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<book>

<bookinfo>
	<title>LibSigC++</title>
        <author>
          <firstname>Ainsley</firstname>
          <surname>Pereira</surname>
        </author>

	<pubdate>September 2002. Updated January 2004 by Murray Cumming</pubdate>

        <abstract>
          <para>LibSigC++ is a C++ template library implementing typesafe callbacks. This is an intro to LibSigC++.</para>
        </abstract>
</bookinfo>

<chapter id="sec-introduction">
<title>Introduction</title>

<sect1>
<title>Motivation</title>

	<para>There are many situations in which it is desirable to decouple code that
	detects an event, and the code that deals with it. This is especially common in
	GUI programming, where a toolkit might provide user interface elements such as
	clickable buttons but, being a generic toolkit, doesn't know how an individual
	application using that toolkit should handle the user clicking on it.</para>

	<para>In C the callbacks are generally handled by the application calling a
	'register' function and passing a pointer to a function and a <literal remap="tt">void *</literal>
	argument, eg.</para>

<programlisting>
void clicked(void *data);

button * okbutton = create_button("ok");
static char somedata[] = "This is some data I want the clicked() function to have";

register_click_handler(okbutton, clicked, somedata);
</programlisting>

	<para>When clicked, the toolkit will call <literal remap="tt">clicked()</literal> with the data pointer passed
	to the <literal remap="tt">register_click_handler</literal> function.</para>

	<para>This works in C, but is not typesafe. There is no compile-time way of
	ensuring that <literal remap="tt">clicked()</literal> isn't expecting a struct of some sort instead of a
	<literal remap="tt">char *</literal>.</para>

	<para>As C++ programmers, we want type safety. We also want to be able to use
	things other than free-standing functions as callbacks.</para>

	<para>LibSigC++ provides the concept of a slot, which holds a reference to one of
	the things that can be used as a callback:
	<itemizedlist>
	    <listitem>A free-standing function as in the example</listitem>
	    <listitem>A functor objects that defines operator()</listitem>
	    <listitem>A pointer-to-a-member-function and an instance of an object on which to invoke it (the
	        object should inherit from <literal remap="tt">sigc::trackable</literal>)</listitem>
	</itemizedlist></para>

	<para>All of which can take different numbers and types of arguments.</para>

	<para>To make it easier to construct these, libsigc++ provides 2 the sigc::ptr_fun() and sigc::mem_fun() functions, for creating slots from static functions and member functions, respectively. They return
	a generic <literal remap="tt">signal::slot</literal> type that can be invoked with <literal remap="tt">emit()</literal> or <literal remap="tt">operator()</literal>.</para>

	<para>For the other side of the fence, LibSigC++ provides <literal remap="tt">signal</literal>s, to which the
	client can attach <literal remap="tt">slot</literal>s. When the <literal remap="tt">signal</literal> is emitted, all the connected
	<literal remap="tt">slot</literal>s are called.</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>

<chapter id="sec-connecting">
<title>Connecting your code to signals</title>

<sect1>
<title>A simple example</title>
	<para>So to get some experience, lets look at a simple example...</para>

	<para>Lets say you and I are writing an application which informs the user when
	aliens land in the car park. To keep the design nice and clean, and allow for
	maximum portability to different interfaces, we decide to use LibSigC++ to
	split the project in two parts.</para>

	<para>I will write the <literal remap="tt">AlienDetector</literal> class, and you will write the code to inform
	the user. (Well, OK, I'll write both, but we're pretending, remember?)</para>

	<para>Here's my class:</para>

<programlisting>
class AlienDetector
{
public:
    AlienDetector();

    void run();

    sigc::signal&lt;void&gt; signal_detected;
};
</programlisting>

		<para>(I'll explain the type of signal_detected later.)</para>

		<para>Here's your code that uses it:</para>

<programlisting>
void warn_people()
{
    cout &lt;&lt; "There are aliens in the carpark!" &lt;&lt; endl;
}

int main()
{
    AlienDetector mydetector;
    mydetector.signal_detected.connect( sigc::ptr_fun(warn_people) );

    mydetector.run();

    return 0;
}
</programlisting>

	<para>Pretty simple really - you call the <literal remap="tt">connect()</literal> method on the signal to
	connect your function. <literal remap="tt">connect()</literal> takes a <literal remap="tt">slot</literal> parameter (remember slots
	are capable of holding any type of callback), so you convert your
	<literal remap="tt">warn_people()</literal> function to a slot using the <literal remap="tt">slot()</literal> function.</para>

	<para>To compile this example from the downloadable example code, use:</para>
	<programlisting>g++ example1.cc -o eg1 `pkg-config --cflags --libs sigc++-1.2`</programlisting>
	<para>Note that those `` characters are backticks, not single quotes. Run it with</para>
	<programlisting>./eg1</programlisting>
	<para>(Try not to panic when the aliens land!)</para>

</sect1>

<sect1>
<title>Using a member function</title>

	<para>Suppose you found a more sophisticated alien alerter class on the web,
	such as this:</para>

<programlisting>
class AlienAlerter : public sigc::trackable
{
public:
    AlienAlerter(char const* servername);
    void alert();
private:
    // ...
};
</programlisting>

	<para>(Handily it derives from <literal remap="tt">sigc::trackable</literal> already. This isn't quite so
	unlikely as you might think; all appropriate bits of the popular gtkmm library do so,
	for example.)</para>

	<para>You could rewrite your code as follows:</para>

<programlisting>
int main()
{
    AlienDetector mydetector;
    AlienAlerter  myalerter("localhost");	// added
    mydetector.signal_detected.connect( sigc::mem_fun(myalerter, &amp;AlienAlerter::alert) ); // changed

    mydetector.run();

    return 0;
}
</programlisting>

	<para>Note that only 2 lines are different - one to create an instance of the
	class, and the line to connect the method to the signal.</para>

	<para>This code is in example2.cc, which can be compiled in the same way as
	example1.cc</para>
</sect1>

<sect1>
<title>Signals with parameters</title>

	<para>Functions taking no parameters and returning void are quite useful,
	especially when they're members of classes that can store unlimited amounts of
	safely typed data, but they're not sufficient for everything.</para>

	<para>What if aliens don't land in the carpark, but somewhere else? Let's modify
	the example so that the callback function takes a <literal remap="tt">std::string</literal> with the location
	in which aliens were detected.</para>

	<para>I change my class to:</para>

<programlisting>
class AlienDetector
{
public:
    AlienDetector();

    void run();

    sigc::signal&lt;void, std::string&gt; signal_detected;	// changed
};
</programlisting>

	<para>The only line I had to change was the signal line (in <literal remap="tt">run()</literal> I need to change
	my code to supply the argument when I emit the signal too, but that's not shown
	here).</para>

	<para>The name of the type is '<literal remap="tt">sigc::signal</literal>'. The template parameters are the return type, then the argument types.</para>

	<para>The types in the function signature are in the same order as the template
	parameters, eg:</para>

<programlisting>
sigc::signal&lt;void,         std::string&gt;
              void function(std::string foo);
</programlisting>

		<para>So now you can update your alerter (for simplicity, lets go back to the
		free-standing function version):</para>

<programlisting>
void warn_people(std::string where)
{
    cout &lt;&lt; "There are aliens in " &lt;&lt; where &lt;&lt; "!" &lt;&lt; endl;
}

int main()
{
    AlienDetector mydetector;
    mydetector.signal_detected.connect( sigc::ptr_fun(warn_people) );

    mydetector.run();

    return 0;
}
</programlisting>

	<para>Easy.</para>
</sect1>

<sect1>
<title>Disconnecting</title>

	<para>If you decide you no longer want your code to be called whenever a signal is
	emitted, you must remember the return value of <literal remap="tt">connect()</literal>, which we've been
	ignoring until now.</para>

	<para><literal remap="tt">connect()</literal> returns a <literal remap="tt">sigc::connection</literal> object, which has a <literal remap="tt">disconnect()</literal> member method. This does just what you think it does.</para>

</sect1>
</chapter>

<chapter id="sec-writing">
<title>Writing your own signals</title>

<sect1>
<title>Quick recap</title>
	<para>If all you want to do is use gtkmm, and connect your functionality to its
	signals, you can probably stop reading here.</para>

	<para>You might benefit from reading on anyway though, as this section is going to
	be quite simple, and the 'Rebinding' technique from the next section is
	occasionally useful.</para>

	<para>We've already covered the way the types of signals are made up, but lets
	recap:</para>

	<para>A signal is an instance of a template, named <literal remap="tt">sigc::signal</literal>. 
        The template arguments are the types,
	in the order they appear in the function signature that can be connected to that
	signal; that is the return type, then the argument types.</para>

	<para>To provide a signal for people to connect to, you must make available an
	instance of that <literal remap="tt">sigc::signal</literal>. In <literal remap="tt">AlienDetector</literal> this was done
	with a public data member. That's not considered good practice usually, so you
	might want to consider making a member function that returns the signal by
	reference. (This is what gtkmm does.)</para>

	<para>Once you've done this, all you have to do is emit the signal when you're
	ready. Look at the code for <literal remap="tt">AlienDetector::run()</literal>:</para>

<programlisting>
void AlienDetector::run()
{
    sleep(3); // wait for aliens
    signal_detected.emit(); // panic!
}
</programlisting>

	<para>As a shortcut, <literal remap="tt">sigc::signal</literal> defines <literal remap="tt">operator()</literal> as a synonym for
	<literal remap="tt">emit()</literal>, so you could just write <literal remap="tt">signal_detected();</literal> as in the second
	example version:</para>

<programlisting>
void AlienDetector::run()
{
    sleep(3);                // wait for aliens
    signal_detected("the carpark"); // this is the std::string version, looks like
       	                     // they landed in the carpark afterall.
}
</programlisting>
</sect1>

<sect1>
<title>What about return values?</title>
	<para>If you only ever have one slot connected to a signal, or if you only care
	about the return value of the last registered one, it's quite straightforward:</para>

<programlisting>
sigc::signal&lt;int&gt; somesignal;
int a_return_value;

a_return_value = somesignal.emit();
</programlisting>

		<para>If you care about every return value things are a little more complicated.
		See the section on Marshallers for more info.</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>

<chapter id="sec-advanced">
<title>Advanced topics</title>

<sect1>
<title>Rebinding</title>
	<para>Suppose you already have a function that you want to be called when a
	signal is emitted, but it takes the wrong argument types. For example, lets try
	to attach the <literal remap="tt">warn_people(std::string)</literal> function to the detected signal
	from the first example, which didn't supply a location string.</para>

	<para>Just trying to connect it with:</para>

<programlisting>
myaliendetector.signal_detected.connect(sigc::ptr_fun(warn_people));
</programlisting>

	<para>results in a compile-time error, because the types don't match. This is good!
	This is typesafety at work. In the C way of doing things, this would have just
	died at runtime after trying to print a random bit of memory as the location -
	ick!</para>

	<para>We have to make up a location string, and bind it to the function, so that
	when signal_detected is emitted with no arguments, something adds it in before
	<literal remap="tt">warn_people</literal> is actually called.</para>
	<para>We could write it ourselves - it's not hard:</para>

<programlisting>
void warn_people_wrapper() // note this is the signature that 'signal_detected' expects
{
    warn_people("the carpark");
}
</programlisting>

	<para>but after our first million or so we might start looking for a better way. As
	it happens, LibSigC++ has one.</para>

<programlisting>
sigc::bind(slot, arg);
</programlisting>

	<para>binds arg as the argument to slot, and returns a new slot of the same return
	type, but with one fewer arguments.</para>

	<para>Now we can write:</para>
<programlisting>
myaliendetector.signal_detected.connect(sigc::bind( sigc::ptr_fun(warn_people), "the carpark" ) );
</programlisting>

	<para>If the input slot has multiple args, the rightmost one is bound.</para>

	<para>The return type can also be bound with <literal remap="tt">sigc::bind_return(slot, returnvalue);</literal> though
	this is not so commonly useful.</para>

	<para>So if we can attach the new <literal remap="tt">warn_people()</literal> to the old detector, can we attach
	the old <literal remap="tt">warn_people</literal> (the one that didn't take an argument) to the new detector?</para>

	<para>Of course, we just need to hide the extra argument. This can be done with
	<literal remap="tt">sigc::hide</literal>, eg.</para>

<programlisting>
myaliendetector.signal_detected.connect( sigc::hide&lt;std::string&gt;( sigc::ptr_fun(warn_people) ) );
</programlisting>

	<para>The template arguments are the types to hide (from the right only - you can't
	hide the first argument of 3, for example, only the last).</para>

	<para><literal remap="tt">sigc::hide_return</literal> effectively makes the return type void.</para>
</sect1>

<sect1>
<title>Retyping</title>
	<para>A similar topic is retyping. Perhaps you have a signal that takes an <literal remap="tt">int</literal>, but
	you want to connect a function that takes a <literal remap="tt">double</literal>.</para>

	<para>This can be achieved with the <literal remap="tt">sigc::retype</literal> template. <literal remap="tt">retype</literal> has template arguments
	just like <literal remap="tt">sigc::signal</literal> - return value, signal types.</para>

	<para>It's a function template that takes a <literal remap="tt">sigc::slot</literal>, and returns a <literal remap="tt">sigc::slot</literal>. eg.</para>

<programlisting>
void dostuff(double foo)
{
}

sigc::signal&lt;void,int&gt; asignal;

asignal.connect(  sigc::retype&lt;void, int&gt;( slot(&amp;dostuff) )  );
</programlisting>

	<para>If you only want to change the return type, you can use <literal remap="tt">sigc::retype_return</literal>.
	<literal remap="tt">retype_return</literal> needs only one template argument.</para>
</sect1>

<sect1>
<title>Marshallers</title>
	<para>When I first mentioned return values, I said that more advanced handling of
	multiple return values was possible with <literal remap="tt">Marshallers</literal>.</para>

	<para>A Marshaller is a class that gets fed all the return values as they're
	returned. It can do a couple of things:
	<itemizedlist>
	    <listitem>It can stop the emit process at any point, causing no further slots
	        to be called</listitem>
	    <listitem>It can return a value, of any type</listitem>
	</itemizedlist></para>

	<para>For example, if each <literal remap="tt">slot</literal> returned an <literal remap="tt">int</literal>, we could use a marshaller return
	the average value as a <literal remap="tt">double</literal>. Or we could return all values in a
	<literal remap="tt">std::vector&lt;int&gt;</literal>, or maybe stop as soon as the first slot returns 5.</para>

	<para>As an example, here's the averaging marshaller:</para>

<programlisting>
class Averager
{
public:
    // we must typedef InType and OutType for the libsigc++ library
    typedef double OutType;
    typedef int InType;

    Averager()
      : total_(0), number_(0)
      {}


    OutType value() { return (double)total_/(double)number_; } // avoid integer division

    static OutType default_value() { return 0; }

    // This is the function called for each return value.
    // If it returns 'true' it stops here.
    bool marshal(InType newval)
    {
        total_ += newval; // total of values
        ++number_;        // count of values
        return false;     // continue emittion process
    };

private:
    int   total_;
    int   number_;
};
</programlisting>

	<para>To use this, we pass the type as an extra template argument when defining
	the <literal remap="tt">Signal</literal>, eg.</para>

<programlisting>
sigc::signal&lt;int, Averager&gt; mysignal;
</programlisting>

	<para>Now we can do:</para>
<programlisting>
double average_of_all_connected_slots = mysignal();
</programlisting>

	<para>Each connected <literal remap="tt">slot</literal> will be called, its value passed to an instance of
	<literal remap="tt">Averager</literal> and that <literal remap="tt">Averager</literal>'s <literal remap="tt">value()</literal> will be returned.</para>

	<para>In the downloadable examples, this is example6.cc.</para>
</sect1>
</chapter>

<chapter id="sec-reference">
<title>Reference</title>
	<para>See the reference documentation <ulink url="http://libsigc.sourceforge.net/libsigc1_2/reference/">online</ulink></para>
</chapter>
</book>