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<h1 class="chapter"> 31. Series </h1>
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<h2 class="section"> 31.1 Introduction to Series </h2>
<p>Maxima contains functions <code>taylor</code> and <code>powerseries</code> for finding the
series of differentiable functions. It also has tools such as <code>nusum</code>
capable of finding the closed form of some series. Operations such as addition and multiplication work as usual on series. This section presents the global variables which control the expansion.
</p><hr size="6">
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<h2 class="section"> 31.2 Definitions for Series </h2>
<dl>
<dt><u>Option variable:</u> <b>cauchysum</b>
<a name="IDX1019"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Default value: <code>false</code>
</p>
<p>When multiplying together sums with <code>inf</code> as their upper limit,
if <code>sumexpand</code> is <code>true</code> and <code>cauchysum</code> is <code>true</code>
then the Cauchy product will be used rather than the usual
product.
In the Cauchy product the index of the inner summation is a
function of the index of the outer one rather than varying
independently.
</p>
<p>Example:
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) sumexpand: false$
(%i2) cauchysum: false$
(%i3) s: sum (f(i), i, 0, inf) * sum (g(j), j, 0, inf);
inf inf
==== ====
\ \
(%o3) ( > f(i)) > g(j)
/ /
==== ====
i = 0 j = 0
(%i4) sumexpand: true$
(%i5) cauchysum: true$
(%i6) ''s;
inf i1
==== ====
\ \
(%o6) > > g(i1 - i2) f(i2)
/ /
==== ====
i1 = 0 i2 = 0
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>deftaylor</b><i> (<var>f_1</var>(<var>x_1</var>), <var>expr_1</var>, ..., <var>f_n</var>(<var>x_n</var>), <var>expr_n</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1020"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>For each function <var>f_i</var> of one variable <var>x_i</var>,
<code>deftaylor</code> defines <var>expr_i</var> as the Taylor series about zero.
<var>expr_i</var> is typically a polynomial in <var>x_i</var> or a summation;
more general expressions are accepted by <code>deftaylor</code> without complaint.
</p>
<p><code>powerseries (<var>f_i</var>(<var>x_i</var>), <var>x_i</var>, 0)</code>
returns the series defined by <code>deftaylor</code>.
</p>
<p><code>deftaylor</code> returns a list of the functions
<var>f_1</var>, ..., <var>f_n</var>.
<code>deftaylor</code> evaluates its arguments.
</p>
<p>Example:
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) deftaylor (f(x), x^2 + sum(x^i/(2^i*i!^2), i, 4, inf));
(%o1) [f]
(%i2) powerseries (f(x), x, 0);
inf
==== i1
\ x 2
(%o2) > -------- + x
/ i1 2
==== 2 i1!
i1 = 4
(%i3) taylor (exp (sqrt (f(x))), x, 0, 4);
2 3 4
x 3073 x 12817 x
(%o3)/T/ 1 + x + -- + ------- + -------- + . . .
2 18432 307200
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Option variable:</u> <b>maxtayorder</b>
<a name="IDX1021"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Default value: <code>true</code>
</p>
<p>When <code>maxtayorder</code> is <code>true</code>, then during algebraic
manipulation of (truncated) Taylor series, <code>taylor</code> tries to retain
as many terms as are known to be correct.
</p>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>niceindices</b><i> (<var>expr</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1022"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Renames the indices of sums and products in <var>expr</var>.
<code>niceindices</code> attempts to rename each index to the value of <code>niceindicespref[1]</code>,
unless that name appears in the summand or multiplicand,
in which case <code>niceindices</code> tries
the succeeding elements of <code>niceindicespref</code> in turn, until an unused variable is found.
If the entire list is exhausted,
additional indices are constructed by appending integers to the value of
<code>niceindicespref[1]</code>, e.g., <code>i0</code>, <code>i1</code>, <code>i2</code>, ....
</p>
<p><code>niceindices</code> returns an expression.
<code>niceindices</code> evaluates its argument.
</p>
<p>Example:
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) niceindicespref;
(%o1) [i, j, k, l, m, n]
(%i2) product (sum (f (foo + i*j*bar), foo, 1, inf), bar, 1, inf);
inf inf
/===\ ====
! ! \
(%o2) ! ! > f(bar i j + foo)
! ! /
bar = 1 ====
foo = 1
(%i3) niceindices (%);
inf inf
/===\ ====
! ! \
(%o3) ! ! > f(i j l + k)
! ! /
l = 1 ====
k = 1
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Option variable:</u> <b>niceindicespref</b>
<a name="IDX1023"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Default value: <code>[i, j, k, l, m, n]</code>
</p>
<p><code>niceindicespref</code> is the list from which <code>niceindices</code>
takes the names of indices for sums and products.
</p>
<p>The elements of <code>niceindicespref</code> are typically names of variables,
although that is not enforced by <code>niceindices</code>.
</p>
<p>Example:
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) niceindicespref: [p, q, r, s, t, u]$
(%i2) product (sum (f (foo + i*j*bar), foo, 1, inf), bar, 1, inf);
inf inf
/===\ ====
! ! \
(%o2) ! ! > f(bar i j + foo)
! ! /
bar = 1 ====
foo = 1
(%i3) niceindices (%);
inf inf
/===\ ====
! ! \
(%o3) ! ! > f(i j q + p)
! ! /
q = 1 ====
p = 1
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>nusum</b><i> (<var>expr</var>, <var>x</var>, <var>i_0</var>, <var>i_1</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1024"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Carries out indefinite hypergeometric summation of <var>expr</var> with
respect to <var>x</var> using a decision procedure due to R.W. Gosper.
<var>expr</var> and the result must be expressible as products of integer powers,
factorials, binomials, and rational functions.
</p>
<p>The terms "definite"
and "indefinite summation" are used analogously to "definite" and
"indefinite integration".
To sum indefinitely means to give a symbolic result
for the sum over intervals of variable length, not just e.g. 0 to
inf. Thus, since there is no formula for the general partial sum of
the binomial series, <code>nusum</code> can't do it.
</p>
<p><code>nusum</code> and <code>unsum</code> know a little about sums and differences of finite products.
See also <code>unsum</code>.
</p>
<p>Examples:
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) nusum (n*n!, n, 0, n);
Dependent equations eliminated: (1)
(%o1) (n + 1)! - 1
(%i2) nusum (n^4*4^n/binomial(2*n,n), n, 0, n);
4 3 2 n
2 (n + 1) (63 n + 112 n + 18 n - 22 n + 3) 4 2
(%o2) ------------------------------------------------ - ------
693 binomial(2 n, n) 3 11 7
(%i3) unsum (%, n);
4 n
n 4
(%o3) ----------------
binomial(2 n, n)
(%i4) unsum (prod (i^2, i, 1, n), n);
n - 1
/===\
! ! 2
(%o4) ( ! ! i ) (n - 1) (n + 1)
! !
i = 1
(%i5) nusum (%, n, 1, n);
Dependent equations eliminated: (2 3)
n
/===\
! ! 2
(%o5) ! ! i - 1
! !
i = 1
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>pade</b><i> (<var>taylor_series</var>, <var>numer_deg_bound</var>, <var>denom_deg_bound</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1025"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Returns a list of
all rational functions which have the given Taylor series expansion
where the sum of the degrees of the numerator and the denominator is
less than or equal to the truncation level of the power series, i.e.
are "best" approximants, and which additionally satisfy the specified
degree bounds.
</p>
<p><var>taylor_series</var> is a univariate Taylor series.
<var>numer_deg_bound</var> and <var>denom_deg_bound</var>
are positive integers specifying degree bounds on
the numerator and denominator.
</p>
<p><var>taylor_series</var> can also be a Laurent series, and the degree
bounds can be <code>inf</code> which causes all rational functions whose total
degree is less than or equal to the length of the power series to be
returned. Total degree is defined as <code><var>numer_deg_bound</var> + <var>denom_deg_bound</var></code>.
Length of a power series is defined as
<code>"truncation level" + 1 - min(0, "order of series")</code>.
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) taylor (1 + x + x^2 + x^3, x, 0, 3);
2 3
(%o1)/T/ 1 + x + x + x + . . .
(%i2) pade (%, 1, 1);
1
(%o2) [- -----]
x - 1
(%i3) t: taylor(-(83787*x^10 - 45552*x^9 - 187296*x^8
+ 387072*x^7 + 86016*x^6 - 1507328*x^5
+ 1966080*x^4 + 4194304*x^3 - 25165824*x^2
+ 67108864*x - 134217728)
/134217728, x, 0, 10);
2 3 4 5 6 7
x 3 x x 15 x 23 x 21 x 189 x
(%o3)/T/ 1 - - + ---- - -- - ----- + ----- - ----- - ------
2 16 32 1024 2048 32768 65536
8 9 10
5853 x 2847 x 83787 x
+ ------- + ------- - --------- + . . .
4194304 8388608 134217728
(%i4) pade (t, 4, 4);
(%o4) []
</pre></td></tr></table>
<p>There is no rational function of degree 4 numerator/denominator, with this
power series expansion. You must in general have degree of the numerator and
degree of the denominator adding up to at least the degree of the power series,
in order to have enough unknown coefficients to solve.
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i5) pade (t, 5, 5);
5 4 3
(%o5) [- (520256329 x - 96719020632 x - 489651410240 x
2
- 1619100813312 x - 2176885157888 x - 2386516803584)
5 4 3
/(47041365435 x + 381702613848 x + 1360678489152 x
2
+ 2856700692480 x + 3370143559680 x + 2386516803584)]
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Option variable:</u> <b>powerdisp</b>
<a name="IDX1026"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Default value: <code>false</code>
</p>
<p>When <code>powerdisp</code> is <code>true</code>,
a sum is displayed with its terms in order of increasing power.
Thus a polynomial is displayed as a truncated power series,
with the constant term first and the highest power last.
</p>
<p>By default, terms of a sum are displayed in order of decreasing power.
</p>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>powerseries</b><i> (<var>expr</var>, <var>x</var>, <var>a</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1027"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Returns the general form of the power series expansion for <var>expr</var>
in the variable <var>x</var> about the point <var>a</var> (which may be <code>inf</code> for infinity).
</p>
<p>If <code>powerseries</code> is unable to expand <var>expr</var>,
<code>taylor</code> may give the first several terms of the series.
</p>
<p>When <code>verbose</code> is <code>true</code>,
<code>powerseries</code> prints progress messages.
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) verbose: true$
(%i2) powerseries (log(sin(x)/x), x, 0);
can't expand
log(sin(x))
so we'll try again after applying the rule:
d
/ -- (sin(x))
[ dx
log(sin(x)) = i ----------- dx
] sin(x)
/
in the first simplification we have returned:
/
[
i cot(x) dx - log(x)
]
/
inf
==== i1 2 i1 2 i1
\ (- 1) 2 bern(2 i1) x
> ------------------------------
/ i1 (2 i1)!
====
i1 = 1
(%o2) -------------------------------------
2
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Option variable:</u> <b>psexpand</b>
<a name="IDX1028"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Default value: <code>false</code>
</p>
<p>When <code>psexpand</code> is <code>true</code>,
an extended rational function expression is displayed fully expanded.
The switch <code>ratexpand</code> has the same effect.
</p>
<p>When <code>psexpand</code> is <code>false</code>,
a multivariate expression is displayed just as in the rational function package.
</p>
<p>When <code>psexpand</code> is <code>multi</code>,
then terms with the same total degree in the variables are grouped together.
</p>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>revert</b><i> (<var>expr</var>, <var>x</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1029"></a>
</dt>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>revert2</b><i> (<var>expr</var>, <var>x</var>, <var>n</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1030"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>These functions return the reversion of <var>expr</var>, a Taylor series about zero in the variable <var>x</var>.
<code>revert</code> returns a polynomial of degree equal to the highest power in <var>expr</var>.
<code>revert2</code> returns a polynomial of degree <var>n</var>,
which may be greater than, equal to, or less than the degree of <var>expr</var>.
</p>
<p><code>load ("revert")</code> loads these functions.
</p>
<p>Examples:
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) load ("revert")$
(%i2) t: taylor (exp(x) - 1, x, 0, 6);
2 3 4 5 6
x x x x x
(%o2)/T/ x + -- + -- + -- + --- + --- + . . .
2 6 24 120 720
(%i3) revert (t, x);
6 5 4 3 2
10 x - 12 x + 15 x - 20 x + 30 x - 60 x
(%o3)/R/ - --------------------------------------------
60
(%i4) ratexpand (%);
6 5 4 3 2
x x x x x
(%o4) - -- + -- - -- + -- - -- + x
6 5 4 3 2
(%i5) taylor (log(x+1), x, 0, 6);
2 3 4 5 6
x x x x x
(%o5)/T/ x - -- + -- - -- + -- - -- + . . .
2 3 4 5 6
(%i6) ratsimp (revert (t, x) - taylor (log(x+1), x, 0, 6));
(%o6) 0
(%i7) revert2 (t, x, 4);
4 3 2
x x x
(%o7) - -- + -- - -- + x
4 3 2
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>taylor</b><i> (<var>expr</var>, <var>x</var>, <var>a</var>, <var>n</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1031"></a>
</dt>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>taylor</b><i> (<var>expr</var>, [<var>x_1</var>, <var>x_2</var>, ...], <var>a</var>, <var>n</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1032"></a>
</dt>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>taylor</b><i> (<var>expr</var>, [<var>x</var>, <var>a</var>, <var>n</var>, 'asymp])</i>
<a name="IDX1033"></a>
</dt>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>taylor</b><i> (<var>expr</var>, [<var>x_1</var>, <var>x_2</var>, ...], [<var>a_1</var>, <var>a_2</var>, ...], [<var>n_1</var>, <var>n_2</var>, ...])</i>
<a name="IDX1034"></a>
</dt>
<dd>
<p><code>taylor (<var>expr</var>, <var>x</var>, <var>a</var>, <var>n</var>)</code> expands the expression <var>expr</var>
in a truncated Taylor or Laurent series in the variable <var>x</var>
around the point <var>a</var>,
containing terms through <code>(<var>x</var> - <var>a</var>)^<var>n</var></code>.
</p>
<p>If <var>expr</var> is of the form <code><var>f</var>(<var>x</var>)/<var>g</var>(<var>x</var>)</code>
and <code><var>g</var>(<var>x</var>)</code> has no terms up to degree <var>n</var>
then <code>taylor</code> attempts to expand <code><var>g</var>(<var>x</var>)</code> up to degree <code>2 <var>n</var></code>.
If there are still no nonzero terms, <code>taylor</code> doubles the
degree of the expansion of <code><var>g</var>(<var>x</var>)</code>
so long as the degree of the expansion is less than or equal to <code><var>n</var> 2^taylordepth</code>.
</p>
<p><code>taylor (<var>expr</var>, [<var>x_1</var>, <var>x_2</var>, ...], <var>a</var>, <var>n</var>)</code>
returns a truncated power series
of degree <var>n</var> in all variables <var>x_1</var>, <var>x_2</var>, ...
about the point <code>(<var>a</var>, <var>a</var>, ...)</code>.
</p>
<p><code>taylor (<var>expr</var>, [<var>x_1</var>, <var>a_1</var>, <var>n_1</var>], [<var>x_2</var>, <var>a_2</var>, <var>n_2</var>], ...)</code>
returns a truncated power series in the variables <var>x_1</var>, <var>x_2</var>, ...
about the point <code>(<var>a_1</var>, <var>a_2</var>, ...)</code>,
truncated at <var>n_1</var>, <var>n_2</var>, ....
</p>
<p><code>taylor (<var>expr</var>, [<var>x_1</var>, <var>x_2</var>, ...], [<var>a_1</var>, <var>a_2</var>, ...], [<var>n_1</var>, <var>n_2</var>, ...])</code>
returns a truncated power series in the variables <var>x_1</var>, <var>x_2</var>, ...
about the point <code>(<var>a_1</var>, <var>a_2</var>, ...)</code>,
truncated at <var>n_1</var>, <var>n_2</var>, ....
</p>
<p><code>taylor (<var>expr</var>, [<var>x</var>, <var>a</var>, <var>n</var>, 'asymp])</code>
returns an expansion of <var>expr</var> in negative powers of <code><var>x</var> - <var>a</var></code>.
The highest order term is <code>(<var>x</var> - <var>a</var>)^<var>-n</var></code>.
</p>
<p>When <code>maxtayorder</code> is <code>true</code>, then during algebraic
manipulation of (truncated) Taylor series, <code>taylor</code> tries to retain
as many terms as are known to be correct.
</p>
<p>When <code>psexpand</code> is <code>true</code>,
an extended rational function expression is displayed fully expanded.
The switch <code>ratexpand</code> has the same effect.
When <code>psexpand</code> is <code>false</code>,
a multivariate expression is displayed just as in the rational function package.
When <code>psexpand</code> is <code>multi</code>,
then terms with the same total degree in the variables are grouped together.
</p>
<p>See also the <code>taylor_logexpand</code> switch for controlling expansion.
</p>
<p>Examples:
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) taylor (sqrt (sin(x) + a*x + 1), x, 0, 3);
2 2
(a + 1) x (a + 2 a + 1) x
(%o1)/T/ 1 + --------- - -----------------
2 8
3 2 3
(3 a + 9 a + 9 a - 1) x
+ -------------------------- + . . .
48
(%i2) %^2;
3
x
(%o2)/T/ 1 + (a + 1) x - -- + . . .
6
(%i3) taylor (sqrt (x + 1), x, 0, 5);
2 3 4 5
x x x 5 x 7 x
(%o3)/T/ 1 + - - -- + -- - ---- + ---- + . . .
2 8 16 128 256
(%i4) %^2;
(%o4)/T/ 1 + x + . . .
(%i5) product ((1 + x^i)^2.5, i, 1, inf)/(1 + x^2);
inf
/===\
! ! i 2.5
! ! (x + 1)
! !
i = 1
(%o5) -----------------
2
x + 1
(%i6) ev (taylor(%, x, 0, 3), keepfloat);
2 3
(%o6)/T/ 1 + 2.5 x + 3.375 x + 6.5625 x + . . .
(%i7) taylor (1/log (x + 1), x, 0, 3);
2 3
1 1 x x 19 x
(%o7)/T/ - + - - -- + -- - ----- + . . .
x 2 12 24 720
(%i8) taylor (cos(x) - sec(x), x, 0, 5);
4
2 x
(%o8)/T/ - x - -- + . . .
6
(%i9) taylor ((cos(x) - sec(x))^3, x, 0, 5);
(%o9)/T/ 0 + . . .
(%i10) taylor (1/(cos(x) - sec(x))^3, x, 0, 5);
2 4
1 1 11 347 6767 x 15377 x
(%o10)/T/ - -- + ---- + ------ - ----- - ------- - --------
6 4 2 15120 604800 7983360
x 2 x 120 x
+ . . .
(%i11) taylor (sqrt (1 - k^2*sin(x)^2), x, 0, 6);
2 2 4 2 4
k x (3 k - 4 k ) x
(%o11)/T/ 1 - ----- - ----------------
2 24
6 4 2 6
(45 k - 60 k + 16 k ) x
- -------------------------- + . . .
720
(%i12) taylor ((x + 1)^n, x, 0, 4);
2 2 3 2 3
(n - n) x (n - 3 n + 2 n) x
(%o12)/T/ 1 + n x + ----------- + --------------------
2 6
4 3 2 4
(n - 6 n + 11 n - 6 n) x
+ ---------------------------- + . . .
24
(%i13) taylor (sin (y + x), x, 0, 3, y, 0, 3);
3 2
y y
(%o13)/T/ y - -- + . . . + (1 - -- + . . .) x
6 2
3 2
y y 2 1 y 3
+ (- - + -- + . . .) x + (- - + -- + . . .) x + . . .
2 12 6 12
(%i14) taylor (sin (y + x), [x, y], 0, 3);
3 2 2 3
x + 3 y x + 3 y x + y
(%o14)/T/ y + x - ------------------------- + . . .
6
(%i15) taylor (1/sin (y + x), x, 0, 3, y, 0, 3);
1 y 1 1 1 2
(%o15)/T/ - + - + . . . + (- -- + - + . . .) x + (-- + . . .) x
y 6 2 6 3
y y
1 3
+ (- -- + . . .) x + . . .
4
y
(%i16) taylor (1/sin (y + x), [x, y], 0, 3);
3 2 2 3
1 x + y 7 x + 21 y x + 21 y x + 7 y
(%o16)/T/ ----- + ----- + ------------------------------- + . . .
x + y 6 360
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Option variable:</u> <b>taylordepth</b>
<a name="IDX1035"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Default value: 3
</p>
<p>If there are still no nonzero terms, <code>taylor</code> doubles the
degree of the expansion of <code><var>g</var>(<var>x</var>)</code>
so long as the degree of the expansion is less than or equal to <code><var>n</var> 2^taylordepth</code>.
</p>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>taylorinfo</b><i> (<var>expr</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1036"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Returns information about the Taylor series <var>expr</var>.
The return value is a list of lists.
Each list comprises the name of a variable,
the point of expansion, and the degree of the expansion.
</p>
<p><code>taylorinfo</code> returns <code>false</code> if <var>expr</var> is not a Taylor series.
</p>
<p>Example:
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) taylor ((1 - y^2)/(1 - x), x, 0, 3, [y, a, inf]);
2 2
(%o1)/T/ - (y - a) - 2 a (y - a) + (1 - a )
2 2
+ (1 - a - 2 a (y - a) - (y - a) ) x
2 2 2
+ (1 - a - 2 a (y - a) - (y - a) ) x
2 2 3
+ (1 - a - 2 a (y - a) - (y - a) ) x + . . .
(%i2) taylorinfo(%);
(%o2) [[y, a, inf], [x, 0, 3]]
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>taylorp</b><i> (<var>expr</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1037"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Returns <code>true</code> if <var>expr</var> is a Taylor series,
and <code>false</code> otherwise.
</p>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Option variable:</u> <b>taylor_logexpand</b>
<a name="IDX1038"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Default value: <code>true</code>
</p>
<p><code>taylor_logexpand</code> controls expansions of logarithms in
<code>taylor</code> series.
</p>
<p>When <code>taylor_logexpand</code> is <code>true</code>, all logarithms are expanded fully so that
zero-recognition problems involving logarithmic identities do not
disturb the expansion process. However, this scheme is not always
mathematically correct since it ignores branch information.
</p>
<p>When <code>taylor_logexpand</code> is set to <code>false</code>, then the only expansion of logarithms
that occur is that necessary to obtain a formal power series.
</p>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Option variable:</u> <b>taylor_order_coefficients</b>
<a name="IDX1039"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Default value: <code>true</code>
</p>
<p><code>taylor_order_coefficients</code> controls the ordering of
coefficients in a Taylor series.
</p>
<p>When <code>taylor_order_coefficients</code> is <code>true</code>,
coefficients of taylor series are ordered canonically.
</p>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>taylor_simplifier</b><i> (<var>expr</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1040"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Simplifies coefficients of the power series <var>expr</var>.
<code>taylor</code> calls this function.
</p>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Option variable:</u> <b>taylor_truncate_polynomials</b>
<a name="IDX1041"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Default value: <code>true</code>
</p>
<p>When <code>taylor_truncate_polynomials</code> is <code>true</code>,
polynomials are truncated based upon the input truncation levels.
</p>
<p>Otherwise,
polynomials input to <code>taylor</code> are considered to have infinite precison.
</p>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>taytorat</b><i> (<var>expr</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1042"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Converts <var>expr</var> from <code>taylor</code> form to canonical rational expression (CRE) form.
The effect is the same as <code>rat (ratdisrep (<var>expr</var>))</code>, but faster.
</p>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>trunc</b><i> (<var>expr</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1043"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Annotates the internal representation of the general expression <var>expr</var>
so that it is displayed as if its sums were truncated Taylor series.
<var>expr</var> is not otherwise modified.
</p>
<p>Example:
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) expr: x^2 + x + 1;
2
(%o1) x + x + 1
(%i2) trunc (expr);
2
(%o2) 1 + x + x + . . .
(%i3) is (expr = trunc (expr));
(%o3) true
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Function:</u> <b>unsum</b><i> (<var>f</var>, <var>n</var>)</i>
<a name="IDX1044"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Returns the first backward difference <code><var>f</var>(<var>n</var>) - <var>f</var>(<var>n</var> - 1)</code>.
Thus <code>unsum</code> in a sense is the inverse of <code>sum</code>.
</p>
<p>See also <code>nusum</code>.
</p>
<p>Examples:
</p>
<table><tr><td> </td><td><pre class="example">(%i1) g(p) := p*4^n/binomial(2*n,n);
n
p 4
(%o1) g(p) := ----------------
binomial(2 n, n)
(%i2) g(n^4);
4 n
n 4
(%o2) ----------------
binomial(2 n, n)
(%i3) nusum (%, n, 0, n);
4 3 2 n
2 (n + 1) (63 n + 112 n + 18 n - 22 n + 3) 4 2
(%o3) ------------------------------------------------ - ------
693 binomial(2 n, n) 3 11 7
(%i4) unsum (%, n);
4 n
n 4
(%o4) ----------------
binomial(2 n, n)
</pre></td></tr></table>
</dd></dl>
<dl>
<dt><u>Option variable:</u> <b>verbose</b>
<a name="IDX1045"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Default value: <code>false</code>
</p>
<p>When <code>verbose</code> is <code>true</code>,
<code>powerseries</code> prints progress messages.
</p>
</dd></dl>
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