.
These are integrated into a scale-to-gray function with arbitrary
reduction.
Conversely, we have special 2x and 4x scale-to-binary expansion
on grayscale images, using linear interpolation on grayscale
raster line buffers followed by either thresholding or dithering.
There are also image depth converters that don't have scaling,
such as unpacking operations from 1 bpp to grayscale, and
thresholding and dithering operations from grayscale to 1, 2 and 4 bpp.
5. Image shear and rotation (and affine, projective, ...)
Image shear is implemented with both rasterops and linear interpolation.
The rasterop implementation is faster and has no constraints on image
depth. We provide horizontal and vertical shearing about an
arbitrary point (really, a line), both in-place and from source to dest.
The interpolated shear is used on 8 bpp and 32 bpp images, and
gives a smoother result. Shear is used for the fastest implementations
of rotation.
There are three different types of general image rotators:
a. Grayscale rotation using area mapping
- pixRotateAM() for 8 bit gray and 24 bit color, about center
- pixRotateAMCorner() for 8 bit gray, about image UL corner
- pixRotateAMColorFast() for faster 24 bit color, about center
b. Rotation of an image of arbitrary bit depth, using
either 2 or 3 shears. These rotations can be done
about an arbitrary point, and they can be either
from source to dest or in-place; e.g.
- pixRotateShear()
- pixRotateShearIP()
c. Rotation by sampling. This can be used on images of arbitrary
depth, and done about an arbitrary point. Colormaps are retained.
The area mapping rotations are slower and more accurate,
because each new pixel is composed using an average of four
neighboring pixels in the original image; this is sometimes
also called "antialiasing". Very fast color area mapping
rotation is provided. The low-level code is in rotateamlow.c.
The shear rotations are much faster, and work on images
of arbitrary pixel depth, but they just move pixels
around without doing any averaging. The pixRotateShearIP()
operates on the image in-place.
We also provide orthogonal rotators (90, 180, 270 degree; left-right
flip and top-bottom flip) for arbitrary image depth.
And we provide implementations of affine, projective and bilinear
transforms, with both sampling (for speed) and interpolation
(for antialiasing).
6. Sequential algorithms
We provide a number of fast sequential algorithms, including
binary and grayscale seedfill, and the distance function for
a binary image. The most efficient binary seedfill is
pixSeedfill(), which uses Luc Vincent's algorithm to iterate
raster- and antiraster-ordered propagation, and can be used
for either 4- or 8-connected fills. Similar raster/antiraster
sequential algorithms are used to generate a distance map from
a binary image, and for grayscale seedfill. We also use Heckbert's
stack-based filling algorithm for identifying 4- and 8-connected
components in a binary image. A fast implementation of the
watershed transform, using a priority queue, is included.
7. Image enhancement
A few simple image enhancement routines for grayscale and
color images have been provided. These include intensity mapping
with gamma correction and contrast enhancement, as well as edge
sharpening, smoothing, and hue and saturation modification.
8. Convolution and cousins
A number of standard image processing operations are also
included, such as block convolution, binary block rank filtering,
grayscale and rgb rank order filtering, and edge and local
minimum/maximum extraction. Generic convolution is included,
for both separable and non-separable kernels, using float arrays
in the Pix.
9. Image I/O
Some facilities have been provided for image input and output.
This is of course required to build executables that handle images,
and many examples of such programs, most of which are for
testing, can be built in the prog directory. Functions have been
provided to allow reading and writing of files in JPEG, PNG,
TIFF, BMP, PNM ,GIF and WEBPformats. These formats were chosen
for the following reasons:
- JFIF JPEG is the standard method for lossy compression
of grayscale and color images. It is supported natively
in all browsers, and uses a good open source compression
library. Decompression is supported by the rasterizers
in PS and PDF, for level 2 and above. It has a progressive
mode that compresses about 10% better than standard, but
is considerably slower to decompress. See jpegio.c.
- PNG is the standard method for lossless compression
of binary, grayscale and color images. It is supported
natively in all browsers, and uses a good open source
compression library (zlib). It is superior in almost every
respect to GIF (which, until recently, contained proprietary
LZW compression). See pngio.c.
- TIFF is a common interchange format, which supports different
depths, colormaps, etc., and also has a relatively good and
widely used binary compression format (CCITT Group 4).
Decompression of G4 is supported by rasterizers in PS and PDF,
level 2 and above. G4 compresses better than PNG for most
text and line art images, but it does quite poorly for halftones.
It has good and stable support by Leffler's open source library,
which is clean and small. Tiff also supports multipage
images through a directory structure. See tiffio.c
- BMP has (until recently) had no compression. It is a simple
format with colormaps that requires no external libraries.
It is commonly used because it is a Microsoft standard,
but has little besides simplicity to recommend it. See bmpio.c.
- PNM is a very simple, old format that still has surprisingly
wide use in the image processing community. It does not
support compression or colormaps, but it does support binary,
grayscale and rgb images. Like BMP, the implementation
is simple and requires no external libraries. See pnmio.c.
- GIF is still widely used in the world. With the expiration
of the LZW patent, it is practical to add support for GIF files.
The open source gif library is relatively incomplete and
unsupported (because of the Sperry-Rand-Burroughs-Univac
patent history). See gifio.c.
- WEBP is a new wavelent encoding method derived from libvpx,
a video compression library. Leptonica provides an interface
through webp into the underlying codec. You need to download
libvpx, libwebp and yasm,
Here's a summary of compression support and limitations:
- All formats except JPEG support 1 bpp binary.
- All formats support 8 bpp grayscale (GIF must have a colormap).
- All formats except GIF support 24 bpp rgb color.
- All formats except PNM support 8 bpp colormap.
- PNG and PNM support 2 and 4 bpp images.
- PNG supports 2 and 4 bpp colormap, and 16 bpp without colormap.
- PNG, JPEG, TIFF and GIF support image compression; PNM and BMP do not.
- WEBP supports 24 bpp rgb color.
Use prog/ioformats_reg for a regression test on all but GIF and WEBP.
Use prog/gifio_reg for testing GIF.
We provide wrappers for PS output, from all types of input images.
The output can be either uncompressed or compressed with level 2
(ccittg4 or dct) or level 3 (flate) encoding. You have flexibility
for scaling and placing of images, and for printing at different
resolutions. You can also compose mixed raster (text, image) PS.
See psio1.c for examples of how to output PS for different applications.
As examples of usage, see:
* prog/converttops.c for a general image --> PS conversion
for printing. You can specify compression level (1, 2, or 3).
* prog/convertfilestops.c to generate a multipage level 3 compressed
PS file that can then be converted to pdf with ps2pdf.
* prog/convertsegfilestops.c to generate a multipage, mixed raster,
level 2 compressed PS file.
We provide wrappers for PDF output, again from all types of input images.
You can do the following for PDF:
* Put any number of images onto a page, with specified input
resolution, location and compression.
* Write a mixed raster PDF, given an input image and a segmentation
mask. Non-image regions are written in G4 (fax) encoding.
* Concatenate single-page PDF wrapped images into a single PDF file.
* Build a PDF file of all images in a directory or array of file names.
Note: any or all of these I/O library calls can be stubbed out at
compile time, using the environment variables in environ.h.
For all formatted reads and writes, we support read from memory
and write to memory. (We cheat with gif, using a file intermediary.)
For all formats except for TIFF, these memory I/O functions
are supported through open_memstream() and fmemopen(),
which only is available with the gnu C runtime library (glibc).
Therefore, except for TIFF, you will not be able to do memory
supported read/writes on these platforms:
OSX, Windows, Solaris
By default, these non-POSIX functions are disabled. To enable memory
I/O for image formatted read/writes, see environ.h.
10. Colormap removal and color quantization
Leptonica provides functions that remove colormaps, for conversion
to either 8 bpp gray or 24 bpp RGB. It also provides the inverse
function to colormap removal; namely, color quantization
from 24 bpp full color to 8 bpp colormap with some number
of colormap colors. Several versions are provided, some that
use a fast octree vector quantizer and others that use
a variation of the median cut quantizer. For high-level interfaces,
see for example: pixConvertRGBToColormap(), pixOctreeColorQuant(),
pixOctreeQuantByPopulation(), pixFixedOctcubeQuant256(),
and pixMedianCutQuant().
11. Programmatic image display
For debugging, several pixDisplay* functions in writefile.c are given.
Two (pixDisplay and pixDisplayWithTitle) can be called to display
an image using one of several display programs (xv, xli, xzgv, l_view).
If necessary to fit on the screen, the image is reduced in size,
with 1 bpp images being converted to grayscale for readability.
(This is much better than letting xv do the reduction).
Another function, pixDisplayWrite(), writes images to disk under
control of a reduction/disable flag, which then allows
either viewing with pixDisplayMultiple(), or the generation
of a composite image using, for example, pixaDisplayTiledAndScaled().
These files can also be gathered up into a compressed PostScript file,
using prog/convertfilestops, and viewed with evince, or converted
to pdf. Common image display programs are: xv, xli, xzgv, display,
gthumb, gqview, evince, gv, xpdf and acroread. The Leptonica program
xvdisp generates nice quality images for display with xv.
Finally, a set of images can be saved into a pixa (array of pix),
specifying the eventual layout into a single pix, using pixSaveTiled*().
12. Document image analysis
Some functions have been included specifically to help with
document image analysis. These include skew and text orientation
detection; page segmentation; baseline finding for text;
unsupervised classification of connected components, characters
and words; dewarping camera images, adaptive binarization,
and digit recognition.
13. Data structures
Simple data structures are provided for safe and efficient handling
of arrays of numbers, strings, pointers, and bytes. The generic
pointer array is implemented in four ways: as a stack, a queue,
a heap (used to implement a priority queue), and an array with
insertion and deletion, from which the stack operations form a subset.
Byte arrays are implemented both as a wrapper around the actual
array and as a queue. The string arrays are particularly useful
for both parsing and composing text. Generic lists with
doubly-linked cons cells are also provided.
14. Examples of programs that are easily built using the library:
- for plotting x-y data, we give a programmatic interface
to the gnuplot program, with output to X11, png, ps or eps.
We also allow serialization of the plot data, in a form
such that the data can be read, the commands generated,
and (finally) the plot constructed by running gnuplot.
- a simple jbig2-type classifier, using various distance
metrics between image components (correlation, rank
hausdorff); see prog/jbcorrelation.c, prog/jbrankhaus.c.
- a simple color segmenter, giving a smoothed image
with a small number of the most significant colors.
- a program for converting all tiff images in a directory
to a PostScript file, and a program for printing an image
in any (supported) format to a PostScript printer.
- converters between binary images and SVG format.
- a bitmap font facility that allows painting text onto
images. We currently support one font in several sizes.
The font images and postscript programs for generating
them are stored in prog/fonts/.
- a binary maze game lets you generate mazes and find shortest
paths between two arbitrary points, if such a path exists.
You can also compute the "shortest" (i.e., least cost) path
between points on a grayscale image.
- a 1D barcode reader. This is in an early stage of development,
with little testing, and it only decodes 6 formats.
- a utility that will dewarp images of text that were captured
with a camera at close range.
- a sudoku solver, including a pretty good test for uniqueness
- see (13, above) for other document image applications.
15. JBig2 encoder
Leptonica supports an open source jbig2 encoder (yes, there is one!),
which can be downloaded from:
http://www.imperialviolet.org/jbig2.html.
To build the encoder, use the most recent version. This bundles
Leptonica 1.63. Once you've built the encoder, use it to compress
a set of input image files: (e.g.)
./jbig2 -v -s <imagefile1 ...> > <jbig2_file>
You can also generate a pdf wrapping for the output jbig2. To do that,
call jbig2 with the -p arg, which generates a symbol file (output.sym)
plus a set of location files for each input image (output.0000, ...):
./jbig2 -v -s -p <imagefile1 ...>
and then generate the pdf:
python pdf.py output > <pdf_file>
See the usage documentation for the jbig2 compressor at:
http://www.imperialviolet.org/binary/jbig2enc.html
You can uncompress the jbig2 files using jbig2dec, which can be
downloaded and built from:
http://jbig2dec.sourceforge.net/
16. Versions
New versions of the Leptonica library are released approximately
6 times a year, and version numbers are provided for each release in
the makefile and in allheaders.h. All even versions from 1.42 to 1.60
are archived at http://code.google.com/p/leptonica, as well as all
versions after 1.60.
A brief version chronology is maintained in version-notes.html.
Starting with gcc 4.3.3, error warnings (-Werror) are given for
minor infractions like not checking return values of built-in C
functions. I have attempted to eliminate these warnings.
In any event, you can expect some warnings with the -Wall flag.
</pre>
<!-- JS Window Closer -----
<form>
<center>
<input type="button" onclick="window.close();" value="Close this window">
</center>
</form>
----- JS Window Closer -->
</body>
</html>
|
