package DBI::DBD;
# vim:ts=8:sw=4

use vars qw($VERSION);	# set $VERSION early so we don't confuse PAUSE/CPAN etc

$VERSION = sprintf("%d.%02d", q$Revision: 11.22 $ =~ /(\d+)\.(\d+)/o);

# $Id: DBD.pm 5963 2006-04-25 22:55:48Z timbo $
#
# Copyright (c) 1997-2006 Jonathan Leffler, Jochen Wiedmann, Steffen
# Goeldner and Tim Bunce
#
# You may distribute under the terms of either the GNU General Public
# License or the Artistic License, as specified in the Perl README file.

=head1 NAME

DBI::DBD - Perl DBI Database Driver Writer's Guide

=head1 SYNOPSIS

  perldoc DBI::DBD

=head2 Version and volatility

This document is I<still> a minimal draft which is in need of further work.

The changes will occur both because the DBI specification is changing
and hence the requirements on DBD drivers change, and because feedback
from people reading this document will suggest improvements to it.

Please read the DBI documentation first and fully, including the DBI FAQ.
Then reread the DBI specification again as you're reading this. It'll help.

This document is a patchwork of contributions from various authors.
More contributions (preferably as patches) are very welcome.

=head1 DESCRIPTION

This document is primarily intended to help people writing new
database drivers for the Perl Database Interface (Perl DBI).
It may also help others interested in discovering why the internals of
a DBD driver are written the way they are.

This is a guide.  Few (if any) of the statements in it are completely
authoritative under all possible circumstances.  This means you will
need to use judgement in applying the guidelines in this document.
If in I<any> doubt at all, please do contact the dbi-dev mailing list
(details given below) where Tim Bunce and other driver authors can help.

=head1 CREATING A NEW DRIVER

The first rule for creating a new database driver for the Perl DBI is
very simple: "DON'T!"

There is usually a driver already available for the database you want to
use, almost regardless of which database you choose.
And very often, the database will provide an ODBC driver interface, so
you can often use DBD::ODBC to access the database.
This is typically less convenient on a Unix box than on a Microsoft
Windows box, but there are numerous options for ODBC driver managers on
Unix too, and very often the ODBC driver is provided by the database
supplier.
Before deciding that you need to write a driver, do your homework to
ensure that you are not wasting your energies.

[As of December 2002, the consensus is that if you need an ODBC driver
manager on Unix, then the unixODBC driver (available from
L<http://www.unixodbc.org/>) is the way to go.]

The second rule for creating a new database driver for the Perl DBI is
also very simple: "Don't -- get someone else to do it for you!"

Nevertheless, there are occasions when it is necessary to write a new
driver, often to use a proprietary language or API to access the
database more swiftly, or more comprehensively, than an ODBC driver can.
Then you should read this document very carefully, but with a suitably
sceptical eye.
If there is something in here that does not make any sense, question it.
You might be right that the information is bogus.
But don't come to that conclusion too quickly.

=head2 URLs and mailing lists

The primary web-site for locating DBI software and information is

  http://dbi.perl.org/

There are two main and one auxilliary mailing lists for people working
with DBI.  The primary lists are dbi-users@perl.org for general users
of DBI and DBD drivers, and dbi-dev@perl.org mainly for DBD driver
writers (don't join the dbi-dev list unless you have a good reason).
The auxilliary list is dbi-announce@perl.org for announcing new
releases of DBI or DBD drivers.

You can join these lists by accessing the web-site
L<http://dbi.perl.org/>.
The lists are closed so you cannot send email to any of the lists
unless you join the list first.

You should also consider monitoring the comp.lang.perl.* newsgroups,
especially comp.lang.perl.modules.

=head2 The Cheetah book

The definitive book on Perl DBI is the Cheetah book, so called because
of the picture on the cover.
Its proper title is 'Programming the Perl DBI: Database programming with
Perl' by Alligator Descartes and Tim Bunce, published by O'Reilly
Associates, February 2000, ISBN 1-56592-699-4.
Buy it now if you have not already done so, and read it.

=head2 Locating drivers

Before writing a new driver, it is in your interests to find out
whether there already is a driver for your database.  If there is such
a driver, it would be much easier to make use of it than to write your
own!

The primary web-site for locating Perl software is
L<http://search.cpan.org/>.  You should look under the various
modules listings for the software you are after. For example:

  http://search.cpan.org/modlist/Database_Interfaces

Follow the DBD:: and DBIx:: links at the top to see those subsets.

See the DBI docs for information on DBI web sites and mailing lists.

=head2 Registering a new driver

Before going through any official registration process, you will need
to establish that there is no driver already in the works.
You'll do that by asking the DBI mailing lists whether there is such a
driver available, or whether anybody is working on one.

When you get the go ahead, you will need to establish the name of the
driver and a prefix for the driver.
Typically, the name is based on the name of the database software it
uses, and the prefix is a contraction of that.
Hence, DBD::Oracle has the name Oracle and the prefix 'ora_'.
This information will be recorded in the DBI module.
Apart from documentation purposes, registration is a prerequisite for
L<installing private methods|DBI/install_method>.

This document assumes you are writing a driver called DBD::Driver, and
that the prefix 'drv_' is assigned to the driver.

=head2 Two styles of database driver

There are two distinct styles of database driver that can be written to
work with the Perl DBI.

Your driver can be written in pure Perl, requiring no C compiler.
When feasible, this is the best solution, but most databases are not
written in such a way that this can be done.
Some example pure Perl drivers are DBD::File and DBD::CSV.

Alternatively, and most commonly, your driver will need to use some C
code to gain access to the database.
This will be classified as a C/XS driver.

=head2 What code will you write?

There are a number of files that need to be written for either a pure
Perl driver or a C/XS driver.
There are no extra files needed only by a pure Perl driver, but there are
several extra files needed only by a C/XS driver.

=head3 Files common to pure Perl and C/XS drivers

Assuming that your driver is called DBD::Driver, these files are:

=over 4

=item * Makefile.PL

=item * README

=item * MANIFEST

=item * Driver.pm

=item * lib/Bundle/DBD/Driver.pm

=item * lib/DBD/Driver/Summary.pm

=item * t/*.t

=back

The first four files are mandatory.
Makefile.PL is used to control how the driver is built and installed.
The README file tells people who download the file about how to build
the module and any prerequisite software that must be installed.
The MANIFEST file is used by the standard Perl module distribution mechanism.
It lists all the source files that need to be distributed with your module.
Driver.pm is what is loaded by the DBI code; it contains the methods
peculiar to your driver.

The lib/Bundle/DBD/Driver.pm file allows you to specify other Perl
modules on which yours depends in a format that allows someone to type a
simple command and ensure that all the pre-requisites are in place as
well as building your driver.
The lib/DBD/Driver/Summary.pm file contains (an updated version of) the
information that was included - or that would have been included - in
the appendices of the Cheetah book as a summary of the abilities of your
driver and the associated database.

The files in the t subdirectory are unit tests for your driver.
You should write your tests as stringently as possible, while taking
into account the diversity of installations that you can encounter.
Your tests should not casually modify operational databases.
You should never damage existing tables in a database.
You should code your tests to use a constrained name space within the
database.
For example, the tables (and all other named objects) that are created
could all begin with 'dbd_drv_'.
At the end of a test run, there should be no testing objects left behind
in the database.
If you create any databases, you should remove them.
If your database supports temporary tables that are automatically
removed at the end of a session, then exploit them as often as possible.
Try to make your tests independent of each other.
If you have a test t/t11dowhat.t that depends upon the successful
running of t/t10thingamy.t, people cannot run the single test case
t/t11dowhat.t.
Further, running t/t11dowhat.t twice in a row is likely to fail (at
least, if t/t11dowhat.t modifies the database at all) because the
database at the start of the second run is not what you saw at the start
of the first run.
Document in your README file what you do, and what privileges people
need to do it.
You can, and probably should, sequence your tests by including a test
number before an abbreviated version of the test name; the tests are run
in the order in which the names are expanded by shell-style globbing.

Many drivers also install sub-modules DBD::Driver::SubModule for any of
a variety of different reasons, such as to support the metadata methods
(see the discussion of L</METADATA METHODS> below).
Such sub-modules are conventionally stored in the directory lib/DBD/Driver.
The module itself would usually be in a file SubModule.pm.
All such sub-modules should themselves be version stamped (see the
discussions far below).

=head3 Extra files needed by C/XS drivers

The software for a C/XS driver will typically contain at least four
extra files that are not relevant to a pure Perl driver.

=over 4

=item * Driver.xs

=item * Driver.h

=item * dbdimp.h

=item * dbdimp.c

=back

The Driver.xs file is used to generate C code that Perl can call to gain
access to the C functions you write that will, in turn, call down onto
your database software.

The Driver.h header is a stylized header that ensures you can access the
necessary Perl and DBI macros, types, and function declarations.

The dbdimp.h is used to specify which functions have been implemented by
your driver.

The dbdimp.c file is where you write the C code that does the real work
of translating between Perl-ish data types and what the database expects
to use and return.

There are some (mainly small, but very important) differences between
the contents of Makefile.PL and Driver.pm for pure Perl and C/XS
drivers, so those files are described both in the section on creating a
pure Perl driver and in the section on creating a C/XS driver.

Obviously, you can add extra source code files to the list.

=head2 Requirements on a driver and driver writer

To be remotely useful, your driver must be implemented in a format that
allows it to be distributed via CPAN, the Comprehensive Perl Archive
Network (http://www.cpan.org/ and http://search.cpan.org).
Of course, it is easier if you do not have to meet this criterion, but
you will not be able to ask for much help if you do not do so, and
no-one is likely to want to install your module if they have to learn a
new installation mechanism.

=head1 CREATING A PURE PERL DRIVER

Writing a pure Perl driver is surprisingly simple. However, there are
some problems you should be aware of. The best option is of course
picking up an existing driver and carefully modifying one method
after the other.

Also look carefully at DBD::AnyData and DBD::Template.

As an example we take a look at the I<DBD::File> driver, a driver for
accessing plain files as tables, which is part of the I<DBD::CSV>
package.
In what follows I assume the name C<Driver> for your new package and the
prefix 'drv_'.
The minimal set of files we have to implement are I<Makefile.PL>,
I<README>, I<MANIFEST> and I<Driver.pm>.

=head2 Pure Perl version of Makefile.PL

You typically start with writing C<Makefile.PL>, a Makefile generator.
The contents of this file are described in detail in the
C<ExtUtils::MakeMaker> man pages.
It is definitely a good idea if you start reading them.
At least you should know about the variables I<CONFIGURE>, I<DEFINED>,
I<PM>, I<DIR>, I<EXE_FILES>, I<INC>, I<LIBS>, I<LINKTYPE>, I<NAME>,
I<OPTIMIZE>, I<PL_FILES>, I<VERSION>, I<VERSION_FROM>, I<clean>,
I<depend>, I<realclean> from the C<ExtUtils::MakeMaker> man page: These
are used in almost any Makefile.PL.
Additionally read the section on I<Overriding MakeMaker Methods> and the
descriptions of the I<distcheck>, I<disttest> and I<dist> targets: They
will definitely be useful for you.

Of special importance for DBI drivers is the I<postamble> method from
the C<ExtUtils::MM_Unix> man page.
And, for Emacs users, I recommend the I<libscan> method, which removes
Emacs backup files (file names which end with a tilde '~') from lists of
files.

Now an example, I use the word C<Driver> wherever you should insert
your driver's name:

  # -*- perl -*-

  use DBI 1.03;
  use DBI::DBD;
  use ExtUtils::MakeMaker;

  WriteMakefile(
      dbd_edit_mm_attribs( {
          'NAME'         => 'DBD::Driver',
          'VERSION_FROM' => 'Driver.pm',
          'INC'          => $DBI_INC_DIR,
          'dist'         => { 'SUFFIX'   => '.gz',
                              'COMPRESS' => 'gzip -9f' },
          'realclean'    => { FILES => '*.xsi' },
      },
      { create_pp_tests => 1})
  );

  package MY;
  sub postamble { return main::dbd_postamble(@_); }
  sub libscan {
      my ($self, $path) = @_;
      ($path =~ m/\~$/) ? undef : $path;
  }

Note the calls to C<dbd_edit_mm_attribs>() and C<dbd_postamble>().
The second hash reference in the call to C<dbd_edit_mm_attribs>
(containing C<create_pp_tests>) is optional; you should not use it
unless your driver is a pure Perl driver (that is, it does not use C and
XS code).
Therefore, the call to C<dbd_edit_mm_attribs> is not relevant for C/XS
drivers and may be omitted; simply use the (single) hash reference
containing NAME etc as the only argument to C<WriteMakefile>().
Note that the C<dbd_edit_mm_attribs> code will fail if you do not have a
C<t> sub-directory containing at least one test case.
All drivers must use C<dbd_postamble> or risk running into problems.

Note the specification of VERSION_FROM; the named file (Driver.pm) will
be scanned for the first line that looks like an assignment to $VERSION,
and the subsequent text will be used to determine the version number.
Note the commentary in L<ExtUtils::MakeMaker> on the subject of
correctly formatted version numbers.

If your driver depends upon external software (it usually will), you
will need to add code to ensure that your environment is workable before
the call to C<WriteMakefile>().
A full-fledged Makefile.PL can be quite large (for example, the files
for DBD::Oracle and DBD::Informix are both over 1000 lines long, and the
Informix one uses - and creates - auxilliary modules too).

See also L<ExtUtils::MakeMaker> and L<ExtUtils::MM_Unix>.
Consider using L<CPAN::MakeMaker> in place of ExtUtils::MakeMaker.

=head2 README

The README file should describe what the driver is for, the
pre-requisites for the build process, the actual build process, how to
report errors, and who to report them to.
Users will find ways of breaking the driver build and test process which
you would never even have dreamed to be possible in your worst
nightmares.
Therefore, you need to write this document defensively, precisely and
concisely.
Also, it is in your interests to ensure that your tests work as widely
as possible.
As always, use the README from one of the established drivers as a basis
for your own; the version in DBD::Informix is worth a look as it has
been quite successful in heading off problems.

=over 2

=item *

Note that users will have versions of Perl and DBI that are both older
and newer than you expected, but this will seldom cause much trouble.
When it does, it will be because you are using features of DBI that are
not supported in the version they are using.

=item *

Note that users will have versions of the database software that are
both older and newer than you expected.
You will save yourself time in the long run if you can identify the
range of versions which have been tested and warn about versions which
are not known to be OK.

=item *

Note that many people trying to install your driver will not be experts
in the database software.

=item *

Note that many people trying to install your driver will not be experts
in C or Perl.

=back

=head2 MANIFEST

The MANIFEST will be used by the Makefile's dist target to build the
distribution tar file that is uploaded to CPAN. It should list every
file that you want to include in your distribution, one per line.

=head2 lib/Bundle/DBD/Driver.pm

The CPAN module provides an extremely powerful bundle mechanism that
allows you to specify pre-requisites for your driver.
The primary pre-requisite is Bundle::DBI; you may want or need to add
some more.
With the bundle set up correctly, the user can type:

        perl -MCPAN -e 'install Bundle::DBD::Driver'

and Perl will download, compile, test and install all the Perl modules
needed to build your driver.

A suitable skeleton for this file is shown below.
The prerequisite modules are listed in the C<CONTENTS> section, with the
official name of the module followed by a dash and an informal name or
description.
Listing Bundle::DBI as the main pre-requisite simplifies life.
Don't forget to list your driver.
Note that unless the DBMS is itself a Perl module, you cannot list it as
a pre-requisite in this file.
You should keep the version of the bundle the same as the version of
your driver.
You should add configuration management, copyright, and licencing
information at the top.

  package Bundle::DBD::Driver;

  $VERSION = '0.01';

  1;

  __END__

  =head1 NAME

  Bundle::DBD::Driver - A bundle to install all DBD::Driver related modules

  =head1 SYNOPSIS

  C<perl -MCPAN -e 'install Bundle::DBD::Driver'>

  =head1 CONTENTS

  Bundle::DBI  - Bundle for DBI by TIMB (Tim Bunce)

  DBD::Driver  - DBD::Driver by YOU (Your Name)

  =head1 DESCRIPTION

  This bundle includes all the modules used by the Perl Database
  Interface (DBI) driver for Driver (DBD::Driver), assuming the
  use of DBI version 1.13 or later, created by Tim Bunce.

  If you've not previously used the CPAN module to install any
  bundles, you will be interrogated during its setup phase.
  But when you've done it once, it remembers what you told it.
  You could start by running:

    C<perl -MCPAN -e 'install Bundle::CPAN'>

  =head1 SEE ALSO

  Bundle::DBI

  =head1 AUTHOR

  Your Name E<lt>F<you@yourdomain.com>E<gt>

  =head1 THANKS

  This bundle was created by ripping off Bundle::libnet created by
  Graham Barr E<lt>F<gbarr@ti.com>E<gt>, and radically simplified
  with some information from Jochen Wiedmann E<lt>F<joe@ispsoft.de>E<gt>.
  The template was then included in the DBI::DBD documentation by
  Jonathan Leffler E<lt>F<jleffler@informix.com>E<gt>.

  =cut

=head2 lib/DBD/Driver/Summary.pm

There is no substitute for taking the summary file from a driver that
was documented in the Perl book (such as DBD::Oracle or DBD::Informix or
DBD::ODBC, to name but three), and adapting it to describe the
facilities available via DBD::Driver when accessing the Driver database.

=head2 Pure Perl version of Driver.pm

The C<Driver.pm> file defines the Perl module DBD::Driver for your driver.
It will define a package DBD::Driver along with some version information,
some variable definitions, and a function driver() which will have a more
or less standard structure.

It will also define three sub-packages of DBD::Driver:

=over 2

=item DBD::Driver::dr

with methods connect(), data_sources() and disconnect_all();

=item DBD::Driver::db

with methods such as prepare();

=item DBD::Driver::st

with methods such as execute() and fetch().

=back

The Driver.pm file will also contain the documentation specific to
DBD::Driver in the format used by perldoc.

In a pure Perl driver, the Driver.pm file is the core of the
implementation.
You will need to provide all the key methods needed by DBI.

Now let's take a closer look at an excerpt of File.pm as an example.
We ignore things that are common to any module (even non-DBI modules)
or really specific to the DBD::File package.

=head3 The DBD::Driver package

=head4 The header

  package DBD::File;

  use strict;
  use vars qw($VERSION $drh);

  $VERSION = "1.23.00"  # Version number of DBD::File

This is where the version number of your driver is specified.
The code in Makefile.PL is told to look in this file for the
information.
It is recommended that you use a two-part (1.23) or three-part (1.23.45)
version number.
Please ensure that any other modules added with your driver are also
version stamped so that CPAN does not get confused.
Also consider the CPAN system, which gets confused and considers
version 1.10 to precede version 1.9, so that using a raw CVS, RCS or
SCCS version number is probably not appropriate (despite being very
common). For RCS or CVS you can use this code:

  $VERSION = sprintf "%d.%02d", '$Revision: 11.21 $ ' =~ /(\d+)\.(\d+)/;

which pads out the fractional part with leading zeros so all is well
(so long as you don't go past x.99)

  $drh = undef;         # holds driver handle once initialized

This is where the driver handle will be stored, once created.
Note that you may assume there is only one handle for your driver.

=head4 The driver constructor

Note that the I<driver> method is in the DBD::Driver package, not in one
of the sub-packages DBD::Driver::dr, DBD::Driver::db, or
DBD::Driver::db.

  sub driver
  {
      return $drh if $drh;      # already created - return same one
      my ($class, $attr) = @_;

      $class .= "::dr";

      # not a 'my' since we use it above to prevent multiple drivers
      $drh = DBI::_new_drh($class, {
              'Name'        => 'File',
              'Version'     => $VERSION,
              'Attribution' => 'DBD::File by Jochen Wiedmann',
          })
          or return undef;

      return $drh;
  }

The I<driver> method is the driver handle constructor. It's a
reasonable example of how DBI implements its handles. There are three
kinds: B<driver handles> (typically stored in C<$drh>; from now on
called C<drh> or C<$drh>), B<database handles> (from now on called C<dbh> or
C<$dbh>) and B<statement handles> (from now on called C<sth> or
C<$sth>).

The prototype of DBI::_new_drh is

  $drh = DBI::_new_drh($class, $public_attrs, $private_attrs);

with the following arguments:

=over 4

=item I<$class>

is typically the class for your driver, (for example, "DBD::File::dr"),
passed as the first argument to the I<driver> method.

=item I<$public_attrs>

is a hash ref to attributes like I<Name>, I<Version>, and I<Attribution>.
These are processed and used by DBI.
You had better not make any assumptions about them nor should you add
private attributes here.

=item I<$private_attrs>

This is another (optional) hash ref with your private attributes.
DBI will store them and otherwise leave them alone.

=back

The I<DBI::new_drh> method and the I<driver> method both return C<undef>
for failure (in which case you must look at $DBI::err and $DBI::errstr
for the failure information, because you have no driver handle to use).

=head4 The CLONE special subroutine

Also needed here, in the DBD::Driver package, is a CLONE() method
that will be called by perl when an intrepreter is cloned. All your
CLONE method needs to do, currently, is clear the cached $drh so
the new interpreter won't start using the cached $drh from the old
interpreter:

  sub CLONE {
    undef $drh;
  }

See L<http://search.cpan.org/dist/perl/pod/perlmod.pod#Making_your_module_threadsafe>
for details.

=head3 The DBD::Driver::dr package

=head4 The database handle constructor

The next lines of code look as follows:

  package DBD::Driver::dr; # ====== DRIVER ======

  $DBD::Driver::dr::imp_data_size = 0;

Note that no @ISA is needed here, or for the other DBD::Driver::*
classes, because the DBI takes care of that for you when the driver is
loaded.

The database handle constructor is a driver method, thus we have
to change the namespace.

  sub connect
  {
      my ($drh, $dr_dsn, $user, $auth, $attr) = @_;

      # Some database specific verifications, default settings
      # and the like can go here. This should only include
      # syntax checks or similar stuff where it's legal to
      # 'die' in case of errors.
      # For example, many database packages requires specific
      # environment variables to be set; this could be where you
      # validate that they are set, or default them if they are not set.

      my $driver_prefix = "drv_"; # the assigned prefix for this driver

      # Process attributes from the DSN; we assume ODBC syntax
      # here, that is, the DSN looks like var1=val1;...;varN=valN
      foreach my $var ( split /;/, $dr_dsn ) {
          my ($attr_name, $attr_value) = split '=', $var, 2;
	  return $drh->set_err(1, "Can't parse DSN part '$var'")
              unless defined $attr_value;

          # add driver prefix to attribute name if it doesn't have it already
          $attr_name = $driver_prefix.$attr_name
              unless $attr_name =~ /^$driver_prefix/o;

	  # Store attribute into %$attr, replacing any existing value.
          # The DBI will STORE() these into $dbh after we've connected
	  $attr->{$attr_name} = $attr_value;
      }

      # Get the attributes we'll use to connect.
      # We use delete here because these no need to STORE them
      my $db = delete $attr->{drv_database} || delete $attr->{drv_db}
          or return $drh->set_err(1, "No database name given in DSN '$dr_dsn'");
      my $host = delete $attr->{drv_host} || 'localhost';
      my $port = delete $attr->{drv_port} || 123456;

      # Assume you can attach to your database via drv_connect:
      my $connection = drv_connect($db, $host, $port, $user, $auth)
          or return $drh->set_err(1, "Can't connect to $dr_dsn: ...");

      # create a 'blank' dbh (call superclass constructor)
      my ($outer, $dbh) = DBI::_new_dbh($drh, { Name => $dr_dsn });

      $dbh->STORE('Active', 1 );
      $dbh->{drv_connection} = $connection;

      return $outer;
  }

The Name attribute is a standard DBI attribute.

This is mostly the same as in the I<driver handle constructor> above.
The arguments are described in the DBI man page.
See L<DBI>.
The constructor _new_dbh is called, returning a database handle.
The constructor's prototype is:

  ($outer, $inner) = DBI::_new_dbh($drh, $public_attr, $private_attr);

with similar arguments to those in the I<driver handle constructor>,
except that the C<$class> is replaced by C<$drh>.

In scalar context, only the outer handle is returned.

Note the use of the I<STORE> method for setting the dbh attributes.
That's because within the driver code, the handle object you have is
the 'inner' handle of a tied hash, not the outer handle that the
users of your driver have.

Because you have the inner handle, tie magic doesn't get invoked
when you get or set values in the hash. This is often very handy for
speed when you want to get or set simple non-special driver-specific
attributes.

However, some attribute values, such as those handled by the DBI
like PrintError, don't actually exist in the hash and must be
read via $h->FETCH($attrib) and set via $h->STORE($attrib, $value).
If in any doubt, use these methods.

=head4 The data_sources method

The data_sources method must populate and return a list of valid data
sources, prefixed with the "dbi:Driver" incantation that allows them to
be used in the first argument of the C<DBI-E<gt>connect> method.
An example of this might be scanning the I<$HOME/.odbcini> file on Unix
for ODBC data sources (DSNs).
As a trivial example, consider a fixed list of data sources:

  sub data_sources
  {
      my($drh, $attr) = @_;
      my(@list) = ();
      # You need more sophisticated code than this to set @list...
      push @list, "dbi:Driver:abc";
      push @list, "dbi:Driver:def";
      push @list, "dbi:Driver:ghi";
      # End of code to set @list
      return @list;
  }

=head4 Error handling

It is quite likely that something fails in the connect method.
With DBD::File for example, you might catch an error when setting the
current directory to something not existent by using the
(driver-specific) f_dir attribute.

To report an error, you use the C<set_err> method:

  $h->set_err($err, $errmsg, $state);

This will ensure that the error is recorded correctly and that
RaiseError and PrintError etc are handled correctly.
Typically you'll
always use the method instance, aka your method's first argument.

As set_err always returns undef your error handling code can
usually be simplified to something like this:

  return $h->set_err($err, $errmsg, $state) if ...;

=head4 The disconnect_all method

If you need to release any resources when the driver is unloaded, you
can provide a disconnect_all method.

=head4 Other driver handle methods

If you need any other driver handle methods, they can follow here.

=head3 The DBD::Driver::db package

=head4 The statement handle constructor

There's nothing much new in the statement handle constructor.

  package DBD::Driver::db; # ====== DATABASE ======

  $DBD::Driver::db::imp_data_size = 0;

  sub prepare
  {
      my ($dbh, $statement, @attribs) = @_;

      # create a 'blank' sth
      my ($outer, $sth) = DBI::_new_sth($dbh, { Statement => $statement });

      $sth->STORE('NUM_OF_PARAMS', ($statement =~ tr/?//));

      $sth->{drv_params} = [];

      return $outer;
  }

This is still the same: check the arguments and call the super class
constructor I<DBI::_new_sth>.
Again, in scalar context, only the outer handle is returned.
The C<Statement> attribute should be cached as shown.

Note the prefix I<drv_> in the attribute names: it is required that
all your private attributes use a lowercase prefix unique to your driver.
The DBI contains a registry of known driver prefixes and may one day
warn about unknown attributes that don't have a registered prefix.

Note that we parse the statement here in order to set the attribute
I<NUM_OF_PARAMS>.
The technique illustrated is not very reliable; it can be confused by
question marks appearing in quoted strings, delimited identifiers or in
SQL comments that are part of the SQL statement.
We could set I<NUM_OF_PARAMS> in the I<execute> method instead because
the DBI specification explicitly allows a driver to defer this, but then
the user could not call I<bind_param>.

=head4 Transaction handling

Pure Perl drivers will rarely support transactions. Thus your I<commit>
and I<rollback> methods will typically be quite simple:

  sub commit
  {
      my ($dbh) = @_;
      if ($dbh->FETCH('Warn')) {
          warn("Commit ineffective while AutoCommit is on");
      }
      0;
  }

  sub rollback {
      my ($dbh) = @_;
      if ($dbh->FETCH('Warn')) {
          warn("Rollback ineffective while AutoCommit is on");
      }
      0;
  }

Or even simpler, just use the default methods provided by the DBI that
do nothing except return undef.

The DBI's default begin_work method can be used by inheritance.

=head4 The STORE and FETCH methods

These methods (that we have already used, see above) are called for
you, whenever the user does a:

  $dbh->{$attr} = $val;

or, respectively,

  $val = $dbh->{$attr};

See L<perltie> for details on tied hash refs to understand why these
methods are required.

The DBI will handle most attributes for you, in particular attributes
like I<RaiseError> or I<PrintError>.
All you have to do is handle your driver's private attributes and any
attributes, like AutoCommit and ChopBlanks, that the DBI can't handle
for you.
A good example might look like this:

  sub STORE
  {
      my ($dbh, $attr, $val) = @_;
      if ($attr eq 'AutoCommit') {
          # AutoCommit is currently the only standard attribute we have
          # to consider.
          if (!$val) { die "Can't disable AutoCommit"; }
          return 1;
      }
      if ($attr =~ m/^drv_/) {
          # Handle only our private attributes here
          # Note that we could trigger arbitrary actions.
          # Ideally we should warn about unknown attributes.
          $dbh->{$attr} = $val; # Yes, we are allowed to do this,
          return 1;             # but only for our private attributes
      }
      # Else pass up to DBI to handle for us
      $dbh->SUPER::STORE($attr, $val);
  }

  sub FETCH
  {
      my ($dbh, $attr) = @_;
      if ($attr eq 'AutoCommit') { return 1; }
      if ($attr =~ m/^drv_/) {
          # Handle only our private attributes here
          # Note that we could trigger arbitrary actions.
          return $dbh->{$attr}; # Yes, we are allowed to do this,
                                # but only for our private attributes
      }
      # Else pass up to DBI to handle
      $dbh->SUPER::FETCH($attr);
  }

The DBI will actually store and fetch driver-specific attributes (with all
lowercase names) without warning or error, so there's actually no need to
implement driver-specific any code in your FETCH and STORE methods unless
you need extra logic/checks, beyond getting or setting the value.

Unless your driver documentation indicates otherwise, the return value of
the STORE method is unspecified and the caller shouldn't use that value.

=head4 Other database handle methods

As with the driver package, other database handle methods may follow
here.
In particular you should consider a (possibly empty) I<disconnect>
method and possibly a I<quote> method if DBI's default isn't correct for
you.

Where reasonable use $h->SUPER::foo() to call the DBI's method in
some or all cases and just wrap your custom behavior around that.

If you want to use private trace flags you'll probably want to be
able to set them by name. To do that you'll need to define a
parse_trace_flag() method (note that's parse_trace_flag not parse_trace_flags).

  sub parse_trace_flag {
      my ($h, $name) = @_;
      return 0x01000000 if $name eq 'foo';
      return 0x02000000 if $name eq 'bar';
      return 0x04000000 if $name eq 'baz';
      return 0x08000000 if $name eq 'boo';
      return 0x10000000 if $name eq 'bop';
      return $h->SUPER::parse_trace_flag($name);
  }

All private flag names must be lowercase, and all private flags
must be in the top 8 of the 32 bits.

=head3 The DBD::Driver::st package

=head4 The execute method

This is perhaps the most difficult method because we have to consider
parameter bindings here. We present a simplified implementation by
using the I<drv_params> attribute from above:

  package DBD::Driver::st;

  $DBD::Driver::st::imp_data_size = 0;

  sub bind_param
  {
      my ($sth, $pNum, $val, $attr) = @_;
      my $type = (ref $attr) ? $attr->{TYPE} : $attr;
      if ($type) {
          my $dbh = $sth->{Database};
          $val = $dbh->quote($sth, $type);
      }
      my $params = $sth->{drv_params};
      $params->[$pNum-1] = $val;
      1;
  }

  sub execute
  {
      my ($sth, @bind_values) = @_;

      # start of by finishing any previous execution if still active
      $sth->finish if $sth->FETCH('Active');

      my $params = (@bind_values) ?
          \@bind_values : $sth->{drv_params};
      my $numParam = $sth->FETCH('NUM_OF_PARAMS');
      return $sth->set_err(1, "Wrong number of parameters")
          if @$params != $numParam;
      my $statement = $sth->{'Statement'};
      for (my $i = 0;  $i < $numParam;  $i++) {
          $statement =~ s/?/$params->[$i]/; # XXX doesn't deal with quoting etc!
      }
      # Do anything ... we assume that an array ref of rows is
      # created and store it:
      $sth->{'drv_data'} = $data;
      $sth->{'drv_rows'} = @$data; # number of rows
      $sth->STORE('NUM_OF_FIELDS') = $numFields;
      @$data || '0E0';
  }

There are a number of things you should note here.
We setup the NUM_OF_FIELDS attribute
here, because this is essential for I<bind_columns> to work.
We use attribute C<$sth-E<gt>{Statement}> which we created
within I<prepare>. The attribute C<$sth-E<gt>{Database}>, which is
nothing else than the I<dbh>, was automatically created by DBI.

Finally note that (as specified in the DBI specification) we return the
string '0E0' instead of the number 0, so that the result tests true but
equal to zero.

  $sth->execute() or die $sth->errstr;

=head4 Fetching data

We should not implement the methods I<fetchrow_array>, I<fetchall_arrayref>,
... because these are already part of DBI.
All we need is the method
I<fetchrow_arrayref>:

  sub fetchrow_arrayref
  {
      my ($sth) = @_;
      my $data = $sth->{drv_data};
      my $row = shift @$data;
      if (!$row) {
          $sth->STORE(Active => 0); # mark as no longer active
          return undef;
      }
      if ($sth->FETCH('ChopBlanks')) {
          map { $_ =~ s/\s+$//; } @$row;
      }
      return $sth->_set_fbav($row);
  }
  *fetch = \&fetchrow_arrayref; # required alias for fetchrow_arrayref

Note the use of the method I<_set_fbav>: This is required so that
I<bind_col> and I<bind_columns> work.

If an error occurs which leaves the $sth in a state where remaining rows
can't be fetched then Active should be turned off
before the method returns.

The rows method for this driver can be implemented like this:

  sub rows { shift->{drv_rows} }

because it knows in advance how many rows it has fetched.
Alternatively you could delete that method and so fallback
to the DBI's own method which does the right thing based
on the number of calls to _set_fbav().

=head4 Statement attributes

The main difference between dbh and sth attributes is, that you
should implement a lot of attributes here that are required by
the DBI, such as I<NAME>, I<NULLABLE>, I<TYPE>, ...

Besides that the STORE and FETCH methods are mainly the same
as above for dbh's.

=head4 Other statement methods

A trivial C<finish> method to discard the stored data and do
$sth->SUPER::finish;

If you've defined a parse_trace_flag() method in ::db you'll also want
it in ::st, so just alias it in:

  *parse_trace_flag = \&DBD::foo:db::parse_trace_flag;

And perhaps some other methods that are not part of the DBI
specification, in particular to make metadata available.
Remember that they must have names that begin with your drivers
registered prefix so they can be installed using install_method().

If DESTROY() is called on a statement handle that's still active
($sth->{Active} is true) then it should effectively call finish().

    sub DESTROY {
        my $sth = shift;
        $sth->finish if $sth->FETCH('Active');
    }

=head2 Tests

The test process should conform as closely as possibly to the Perl
standard test harness.

In particular, most (all) of the tests should be run in the t sub-directory,
and should simply produce an 'ok' when run under 'make test'.
For details on how this is done, see the Camel book and the section in
Chapter 7, "The Standard Perl Library" on L<Test::Harness>.

The tests may need to adapt to the type of database which is being
used for testing, and to the privileges of the user testing the
driver.

The DBD::Informix test code has to adapt in a number of places to the
type of database to which it is connected as different Informix
databases have different capabilities.
For example, some of the tests are for databases without transaction
logs; others are for databases with a transaction log.
Some versions of the server have support for blobs, or stored
procedures, or user-defined data types, and others do not.
When a complete file of tests must be skipped, you can provide a reason
in a pseudo-comment:

    if ($no_transactions_available)
    {
        print "1..0 # Skip: No transactions available\n";
        exit 0;
    }

Consider downloading the DBD::Informix code and look at the code in
DBD/Informix/TestHarness.pm which is used throughout the
DBD::Informix tests in the t sub-directory.

=head1 CREATING A C/XS DRIVER

Creating a new C/XS driver from scratch will always be a daunting task.
You can and should greatly simplify your task by taking a good
reference driver implementation and modifying that to match the
database product for which you are writing a driver.

The de facto reference driver has been the one for DBD::Oracle written
by Tim Bunce, who is also the author of the DBI package. The DBD::Oracle
module is a good example of a driver implemented around a C-level API.

Nowadays it it seems better to base on DBD::ODBC, another driver
maintained by Tim and Jeff Urlwin, because it offers a lot of metadata
and seems to become the guideline for the future development. (Also as
DBD::Oracle digs deeper into the Oracle 8 OCI interface it'll get even
more hairy than it is now.)

The DBD::Informix driver is one driver implemented using embedded SQL
instead of a function-based API.
DBD::Ingres may also be worth a look.

=head2 C/XS version of Driver.pm

A lot of the code in the Driver.pm file is very similar to the code for pure Perl modules
- see above.  However,
there are also some subtle (and not so subtle) differences, including:

=over 8

=item *

The variables $DBD::File::{dr|db|st}::imp_data_size are not defined
here, but in the XS code, because they declare the size of certain
C structures.

=item *

Some methods are typically moved to the XS code, in particular
I<prepare>, I<execute>, I<disconnect>, I<disconnect_all> and the STORE
and FETCH methods.

=item *

Other methods are still part of C<Driver.pm>, but have callbacks to
the XS code.

=item *

If the driver-specific parts of the imp_drh_t structure need to be
formally initialized (which does not seem to be a common requirement),
then you need to add a call to an appropriate XS function in the driver
method of DBD::Driver::driver, and you define the corresponding function
in Driver.xs, and you define the C code in dbdimp.c and the prototype in
dbdimp.h.

For example, DBD::Informix has such a requirement, and adds the
following call after the call to _new_drh in Informix.pm:

  DBD::Informix::dr::driver_init($drh);

and the following code in Informix.xs:

  # Initialize the DBD::Informix driver data structure
  void
  driver_init(drh)
      SV *drh
      CODE:
      ST(0) = dbd_ix_dr_driver_init(drh) ? &sv_yes : &sv_no;

and the code in dbdimp.h declares:

  extern int dbd_ix_dr_driver_init(SV *drh);

and the code in dbdimp.ec (equivalent to dbdimp.c) defines:

  /* Formally initialize the DBD::Informix driver structure */
  int
  dbd_ix_dr_driver(SV *drh)
  {
      D_imp_drh(drh);
      imp_drh->n_connections = 0;       /* No active connections */
      imp_drh->current_connection = 0;  /* No current connection */
      imp_drh->multipleconnections = (ESQLC_VERSION >= 600) ? True : False;
      dbd_ix_link_newhead(&imp_drh->head);  /* Empty linked list of connections */
      return 1;
  }

DBD::Oracle has a similar requirement but gets around it by checking
whether the private data part of the driver handle is all zeroed out,
rather than add extra functions.

=back

Now let's take a closer look at an excerpt from Oracle.pm (revised
heavily to remove idiosyncrasies) as an example.
We also ignore things that are already discussed for pure Perl drivers.

=head3 The connect method

The connect method is the database handle constructor.
You could write either of two versions of this method: either one which
takes connection attributes (new code) and one which ignores them (old
code only).
If you ignore the connection attributes, then you omit all mention of
the $auth variable (which is a reference to a hash of attributes), and
the XS system manages the differences for you.

  sub connect
  {
      my ($drh, $dbname, $user, $auth, $attr) = @_;

      # Some database specific verifications, default settings
      # and the like following here. This should only include
      # syntax checks or similar stuff where it's legal to
      # 'die' in case of errors.

      my $dbh = DBI::_new_dbh($drh, {
              'Name'   => $dbname,
          })
          or return undef;

      # Call the driver-specific function _login in Driver.xs file which
      # calls the DBMS-specific function(s) to connect to the database,
      # and populate internal handle data.
      DBD::Driver::db::_login($dbh, $dbname, $user, $auth, $attr)
          or return undef;

      $dbh;
  }

This is mostly the same as in the pure Perl case, the exception being
the use of the private I<_login> callback, which is the function that
will really connect to the database.
It is implemented in Driver.xst (you should not implement it) and calls
I<dbd_db_login6> from I<dbdimp.c>.
See below for details.

 *FIX ME* Discuss removing attributes from hash reference as an optimization
 to skip later calls to $dbh->STORE made by DBI->connect.

 *FIX ME* Discuss removing attributes in Perl code.

 *FIX ME* Discuss removing attributes in C code.

=head3 The disconnect_all method

 *FIX ME* T.B.S

=head3 The data_sources method

If your I<data_sources> method can be implemented in pure Perl, then do
so because it is easier than doing it in XS code (see the section above
for pure Perl drivers).
If your I<data_sources> method must call onto compiled functions, then
you will need to define dbd_dr_data_sources in your dbdimp.h file, which
will trigger Driver.xst (in DBI v1.33 or greater) to generate the XS
code that calls your actual C function (see the discussion below for
details) and you do not code anything in Driver.pm to handle it.

=head3 The prepare method

The prepare method is the statement handle constructor, and most of it
is not new.
Like the I<connect> method, it now has a C callback:

  package DBD::Driver::db; # ====== DATABASE ======
  use strict;

  sub prepare
  {
      my ($dbh, $statement, $attribs) = @_;

      # create a 'blank' sth
      my $sth = DBI::_new_sth($dbh, {
          'Statement' => $statement,
          })
          or return undef;

      # Call the driver-specific function _prepare in Driver.xs file
      # which calls the DBMS-specific function(s) to prepare a statement
      # and populate internal handle data.
      DBD::Driver::st::_prepare($sth, $statement, $attribs)
          or return undef;
      $sth;
  }

=head3 The execute method

 *FIX ME* T.B.S

=head3 The fetchrow_arrayref method

 *FIX ME* T.B.S

=head3 Other methods?

 *FIX ME* T.B.S

=head2 Driver.xs

Driver.xs should look something like this:

  #include "Driver.h"

  DBISTATE_DECLARE;

  INCLUDE: Driver.xsi

  MODULE = DBD::Driver    PACKAGE = DBD::Driver::dr

  /* Non-standard drh XS methods following here, if any.       */
  /* If none (the usual case), omit the MODULE line above too. */

  MODULE = DBD::Driver    PACKAGE = DBD::Driver::db

  /* Non-standard dbh XS methods following here, if any.       */
  /* Currently this includes things like _list_tables from     */
  /* DBD::mSQL and DBD::mysql.                                 */

  MODULE = DBD::Driver    PACKAGE = DBD::Driver::st

  /* Non-standard sth XS methods following here, if any.       */
  /* In particular this includes things like _list_fields from */
  /* DBD::mSQL and DBD::mysql for accessing metadata.          */

Note especially the include of I<Driver.xsi> here: DBI inserts stub
functions for almost all private methods here which will typically do
much work for you.
Wherever you really have to implement something, it will call a private
function in I<dbdimp.c>, and this is what you have to implement.

You need to set up an extra routine if your driver needs to export
constants of its own, analogous to the SQL types available when you say:

  use DBI qw(:sql_types);

 *FIX ME* T.B.S

=head2 Driver.h

Driver.h is very simple and the operational contents should look like this:

  #ifndef DRIVER_H_INCLUDED
  #define DRIVER_H_INCLUDED

  #define NEED_DBIXS_VERSION 93    /* 93 for DBI versions 1.00 to 1.51+ */
  #define PERL_NO_GET_CONTEXT      /* if used require DBI 1.51+ */

  #include <DBIXS.h>      /* installed by the DBI module  */

  #include "dbdimp.h"

  #include "dbivport.h"   /* see below                    */

  #include <dbd_xsh.h>    /* installed by the DBI module  */

  #endif /* DRIVER_H_INCLUDED */

The C<DBIXS.h> header defines most of the interesting information that
the writer of a driver needs.
The file C<dbd_xsh.h> header provides prototype declarations for the C
functions that you might decide to implement.
Note that you should normally only define one of I<dbd_db_login> and
I<dbd_db_login6> unless you are intent on supporting really old versions of
DBI (prior to DBI 1.06) as well as modern versions.
The only standard, DBI-mandated functions that you need write are those
specified in the dbd_xsh.h header.
You might also add extra driver-specific functions in Driver.xs.

The dbivport.h file should be I<copied> from the latest DBI release into
your distribution each time you enhance your driver to use new features
for which the DBI is offering backwards compatibility via dbivport.h.

Its job is to allow you to enhance your code to work with the latest
DBI API while still allowing your driver to be compiled and used
with older versions of the DBI. For example, when the DBIh_SET_ERR_CHAR
macro was added to DBI 1.41 in an emulation of it was added to dbivport.h.

Copying dbivport.h into your driver distribution and #including it
in Driver.h, as shown above, lets you enhance your driver to use
the new DBIh_SET_ERR_CHAR macro even with versions of the DBI earlier
than 1.41. This makes users happy and your life easier.

Always read the notes in dbivport.h to check for any limitations
in the emulation that you should be aware of.

With DBI v1.51 or better I recommend that the driver defines
PERL_NO_GET_CONTEXT before F<DBIXS.h> is included. This can significantly
improve efficiency when running under a thread enabled perl. (Remember that
the standard perl in most Linux distributions is built with threads enabled.
So is ActiveState perl for Windows, and perl built for Apache mod_perl2.)
If you do this there are some things to keep in mind:

B<*> If PERL_NO_GET_CONTEXT is defined, then every function that calls the Perl
API will need to start out with a C<dTHX;> declaration.

B<*> You'll know which functions need this, because the C compiler will
complain that the undeclared identifier C<my_perl> is used if I<and only if>
the perl you are using to develop and test your driver has threads enabled.

B<*> So if you don't remember to test with a thread-enabled perl before making
a release it's likely that you'll get failure reports from users who are.

B<*> For driver private functions it is possible to gain even more
efficiency by replacing C<dTHX;> with C<pTHX_> prepended to the
parameter list and then C<aTHX_> prepended to the argument list where
the function is called.

See L<perlguts/How multiple interpreters and concurrency are supported> for
additional information about PERL_NO_GET_CONTEXT.

=head2 Implementation header dbdimp.h

This header file has two jobs:

First it defines data structures for your private part of the handles.

Second it defines macros that rename the generic names like
I<dbd_db_login> to database specific names like I<ora_db_login>. This
avoids name clashes and enables use of different drivers when you work
with a statically linked perl.

It also will have the important task of disabling XS methods that you
don't want to implement.

Finally, the macros will also be used to select alternate
implementations of some functions.
For example, the I<dbd_db_login> function is not passed the attribute
hash.
Since DBI v1.06, if a I<dbd_db_login6> macro is defined (for a function
with 6 arguments), it will be used instead with the attribute hash
passed as the sixth argument.

People used to just pick Oracle's dbdimp.c and use the same names,
structures and types.
I strongly recommend against that.
At first glance this saves time, but your implementation will be less
readable.
It was just hell when I had to separate DBI specific parts, Oracle
specific parts, mSQL specific parts and mysql specific parts in
DBD::mysql's I<dbdimp.h> and I<dbdimp.c>.
(DBD::mysql was a port of DBD::mSQL which was based on DBD::Oracle.)
[Seconded, based on the experience taking DBD::Informix apart, even
though the version inherited in 1996 was only based on DBD::Oracle.]

This part of the driver is I<your exclusive part>.
Rewrite it from scratch, so it will be clean and short: in other words,
a better piece of code.
(Of course keep an eye on other people's work.)

  struct imp_drh_st {
      dbih_drc_t com;           /* MUST be first element in structure   */
      /* Insert your driver handle attributes here */
  };

  struct imp_dbh_st {
      dbih_dbc_t com;           /* MUST be first element in structure   */
      /* Insert your database handle attributes here */
  };

  struct imp_sth_st {
      dbih_stc_t com;           /* MUST be first element in structure   */
      /* Insert your statement handle attributes here */
  };

  /*  Rename functions for avoiding name clashes; prototypes are  */
  /*  in dbd_xst.h                                                */
  #define dbd_init         drv_dr_init
  #define dbd_db_login6    drv_db_login
  #define dbd_db_do        drv_db_do
  ... many more here ...

These structures implement your private part of the handles.
You I<have> to use the name I<imp_dbh_{dr|db|st}> and the first field
I<must> be of type I<dbih_drc_t|_dbc_t|_stc_t> and I<must> be called
C<com>.
You should never access these fields directly, except by using the
I<DBIc_xxx> macros below.

=head2 Implementation source dbdimp.c

Conventionally, I<dbdimp.c> is the main implementation file (but
DBD::Informix calls the file dbdimp.ec).
This section includes a short note on each function that is used in the
Driver.xsi template and thus B<has> to be implemented.

Of course, you will probably also need to implement other support
functions, which should usually be file static if the are placed in
I<dbdimp.c>.
If they are placed in other files, you need to list those files in
Makefile.PL (and MANIFEST) to handle them correctly.

It is wise to adhere to a namespace convention for your functions to
avoid conflicts.
For example, for a driver with prefix "drv", you might call externally
visible functions "dbd_drv_xxxx".
You should also avoid non-constant global variables as much as possible
to improve the support for threading.

Since Perl requires support for function prototypes (ANSI or ISO or
Standard C), you should write your code using function prototypes too.

It is possible to use either the unmapped names such as C<dbd_init> or
the mapped names such as C<dbd_ix_dr_init> in the C<dbdimp.c> file.
DBD::Informix uses the mapped names which makes it easier to identify
where to look for linkage problems at runtime (which will report errors
using the mapped names).
Most other drivers, and in particular DBD::Oracle, use the unmapped
names in the source code which makes it a little easier to compare code
between drivers and eases discussions on the dbi-dev mailing list.
The majority of the code fragments here will use the unmapped names.

Ultimately, you should provide implementations for most fo the functions
listed in the I<dbd_xsh.h> header.
The exceptions are optional functions (such as I<dbd_st_rows>) and those
functions with alternative signatures, such as I<dbd_db_login6> and
I<dbd_db_login>.
Then you should only implement one of the alternatives, and generally
the newer one of the alternatives.

=head3 The dbd_init method

  #include "Driver.h"

  DBISTATE_DECLARE;

  void dbd_init(dbistate_t* dbistate)
  {
      DBISTATE_INIT;  /*  Initialize the DBI macros  */
  }

The C<dbd_init> function will be called when your driver is first
loaded; the bootstrap command in DBD::Driver::dr::driver triggers this,
and the call is generated in the BOOT section of Driver.xst.
These statements are needed to allow your driver to use the DBI macros.
They will include your private header file I<dbdimp.h> in turn.
Note that DBISTATE_INIT requires the name of the argument to I<dbd_init>
to be called I<dbistate>.

=head3 The dbd_drv_error method

You need a function to record errors so DBI can access them properly.
You can call it whatever you like, but we'll call it C<dbd_drv_error>
here.
The argument list depends on your database software; different systems
provide different ways to get at error information.

  static void dbd_drv_error(SV *h, int rc, const char *what)
  {

Note that I<h> is a generic handle, may it be a driver handle, a
database or a statement handle.

      D_imp_xxh(h);

This macro will declare and initialize a variable I<imp_xxh> with
a pointer to your private handle pointer. You may cast this to
to I<imp_drh_t>, I<imp_dbh_t> or I<imp_sth_t>.

To record the error correctly, equivalent to the set_err() method,
use one of the DBIh_SET_ERR_CHAR(...) or DBIh_SET_ERR_SV(...) macros,
which were added in DBI 1.41:

  DBIh_SET_ERR_SV(h, imp_xxh, err, errstr, state, method);
  DBIh_SET_ERR_CHAR(h, imp_xxh, err_c, err_i, errstr, state, method);

For DBIh_SET_ERR_SV the err, errstr, state, and method parameters are SV*.
For DBIh_SET_ERR_CHAR the err_c, errstr, state, method are char*.
The err_i parameter is an IV that's used instead of err_c is err_c is Null.
The method parameter can be ignored.

The DBIh_SET_ERR_CHAR macro is usually the simplest to use when you
just have an integer error code and an error message string:

  DBIh_SET_ERR_CHAR(h, imp_xxh, Nullch, rc, what, Nullch, Nullch);

As you can see, any parameters that aren't relevant to you can be Null.

To make drivers compatible with DBI < 1.41 you should be using dbivport.h
as described in L</Driver.h> above.

The (obsolete) macros such as DBIh_EVENT2 should be removed from drivers.

The names I<dbis> and I<DBIS>, which were used in previous versions of this document,
should be replaced with the C<DBIc_STATE(imp_xxh)> macro.

The name DBILOGFP, which was also used in previous  versions of this document, should be
replaced by DBIc_LOGPIO(imp_xxh).

Your code should not call the C C<E<lt>stdio.hE<gt>> I/O functions; you should use
C<PerlIO_printf>() as shown:

      if (DBIc_TRACE_LEVEL(imp_xxh) >= 2)
          PerlIO_printf(DBIc_LOGPIO(imp_xxh), "foobar %s: %s\n",
              foo, neatsvpv(errstr,0));

That's the first time we see how tracing works within a DBI
driver.  Make use of this as often as you can! But don't output anything
at a trace level less than 3. Levels 1 and 2 are reserved for the DBI.

You can define up to 8 private trace flags using the top 8 bits of
DBIc_TRACE_FLAGS(imp), that is: 0xFF000000. See the parse_trace_flag() method
elsewhere in this document.

=head3 The dbd_dr_data_sources method

This method is optional; the support for it was added in DBI v1.33.

As noted in the discussion of Driver.pm, if the data sources can be
determined by pure Perl code, do it that way.
If, as in DBD::Informix, the information is obtained by a C function
call, then you need to define a function that matches the prototype:

  extern AV *dbd_dr_data_sources(SV *drh, imp_drh_t *imp_drh, SV *attrs);

An outline implementation for DBD::Informix follows, assuming that the
sqgetdbs() function call shown will return up to 100 databases names,
with the pointers to each name in the array dbsname and the name strings
themselves being stores in dbsarea.
The actual DBD::Informix implementation has a number of extra lines of
code, logs function entry and exit, reports the error from sqgetdbs(),
and uses #define'd constatnts for the array sizes.

  AV *dbd_dr_data_sources(SV *drh, imp_drh_t *imp_drh, SV *attr)
  {
      int ndbs;
      int i;
      char *dbsname[100];
      char  dbsarea[10000];
      AV *av = Nullav;

      if (sqgetdbs(&ndbs, dbsname, 100, dbsarea, sizeof(dbsarea)) == 0)
      {
          av = NewAV();
          av_extend(av, (I32)ndbs);
          sv_2mortal((SV *)av);
          for (i = 0; i < ndbs; i++)
            av_store(av, i, newSVpvf("dbi:Informix:%s", dbsname[i]));
      }
      return(av);
  }

=head3 The dbd_db_login6 method

  int dbd_db_login6(SV* dbh, imp_dbh_t* imp_dbh, char* dbname,
                   char* user, char* auth, SV *attr);

This function will really connect to the database.
The argument I<dbh> is the database handle.
I<imp_dbh> is the pointer to the handles private data, as is I<imp_xxx>
in I<dbd_drv_error> above.
The arguments I<dbname>, I<user>, I<auth> and I<attr> correspond to the
arguments of the driver handle's I<connect> method.

You will quite often use database specific attributes here, that are
specified in the DSN.
I recommend you parse the DSN (using Perl) within the I<connect> method
and pass the segments of the DSN via the attributes parameter through
I<_login> to I<dbd_db_login6>.
Here's how you fetch them; as an example we use I<hostname> attribute,
which can be up to 12 characters long excluding null terminator:

  SV** svp;
  STRLEN len;
  char* hostname;

  if ( (svp = DBD_ATTRIB_GET_SVP(attr, "drv_hostname", 12)) && SvTRUE(*svp)) {
      hostname = SvPV(*svp, len);
      DBD__ATTRIB_DELETE(attr, "drv_hostname", 12); /* avoid later STORE */
  } else {
      hostname = "localhost";
  }

Note that you can also obtain standard attributes such as AutoCommit and
ChopBlanks from the attributes parameter, using DBD_ATTRIB_GET_IV for
integer attributes.
If, for example, your database does not support transactions but
AutoCommit is set off (requesting transaction support), then you can
emulate a 'failure to connect'.

Now you should really connect to the database.
In general, if the connection fails, it is best to ensure that all
allocated resources are released so that the handle does not need to be
destroyed separately.
If you are successful (and possibly even if you fail but you have
allocated some resources), you should use the following macros:

  DBIc_IMPSET_on(imp_dbh);

This indicates that the driver (implementor) has allocated resources in
the imp_dbh structure and that the implementors private dbd_db_destroy
function should be called when the handle is destroyed.

  DBIc_ACTIVE_on(imp_dbh);

This indicates that the handle has an active connection to the server
and that the dbd_db_disconnect function should be called before the
handle is destroyed.

Note that if you do need to fail, you should report errors via the drh
or imp_drh rather than via dbh or imp_dbh because imp_dbh will be
destroyed by the failure, so errors recorded in that handle will not be
visible to DBI, and hence not the user either.
Note to that the function is passed dbh and imp_dbh, and there is a
macro D_imp_drh_from_dbh which can recover the imp_drh from the imp_dbh,
but there is no DBI macro to provide you with the drh given either the
imp_dbh or the dbh or the imp_drh (and there's no way to recover the dbh
given just the imp_dbh).
This suggests that despite the notes about dbd_drv_error above taking an
SV *, it may be better to have two error routines, one taking imp_dbh
and one taking imp_drh instead.
With care, you can factor most of the formatting code out so that these
are small routines calling onto a common error formatter.
See the code in DBD::Informix 1.05.00 for more information.

The I<dbd_db_login6> function should return TRUE for success, FALSE otherwise.

Drivers implemented long ago may define the five-argument function
I<dbd_db_login> instead of I<dbd_db_login6>.
The missing argument is the attributes.
There are ways to work around the missing attributes, but they are
ungainly; it is much better to use the 6-argument form.

=head3 The dbd_db_commit and dbd_db_rollback methods

  int dbd_db_commit(SV *dbh, imp_dbh_t *imp_dbh);
  int dbd_db_rollback(SV* dbh, imp_dbh_t* imp_dbh);

These are used for commit and rollback. They should return TRUE for
success, FALSE for error.

The arguments I<dbh> and I<imp_dbh> are the same as for I<dbd_db_login6>
above; I will omit describing them in what follows, as they appear
always.

These functions should return TRUE for success, FALSE otherwise.

=head3 The dbd_db_disconnect method

This is your private part of the I<disconnect> method. Any dbh with
the I<ACTIVE> flag on must be disconnected. (Note that you have to set
it in I<dbd_db_connect> above.)

  int dbd_db_disconnect(SV* dbh, imp_dbh_t* imp_dbh);

The database handle will return TRUE for success, FALSE otherwise.
In any case it should do a:

  DBIc_ACTIVE_off(imp_dbh);

before returning so DBI knows that I<dbd_db_disconnect> was executed.

Note that there's nothing to stop a dbh being I<disconnected> while it
still have active children.
If your database API reacts badly to trying to use an sth in this
situation then you'll need to add code like this to all sth methods:

  if (!DBIc_ACTIVE(DBIc_PARENT_COM(imp_sth)))
    return 0;

Alternatively, you can add code to your driver to keep explicit track of
the statement handles that exist for each database handle and arrange to
destroy those handles before disconnecting from the database.
There is code to do this in DBD::Informix.
Similar comments apply to the driver handle keeping track of all the
database handles.
Note that the code which destroys the subordinate handles should only
release the associated database resources and mark the handles inactive;
it does not attempt to free the actual handle structures.

This function should return TRUE for success, FALSE otherwise, but
it is not clear what anything can do about a failure.

=head3 The dbd_db_discon_all method

  int dbd_discon_all (SV *drh, imp_drh_t *imp_drh);

This function may be called at shutdown time. It should make
best-efforts to disconnect all database handles - if possible. Some
databases don't support that, in which case you can do nothing
but return 'success'.

This function should return TRUE for success, FALSE otherwise, but
it is not clear what anything can do about a failure.

=head3 The dbd_db_destroy method

This is your private part of the database handle destructor. Any dbh with
the I<IMPSET> flag on must be destroyed, so that you can safely free
resources. (Note that you have to set it in I<dbd_db_connect> above.)

  void dbd_db_destroy(SV* dbh, imp_dbh_t* imp_dbh)
  {
      DBIc_IMPSET_off(imp_dbh);
  }

The DBI Driver.xst code will have called dbd_db_disconnect for you,
if the handle is still 'active', before calling dbd_db_destroy.

Before returning the function must switch IMPSET to off, so DBI knows
that the destructor was called.

A DBI handle doesn't keep references to its children. But children
do keep references to their parents. So a database handle won't be
DESTROY'd until all its children have been DESTROY'd.

=head3 The dbd_db_STORE_attrib method

This function handles

  $dbh->{$key} = $value;

Its prototype is:

  int dbd_db_STORE_attrib(SV* dbh, imp_dbh_t* imp_dbh, SV* keysv,
                          SV* valuesv);

You do not handle all attributes; on the contrary, you should not handle
DBI attributes here: leave this to DBI.
(There are two exceptions, I<AutoCommit> and I<ChopBlanks>, which you
should care about.)

The return value is TRUE if you have handled the attribute or FALSE
otherwise. If you are handling an attribute and something fails, you
should call I<dbd_drv_error>, so DBI can raise exceptions, if desired.
If I<dbd_drv_error> returns, however, you have a problem: the user will
never know about the error, because he typically will not check
C<$dbh-E<gt>errstr>.

I cannot recommend a general way of going on, if I<dbd_drv_error> returns,
but there are examples where even the DBI specification expects that
you croak(). (See the I<AutoCommit> method in L<DBI>.)

If you have to store attributes, you should either use your private
data structure imp_xxx, the handle hash (via (HV*)SvRV(dbh)), or use
the private imp_data.

The first is best for internal C values like integers or pointers and
where speed is important within the driver. The handle hash is best for
values the user may want to get/set via driver-specific attributes.
The private imp_data is an additional SV attached to the handle. You
could think of it as an unnamed handle attribute. It's not normally used.

=head3 The dbd_db_FETCH_attrib method

This is the counterpart of dbd_db_STORE_attrib, needed for:

  $value = $dbh->{$key};

Its prototype is:

  SV* dbd_db_FETCH_attrib(SV* dbh, imp_dbh_t* imp_dbh, SV* keysv);

Unlike all previous methods this returns an SV with the value. Note
that you should normally execute sv_2mortal, if you return a nonconstant
value. (Constant values are C<&sv_undef>, C<&sv_no> and C<&sv_yes>.)

Note, that DBI implements a caching algorithm for attribute values.
If you think, that an attribute may be fetched, you store it in the
dbh itself:

  if (cacheit) /* cache value for later DBI 'quick' fetch? */
      hv_store((HV*)SvRV(dbh), key, kl, cachesv, 0);

=head3 The dbd_st_prepare method

This is the private part of the I<prepare> method. Note that you
B<must not> really execute the statement here. You may, for example,
preparse and validate the statement or do similar things.

  int dbd_st_prepare(SV* sth, imp_sth_t* imp_sth, char* statement,
                     SV* attribs);

A typical, simple, possibility is to do nothing and rely on the perl
perpare() code that set the Statement attribute on the handle. This
attribute can then be used by dbd_st_execute.

If the driver supports placeholders then the NUM_OF_PARAMS attribute
must be set correctly by dbd_st_prepare:

  DBIc_NUM_PARAMS(imp_sth) = ...

If you can, you should also setup attributes like NUM_OF_FIELDS,
NAME, ... here, but DBI doesn't require that. However, if you do,
document it.

In any case you should set the IMPSET flag, as you did in
I<dbd_db_connect> above:

  DBIc_IMPSET_on(imp_sth);

=head3 The dbd_st_execute method

This is where a statement will really be executed.

  int dbd_st_execute(SV* sth, imp_sth_t* imp_sth);

Note, that you must be aware, that a statement may be executed
repeatedly.
Also, you should not expect, that I<finish> will be called between two
executions, so you'll might need code like the following near the start
of the function:

  if (DBIc_ACTIVE(imp_sth))
      dbd_st_finish(h, imp_sth);

If your driver supports the binding of parameters (it should!), but the
database doesn't, you must do it here. This can be done as follows:

  SV *svp;
  char* statement = DBD_ATTRIB_GET_PV(h, "Statement", 9, svp, "");
  int numParam = DBIc_NUM_PARAMS(imp_sth);
  int i;

  for (i = 0; i < numParam; i++)
  {
      char* value = dbd_db_get_param(sth, imp_sth, i);
      /* It is your drivers task to implement dbd_db_get_param,    */
      /* it must be setup as a counterpart of dbd_bind_ph.         */
      /* Look for '?' and replace it with 'value'.  Difficult      */
      /* task, note that you may have question marks inside        */
      /* quotes and comments the like ...  :-(                     */
      /* See DBD::mysql for an example. (Don't look too deep into  */
      /* the example, you will notice where I was lazy ...)        */
  }

The next thing is you really execute the statement.
Note that you must set the attributes NUM_OF_FIELDS,
NAME, etc when the statement is successfully executed if the driver has
not already done so.
They may be used even before a potential I<fetchrow>.
In particular you have to tell DBI the number of fields, that the
statement has, because it will be used by DBI internally.
Thus the function will typically ends with:

  if (isSelectStatement) {
      DBIc_NUM_FIELDS(imp_sth) = numFields;
      DBIc_ACTIVE_on(imp_sth);
  }

It is important that the ACTIVE flag only be set for C<SELECT> statements
(or any other statements that can return multiple sets of values from
the database using a cursor-like mechanism).
See I<dbd_db_connect> above for more explanations.

There plans for a preparse function to be provided by DBI, but this has
not reached fruition yet.
Meantime, if you want to know how ugly it can get, try looking at the
I<dbd_ix_preparse> in DBD::Informix I<dbdimp.ec> and the related
functions in I<iustoken.c> and I<sqltoken.c>.

=head3 The dbd_st_fetch method

This function fetches a row of data. The row is stored in in an array,
of SV's that DBI prepares for you. This has two advantages: it is fast
(you even reuse the SV's, so they don't have to be created after the
first fetchrow), and it guarantees that DBI handles I<bind_cols> for
you.

What you do is the following:

  AV* av;
  int numFields = DBIc_NUM_FIELDS(imp_sth); /* Correct, if NUM_FIELDS
      is constant for this statement. There are drivers where this is
      not the case! */
  int chopBlanks = DBIc_is(imp_sth, DBIcf_ChopBlanks);
  int i;

  if (!fetch_new_row_of_data(...)) {
      ... /* check for error or end-of-data */
      DBIc_ACTIVE_off(imp_sth); /* turn off Active flag automatically */
      return Nullav;
  }
  /* get the fbav (field buffer array value) for this row       */
  /* it is very important to only call this after you know      */
  /* that you have a row of data to return.                     */
  av = DBIc_DBISTATE(imp_sth)->get_fbav(imp_sth);
  for (i = 0; i < numFields; i++) {
      SV* sv = fetch_a_field(..., i);
      if (chopBlanks && SvOK(sv) && type_is_blank_padded(field_type[i])) {
          /*  Remove white space from end (only) of sv  */
      }
      sv_setsv(AvARRAY(av)[i], sv); /* Note: (re)use! */
  }
  return av;

There's no need to use a fetch_a_field function returning an SV*.
It's more common to use your database API functions to fetch the
data as character strings and use code like this:

  sv_setpvn(AvARRAY(av)[i], char_ptr, char_count);

NULL values must be returned as undef. You can use code like this:

  SvOK_off(AvARRAY(av)[i]);

The function returns the AV prepared by DBI for success or C<Nullav>
otherwise.

 *FIX ME* Discuss what happens when there's no more data to fetch.
 Are errors permitted if another fetch occurs after the first fetch
 that reports no more data. (Permitted, not required.)

If an error occurs which leaves the $sth in a state where remaining
rows can't be fetched then Active should be turned off before the
method returns.

=head3 The dbd_st_finish3 method

The C<$sth-E<gt>finish> method can be called if the user wishes to
indicate that no more rows will be fetched even if the database has more
rows to offer, and the DBI code can call the function when handles are
being destroyed.
See the DBI specification for more background details.
In both circumstances, the DBI code ends up calling the
C<dbd_st_finish3> method (if you provide a mapping for I<dbd_st_finish3>
in I<dbdimp.h>), or I<dbd_st_finish> otherwise.
The difference is that dbd_st_finish3 takes a third argument which is an
C<int> with the value 1 if it is being called from a destroy method and
0 otherwise.

Note that DBI v1.32 and earlier test on dbd_db_finish3 to call
dbd_st_finish3; if you provide dbd_st_finish3, either define
dbd_db_finish3 too, or insist on DBI v1.33 or later.

All it I<needs> to do is turn off the Active flag for the sth.
It will only be called by Driver.xst code, if the driver has set ACTIVE
to on for the sth.

Outline example:

  int dbd_st_finish3(SV* sth, imp_sth_t* imp_sth, int from_destroy) {
      if (DBIc_ACTIVE(imp_sth))
      {
          /* close cursor or equivalent action */
          DBIc_ACTIVE_off(imp_sth);
      }
      return 1;
  }

The from_destroy parameter is true if dbd_st_finish3 is being called
from DESTROY - and so the statement is about to be destroyed.
For many drivers there's no point in doing anything more than turing of
the Active flag in this case.

The function returns TRUE for success, FALSE otherwise, but there isn't
a lot anyone can do to recover if there is an error.

=head3 The dbd_st_destroy method

This function is the private part of the statement handle destructor.

  void dbd_st_destroy(SV* sth, imp_sth_t* imp_sth) {
      ... /* any clean-up that's needed */
      DBIc_IMPSET_off(imp_sth); /* let DBI know we've done it   */
  }

The DBI Driver.xst code will call dbd_st_finish for you, if the sth has
the ACTIVE flag set, before calling dbd_st_destroy.

=head3 The dbd_st_STORE_attrib and dbd_st_FETCH_attrib methods

These functions correspond to dbd_db_STORE and dbd_db_FETCH attrib
above, except that they are for statement handles.
See above.

  int dbd_st_STORE_attrib(SV* sth, imp_sth_t* imp_sth, SV* keysv,
                          SV* valuesv);
  SV* dbd_st_FETCH_attrib(SV* sth, imp_sth_t* imp_sth, SV* keysv);

=head3 The dbd_bind_ph method

This function is internally used by the I<bind_param> method, the
I<bind_param_inout> method and by the DBI Driver.xst code if C<execute>
is called with any bind parameters.

  int dbd_bind_ph (SV *sth, imp_sth_t *imp_sth, SV *param,
                   SV *value, IV sql_type, SV *attribs,
                   int is_inout, IV maxlen);

The I<param> argument holds an IV with the parameter number (1, 2, ...).
The I<value> argument is the parameter value and I<sql_type> is its type.

If your driver does not support bind_param_inout then you should
ignore I<maxlen> and croak if I<is_inout> is TRUE.

If your driver I<does> support bind_param_inout then you should
note that I<value> is the SV I<after> dereferencing the reference
passed to bind_param_inout.

In drivers of simple databases the function will, for example, store
the value in a parameter array and use it later in I<dbd_st_execute>.
See the I<DBD::mysql> driver for an example.

=head3 Implementing bind_param_inout support

To provide support for parameters bound by reference rather than by
value, the driver must do a number of things.  First, and most
importantly, it must note the references and stash them in its own
driver structure.  Secondly, when a value is bound to a column, the
driver must discard any previous reference bound to the column.  On
each execute, the driver must evaluate the references and internally
bind the values resulting from the references.  This is only applicable
if the user writes:

  $sth->execute;

If the user writes:

  $sth->execute(@values);

then DBI automatically calls the binding code for each element of
@values.  These calls are indistinguishable from explicit user calls to
bind_param.

=head2 C/XS version of Makefile.PL

The I<Makefile.PL> file for a C/XS driver is similar to the code needed
for a pure Perl driver, but there are a number of extra bits of
information needed by the build system.
For example, the attributes list passed to C<WriteMakefile> needs to
specify the object files that need to be compiled and built into the
shared object (DLL).
This is often, but not necessarily, just dbdimp.o (unless that should be
dbdimp.obj because you're building on MS Windows).
Note that you can reliably determine the extension of the object files
from the $Config{obj_ext} values, and there are many other useful pieces
of configuration information lurking in that hash.
You get access to it with:

    use Config;

=head2 Methods which do not need to be written

The DBI code implements the majority of the methods which are
accessed using the notation DBI->function(), the only exceptions being
DBI->connect() and DBI->data_sources() which require support from the
driver.

The DBI code implements the following documented driver, database and
statement functions which do not need to be written by the DBD driver
writer.

=over 4

=item $dbh->do()

The default implementation of this function prepares, executes and
destroys the statement.  This can be replaced if there is a better
way to implement this, such as EXECUTE IMMEDIATE which can
sometimes be used if there are no parameters.

=item $h->errstr()

=item $h->err()

=item $h->state()

=item $h->trace()

The DBD driver does not need to worry about these routines at all.

=item $h->{ChopBlanks}

This attribute needs to be honured during fetch operations, but does
not need to be handled by the attribute handling code.

=item $h->{RaiseError}

The DBD driver does not need to worry about this attribute at all.

=item $h->{PrintError}

The DBD driver does not need to worry about this attribute at all.

=item $sth->bind_col()

Assuming the driver uses the DBIc_DBISTATE(imp_xxh)->get_fbav() function (C drivers,
see below), or the $sth->_set_fbav($data) method (Perl drivers)
the driver does not need to do anything about this routine.

=item $sth->bind_columns()

Regardless of whether the driver uses DBIc_DBISTATE(imp_xxh)->get_fbav(), the driver
does not need to do anything about this routine as it simply
iteratively calls $sth->bind_col().

=back

The DBI code implements a default implementation of the following
functions which do not need to be written by the DBD driver writer
unless the default implementation is incorrect for the Driver.

=over 4

=item $dbh->quote()

This should only be written if the database does not accept the ANSI
SQL standard for quoting strings, with the string enclosed in single
quotes and any embedded single quotes replaced by two consecutive
single quotes.

For the two argument form of quote, you need to implement the
C<type_info> method to provide the information that quote needs.

=item $dbh->ping()

This should be implemented as a simple efficient way to determine
whether the connection to the database is still alive. Typically
code like this:

  sub ping {
      my $dbh = shift;
      $sth = $dbh->prepare_cached(q{
          select * from A_TABLE_NAME where 1=0
      }) or return 0;
      $sth->execute or return 0;
      $sth->finish;
      return 1;
  }

where A_TABLE_NAME is the name of a table that always exists (such as a
database system catalogue).

=back

=head1 METADATA METHODS

The exposition above ignores the DBI MetaData methods.
The metadata methods are all associated with a database handle.

=head2 Using DBI::DBD::Metadata

The DBI::DBD::Metadata module is a good semi-automatic way for the developer of a DBD module to
write the get_info and type_info functions quickly and accurately.

=head3 Generating the get_info method

Prior to DBI v1.33, this existed as the method write_getinfo_pm in the
DBI::DBD module.
From DBI v1.33, it exists as the method write_getinfo_pm in the
DBI::DBD::Metadata module.
This discussion assumes you have DBI v1.33 or later.

You examine the documentation for write_getinfo_pm using:

    perldoc DBI::DBD::Metadata

To use it, you need a Perl DBI driver for your database which implements
the get_info method.
In practice, this means you need to install DBD::ODBC, an ODBC driver
manager, and an ODBC driver for your database.
With the pre-requisites in place, you might type:

    perl -MDBI::DBD::Metadata -e write_getinfo_pm \
            dbi:ODBC:foo_db username password Driver

The procedure writes to standard output the code that should be added to
your Driver.pm file and the code that should be written to
lib/DBD/Driver/GetInfo.pm.
You should review the output to ensure that it is sensible.

=head3 Generating the type_info method

Given the idea of the write_getinfo_pm method, it was not hard to devise
a parallel method, write_typeinfo_pm, which does the analogous job for the
DBI type_info_all metadata method.
The the write_typeinfo_pm method was added to DBI v1.33.

You examine the documentation for write_typeinfo_pm using:

    perldoc DBI::DBD::Metadata

The setup is exactly analogous to the mechanism descibed in
L</Generating the get_info method>
With the pre-requisites in place, you might type:

    perl -MDBI::DBD::Metadata -e write_typeinfo \
            dbi:ODBC:foo_db username password Driver

The procedure writes to standard output the code that should be added to
your Driver.pm file and the code that should be written to
lib/DBD/Driver/TypeInfo.pm.
You should review the output to ensure that it is sensible.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::get_info

If you use the DBI::DBD::Metadata module, then the code you need is
generated for you.

If you decide not to use the DBI::DBD::Metadata module, you should
probably borrow the code from a driver that has done so (eg
DBD::Informix from version 1.05 onwards) and crib the code from there,
or look at the code that generates that module and follow that.
The method in Driver.pm will be very simple; the method in
lib/DBD/Driver/GetInfo.pm is not very much more complex unless your DBMS itself is
much more complex.

Note that some of the DBI utility methods rely on information from the
get_info method to perform their operations correctly.
See, for example, the quote_identifier and quote methods, discussed
below.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::type_info_all

If you use the DBI::DBD::Metadata module, then the code you need is
generated for you.

If you decide not to use the DBI::DBD::Metadata module, you should
probably borrow the code from a driver that has done so (eg
DBD::Informix from version 1.05 onwards) and crib the code from there,
or look at the code that generates that module and follow that.
The method in Driver.pm will be very simple; the method in
lib/DBD/Driver/TypeInfo.pm is not very much more complex unless your DBMS
itself is much more complex.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::type_info

The guidelines on writing this method are still not really clear.
No sample implementation is available.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::table_info

 *FIX ME* The guidelines on writing this method have not been written yet.
 No sample implementation is available.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::column_info

 *FIX ME* The guidelines on writing this method have not been written yet.
 No sample implementation is available.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::primary_key_info

 *FIX ME* The guidelines on writing this method have not been written yet.
 No sample implementation is available.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::primary_key

 *FIX ME* The guidelines on writing this method have not been written yet.
 No sample implementation is available.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::foreign_key_info

 *FIX ME* The guidelines on writing this method have not been written yet.
 No sample implementation is available.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::tables

This method generates an array of names in a format suitable for being
embedded in SQL statements in places where a table name is expected.

If your database hews close enough to the SQL standard or if you have
implemented an appropriate table_info function and and the appropriate
quote_identifier function, then the DBI default version of this method
will work for your driver too.

Otherwise, you have to write a function yourself, such as:

    sub tables
    {
        my($dbh, $cat, $sch, $tab, $typ) = @_;
        my(@res);
        my($sth) = $dbh->table_info($cat, $sch, $tab, $typ);
        my(@arr);
        while (@arr = $sth->fetchrow_array)
        {
            push @res, $dbh->quote_identifier($arr[0], $arr[1], $arr[2]);
        }
        return @res;
    }

See also the default implementation in DBI.pm.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::quote

This method takes a value and converts it into a string suitable for
embedding in an SQL statement as a string literal.

If your DBMS accepts the SQL standard notation for strings (single
quotes around the string as a whole with any embedded single quotes
doubled up), then you do not need to write this method as DBI provides a
default method that does it for you.
If your DBMS uses an alternative notation or escape mechanism, then you
need to provide an equivalent function.
For example, suppose your DBMS used C notation with double quotes around
the string and backslashes escaping both double quotes and backslashes
themselves.
Then you might write the function as:

    sub quote
    {
        my($dbh, $str) = @_;
        $str =~ s/["\\]/\\$&/gmo;
        return qq{"$str"};
    }

Handling newlines and other control characters is left as an exercise
for the reader.

This sample method ignores the $data_type indicator which is the
optional second argument to the method.

=head2 Writing DBD::Driver::db::quote_identifier

This method is called to ensure that the name of the given table (or
other database object) can be embedded into an SQL statement without
danger of misinterpretation.
The result string should be usable in the text of an SQL statement as
the identifier for a table.

If your DBMS accepts the SQL standard notation for quoted identifiers
(which uses double quotes around the identifier as a whole, with any
embedded double quotes doubled up) and accepts "schema"."identifier"
(and "catalog"."schema"."identifier" when a catalog is specified), then
you do not need to write this method as DBI provides a default method
that does it for you.
In fact, even if your DBMS does not handle exactly that notation but you
have implemented the get_info method and it gives the correct responses,
then it will work for you.
If your database is fussier, then you need to implement your own version
of the function.

For example, DBD::Informix has to deal with an environment variable
DELIMIDENT.
If it is not set, then the DBMS treats names enclosed in double quotes
as strings rather than names, which is usually a syntax error.
Additionally, the catalog portion of the name is separated from the
schema and table by a different delimiter (colon instead of dot), and
the catalog portion is never enclosed in quotes.
(Fortunately, valid strings for the catalog will never contain weird
characters that might need to be escaped, unless you count dots, dashes,
slashes and at-signs as weird.)
Finally, an Informix database can contain objects that cannot be
accessed because they were created by a user with the DELIMIDENT
environment variable set, but the current user does not have it set.
By design choice, the quote_identifier method encloses those identifiers
in double quotes anyway, which generally triggers a syntax error, and
the metadata methods which generate lists of tables etc omit those
identifiers from the result sets.

    sub quote_identifier
    {
        my($dbh, $cat, $sch, $obj) = @_;
        my($rv) = "";
        my($qq) = (defined $ENV{DELIMIDENT}) ? '"' : '';
        $rv .= qq{$cat:} if (defined $cat);
        if (defined $sch)
        {
            if ($sch !~ m/^\w+$/o)
            {
                $qq = '"';
                $sch =~ s/$qq/$qq$qq/gm;
            }
            $rv .= qq{$qq$sch$qq.};
        }
        if (defined $obj)
        {
            if ($obj !~ m/^\w+$/o)
            {
                $qq = '"';
                $obj =~ s/$qq/$qq$qq/gm;
            }
            $rv .= qq{$qq$obj$qq};
        }
        return $rv;
    }

Handling newlines and other control characters is left as an exercise
for the reader.

Note that there is an optional fourth parameter to this function which
is a reference to a hash of attributes; this sample implementation
ignores that.
This sample implementation also ignores the single-argument variant of
the method.

=head1 WRITING AN EMULATION LAYER FOR AN OLD PERL INTERFACE

Study Oraperl.pm (supplied with DBD::Oracle) and Ingperl.pm (supplied
with DBD::Ingres) and the corresponding dbdimp.c files for ideas.

Note that the emulation code sets $dbh->{CompatMode} = 1; for each
connection so that the internals of the driver can implement behaviour
compatible with the old interface when dealing with those handles.

=head2 Setting emulation perl variables

For example, ingperl has a $sql_rowcount variable. Rather than try
to manually update this in Ingperl.pm it can be done faster in C code.
In dbd_init():

  sql_rowcount = perl_get_sv("Ingperl::sql_rowcount", GV_ADDMULTI);

In the relevant places do:

  if (DBIc_COMPAT(imp_sth))     /* only do this for compatibility mode handles */
      sv_setiv(sql_rowcount, the_row_count);

=head1 OTHER MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

=head2 The imp_xyz_t types

Any handle has a corresponding C structure filled with private data.
Some of this data is reserved for use by DBI (except for using the
DBIc macros below), some is for you. See the description of the
I<dbdimp.h> file above for examples. The most functions in dbdimp.c
are passed both the handle C<xyz> and a pointer to C<imp_xyz>. In
rare cases, however, you may use the following macros:

=over 2

=item D_imp_dbh(dbh)

Given a function argument I<dbh>, declare a variable I<imp_dbh> and
initialize it with a pointer to the handles private data. Note: This
must be a part of the function header, because it declares a variable.

=item D_imp_sth(sth)

Likewise for statement handles.

=item D_imp_xxx(h)

Given any handle, declare a variable I<imp_xxx> and initialize it
with a pointer to the handles private data. It is safe, for example,
to cast I<imp_xxx> to C<imp_dbh_t*>, if DBIc_TYPE(imp_xxx) == DBIt_DB.
(You can also call sv_derived_from(h, "DBI::db"), but that's much
slower.)

=item D_imp_dbh_from_sth

Given a imp_sth, declare a variable I<imp_dbh> and initialize it with a
pointer to the parent database handle's implementors structure.

=back

=head2 Using DBIc_IMPSET_on

The driver code which initializes a handle should use DBIc_IMPSET_on()
as soon as its state is such that the cleanup code must be called.
When this happens is determined by your driver code.

Failure to call this can lead to corruption of data structures.
For example, DBD::Informix maintains a linked list of database handles
in the driver, and within each handle, a linked list of statements.
Once a statement is added to the linked list, it is crucial that it is
cleaned up (removed from the list).
When DBIc_IMPSET_on() was being called too late, it was able to cause
all sorts of problems.

=head2 Using DBIc_is(), DBIc_has(), DBIc_on() and DBIc_off()

Once upon a long time ago, the only way of handling the internal DBI
boolean flags/attributes was through macros such as:

  DBIc_WARN       DBIc_WARN_on        DBIc_WARN_off
  DBIc_COMPAT     DBIc_COMPAT_on      DBIc_COMPAT_off

Each of these took an imp_xxh pointer as an argument.

Since then, new attributes have been added such as ChopBlanks,
RaiseError and PrintError, and these do not have the full set of
macros.
The approved method for handling these is now the four macros:

  DBIc_is(imp, flag)
  DBIc_has(imp, flag)       an alias for DBIc_is
  DBIc_on(imp, flag)
  DBIc_off(imp, flag)
  DBIc_set(imp, flag, on)   set if on is true, else clear

Consequently, the DBIc_XXXXX family of macros is now mostly deprecated
and new drivers should avoid using them, even though the older drivers
will probably continue to do so for quite a while yet. However...

There is an I<important exception> to that. The ACTIVE and IMPSET
flags should be set via the DBIc_ACTIVE_on and DBIc_IMPSET_on macros,
and unset via the DBIc_ACTIVE_off and DBIc_IMPSET_off macros.

=head2 Using the get_fbav() method

B<THIS IS CRITICAL> for C/XS drivers.

The $sth->bind_col() and $sth->bind_columns() documented in the DBI
specification do not have to be implemented by the driver writer because
DBI takes care of the details for you.
However, the key to ensuring that bound columns work is to call the
function DBIc_DBISTATE(imp_xxh)->get_fbav() in the code which fetches a
row of data.
This returns an AV, and each element of the AV contains the SV which
should be set to contain the returned data.

The pure Perl equivalent is the $sth->_set_fbav($data) method, as
described in the part on pure Perl drivers.

=head1 SUBCLASSING DBI DRIVERS

This is definitely an open subject. It can be done, as demonstrated by
the I<DBD::File> driver, but it is not as simple as one might think.

(Note that this topic is different from subclassing the DBI. For an
example of that, see the t/subclass.t file supplied with the DBI.)

The main problem is that the dbh's and sth's that your I<connect> and
I<prepare> methods return are not instances of your I<DBD::Driver::db>
or I<DBD::Driver::st> packages, they are not even derived from it.
Instead they are instances of the I<DBI::db> or I<DBI::st> classes or
a derived subclass. Thus, if you write a method I<mymethod> and do a

  $dbh->mymethod()

then the autoloader will search for that method in the package I<DBI::db>.
Of course you can instead to a

  $dbh->func('mymethod')

and that will indeed work, even if I<mymethod> is inherited, but not
without additional work. Setting C<@ISA> is not sufficient.

=head2 Overwriting methods

The first problem is, that the I<connect> method has no idea of
subclasses. For example, you cannot implement base class and subclass
in the same file: The I<install_driver> method wants to do a

  require DBD::Driver;

In particular, your subclass B<has> to be a separate driver, from
the view of DBI, and you cannot share driver handles.

Of course that's not much of a problem. You should even be able
to inherit the base classes I<connect> method. But you cannot
simply overwrite the method, unless you do something like this,
quoted from I<DBD::CSV>:

  sub connect ($$;$$$) {
      my ($drh, $dbname, $user, $auth, $attr) = @_;

      my $this = $drh->DBD::File::dr::connect($dbname, $user, $auth, $attr);
      if (!exists($this->{csv_tables})) {
          $this->{csv_tables} = {};
      }

      $this;
  }

Note that we cannot do a

  $drh->SUPER::connect($dbname, $user, $auth, $attr);

as we would usually do in a an OO environment, because $drh is an instance
of I<DBI::dr>. And note, that the I<connect> method of I<DBD::File> is
able to handle subclass attributes. See the description of Pure Perl
drivers above.

It is essential that you always call superclass method in the above
manner. However, that should do.

=head2 Attribute handling

Fortunately the DBI specifications allow a simple, but still performant way of
handling attributes. The idea is based on the convention that any
driver uses a prefix I<driver_> for its private methods. Thus it's
always clear whether to pass attributes to the super class or not.
For example, consider this STORE method from the I<DBD::CSV> class:

  sub STORE {
      my ($dbh, $attr, $val) = @_;
      if ($attr !~ /^driver_/) {
          return $dbh->DBD::File::db::STORE($attr, $val);
      }
      if ($attr eq 'driver_foo') {
      ...
  }

=cut

use Exporter ();
use Config qw(%Config);
use Carp;
use Cwd;
use File::Spec;
use strict;
use vars qw(
    @ISA @EXPORT
    $is_dbi
);

BEGIN {
    if ($^O eq 'VMS') {
	require vmsish;
	import  vmsish;
	require VMS::Filespec;
	import  VMS::Filespec;
    }
    else {
	*vmsify  = sub { return $_[0] };
	*unixify = sub { return $_[0] };
    }
}

@ISA = qw(Exporter);

@EXPORT = qw(
    dbd_dbi_dir
    dbd_dbi_arch_dir
    dbd_edit_mm_attribs
    dbd_postamble
);

BEGIN {
    $is_dbi = (-r 'DBI.pm' && -r 'DBI.xs' && -r 'DBIXS.h');
    require DBI unless $is_dbi;
}

my $done_inst_checks;

sub _inst_checks {
    return if $done_inst_checks++;
    my $cwd = cwd();
    if ($cwd =~ /\Q$Config{path_sep}/) {
	warn "*** Warning: Path separator characters (`$Config{path_sep}') ",
	    "in the current directory path ($cwd) may cause problems\a\n\n";
        sleep 2;
    }
    if ($cwd =~ /\s/) {
	warn "*** Warning: whitespace characters ",
	    "in the current directory path ($cwd) may cause problems\a\n\n";
        sleep 2;
    }
    if (   $^O eq 'MSWin32'
	&& $Config{cc} eq 'cl'
	&& !(exists $ENV{'LIB'} && exists $ENV{'INCLUDE'}))
    {
	die <<EOT;
*** You're using Microsoft Visual C++ compiler or similar but
    the LIB and INCLUDE environment variables are not both set.

    You need to run the VCVARS32.BAT batch file that was supplied
    with the compiler before you can use it.

    A copy of vcvars32.bat can typically be found in the following
    directories under your Visual Studio install directory:
        Visual C++ 6.0:     vc98\\bin
        Visual Studio .NET: vc7\\bin

    Find it, run it, then retry this.

    If you think this error is not correct then just set the LIB and
    INCLUDE environment variables to some value to disable the check.
EOT
    }
}

sub dbd_edit_mm_attribs {
    # this both edits the attribs in-place and returns the flattened attribs
    my $mm_attr = shift;
    my $dbd_attr = shift || {};
    croak "dbd_edit_mm_attribs( \%makemaker [, \%other ]): too many parameters"
	if @_;
    _inst_checks();

    # decide what needs doing

    # do whatever needs doing
    if ($dbd_attr->{create_pp_tests}) {
	# XXX need to convert this to work within the generated Makefile
	# so 'make' creates them and 'make clean' deletes them
	my %test_variants = (
	    pp => {	name => "DBI::PurePerl",
			add => [ 'local $ENV{DBI_PUREPERL} = 2;' ],
	    },
	    mx => {	name => "DBD::Multiplex",
			add => [ q{local $ENV{DBI_AUTOPROXY} = 'dbi:Multiplex:';} ],
	    }
	#   px => {	name => "DBD::Proxy",
	#		need mechanism for starting/stopping the proxy server
	#		add => [ q{local $ENV{DBI_AUTOPROXY} = 'dbi:Proxy:XXX';} ],
	#   }
	);
	# currently many tests fail - DBD::Multiplex needs more work
	# to bring it up to date and improve transparency.
	delete $test_variants{mx}; # unless -f "lib/DBD/Multiplex.pm";

	opendir DIR, 't' or die "Can't create variants of tests in 't' directory: $!";
	my @tests = grep { /\.t$/ } readdir DIR;
	closedir DIR;

	# XXX one day we may try combinations here, ie pp+mx!

	foreach my $test (sort @tests) {
	    next if $test !~ /^[0-8]/;
	    my $usethr = ($test =~ /(\d+|\b)thr/ && $] >= 5.008 && $Config{useithreads});

	    while ( my ($v_type, $v_info) = each %test_variants ) {
		my $v_test = "t/zv${v_type}_$test";
		printf "Creating %-16s test variant: $v_test %s\n",
		    $v_info->{name}, ($usethr) ? "(use threads)" : "";
		open PPT, ">$v_test" or warn "Can't create $v_test: $!";
		print PPT "#!perl -w\n";
		print PPT "use threads;\n" if $usethr;
		print PPT "$_\n" foreach @{$v_info->{add}};
		print PPT "do 't/$test' or warn \$!;\n";
		print PPT 'die if $@;'."\n";
		print PPT "exit 0\n";
		close PPT or warn "Error writing $v_test: $!";
	    }
	}
    }
    return %$mm_attr;
}

sub dbd_dbi_dir {
    _inst_checks();
    return '.' if $is_dbi;
    my $dbidir = $INC{'DBI.pm'} || die "DBI.pm not in %INC!";
    $dbidir =~ s:/DBI\.pm$::;
    return $dbidir;
}

sub dbd_dbi_arch_dir {
    _inst_checks();
    return '$(INST_ARCHAUTODIR)' if $is_dbi;
    my $dbidir = dbd_dbi_dir();
    my %seen;
    my @try = grep { not $seen{$_}++ } map { vmsify( unixify($_) . "/auto/DBI/" ) } @INC;
    my @xst = grep { -f vmsify( unixify($_) . "/Driver.xst" ) } @try;
    Carp::croak("Unable to locate Driver.xst in @try") unless @xst;
    Carp::carp( "Multiple copies of Driver.xst found in: @xst") if @xst > 1;
    print "Using DBI $DBI::VERSION (for perl $] on $Config{archname}) installed in $xst[0]\n";
    return File::Spec->canonpath($xst[0]);
}

sub dbd_postamble {
    my $self = shift;
    _inst_checks();
    my $dbi_instarch_dir = ($is_dbi) ? "." : dbd_dbi_arch_dir();
    my $dbi_driver_xst= File::Spec->catfile($dbi_instarch_dir, 'Driver.xst');
    my $xstf_h = File::Spec->catfile($dbi_instarch_dir, 'Driver_xst.h');

    # we must be careful of quotes, expecially for Win32 here.
    return '
# --- This section was generated by DBI::DBD::dbd_postamble()
DBI_INSTARCH_DIR='.$dbi_instarch_dir.'
DBI_DRIVER_XST='.$dbi_driver_xst.'

# The main dependancy (technically correct but probably not used)
$(BASEEXT).c: $(BASEEXT).xsi

# This dependancy is needed since MakeMaker uses the .xs.o rule
$(BASEEXT)$(OBJ_EXT): $(BASEEXT).xsi

$(BASEEXT).xsi: $(DBI_DRIVER_XST) '.$xstf_h.'
	$(PERL) -p -e "s/~DRIVER~/$(BASEEXT)/g" $(DBI_DRIVER_XST) > $(BASEEXT).xsi

# ---
';
}

package DBDI; # just to reserve it via PAUSE for the future

1;

__END__

=head1 AUTHORS

Jonathan Leffler <jleffler@us.ibm.com> (previously <jleffler@informix.com>),
Jochen Wiedmann <joe@ispsoft.de>,
Steffen Goeldner <sgoeldner@cpan.org>,
and Tim Bunce <dbi-users@perl.org>.

=cut