# Introduction

`mtail` is very simple and thus limits what is possible with metric
manipulation, but is very good for getting values into the metrics.  This page
describes some common patterns for writing useful `mtail` programs.


## Changing the exported variable name

`mtail` only lets you use "C"-style identifier names in the program text, but
you can rename the exported variable as it gets presented to the collection
system if you don't like that.

```
counter connection_time_total as "connection-time_total"
```


## Reusing pattern pieces

If the same pattern gets used over and over, then define a constant and avoid
having to check the spelling of every occurrence.

```
# Define some pattern constants for reuse in the patterns below.
const IP /\d+(\.\d+){3}/
const MATCH_IP /(?P<ip>/ + IP + /)/

...

    # Duplicate lease
    /uid lease / + MATCH_IP + / for client .* is duplicate on / {
        duplicate_lease++
    }
```

## Parse the log line timestamp

`mtail` attributes a timestamp to each event.

If no timestamp exists in the log and none explicitly parsed by the mtail program, then mtail will use the current system time as the time of the event.

Many log files include the timestamp of the event as reported by the logging program.  To parse the timestamp, use the  `strptime` function with
a [Go time.Parse layout string](https://golang.org/pkg/time/#Parse).

```
/^(?P<date>\w+\s+\d+\s+\d+:\d+:\d+)\s+[\w\.-]+\s+sftp-server/ {
    strptime($date, "Jan _2 15:04:05")
```

Don't try to disassemble timestamps into component parts (e.g. year, month, day) separately.  Keep them in the same format as the log file presents them and change the strptime format string to match it.

```
/^/ +
/(?P<date>\d{4}\/\d{2}\/\d{2} \d{2}:\d{2}:\d{2}) / +
/.*/ +
/$/ {
    strptime($date, "2006/01/02 15:04:05")
```

N.B.  If no timestamp parsing is done, then the reported timestamp of the event
may add some latency to the measurement of when the event really occurred.
Between your program logging the event, and mtail reading it, there are many
moving parts: the log writer, some system calls perhaps, some disk IO, some
more system calls, some more disk IO, and then mtail's virtual machine
execution.  While normally negligible, it is worth stating in case users notice
offsets in time between what mtail reports and the event really occurring.  For
this reason, it's recommended to always use the log file's timestamp if one is
available.

## Repeating common timestamp parsing

The decorator syntax was designed with common timestamp parsing in mind.  It
allows the code for getting the timestamp out of the log line to be reused and
make the rest of the program text more readable and thus maintainable.

```
# The `syslog' decorator defines a procedure.  When a block of mtail code is
# "decorated", it is called before entering the block.  The block is entered
# when the keyword `next' is reached.
def syslog {
    /(?P<date>(?P<legacy_date>\w+\s+\d+\s+\d+:\d+:\d+)|(?P<rfc3339_date>\d{4}-\d{2}-\d{2}T\d{2}:\d{2}:\d{2}.\d+[+-]\d{2}:\d{2}))/ +
        /\s+(?:\w+@)?(?P<hostname>[\w\.-]+)\s+(?P<application>[\w\.-]+)(?:\[(?P<pid>\d+)\])?:\s+(?P<message>.*)/ {
        # If the legacy_date regexp matched, try this format.
        len($legacy_date) > 0 {
            strptime($legacy_date, "Jan _2 15:04:05")
        }
        # If the RFC3339 style matched, parse it this way.
        len($rfc3339_date) > 0 {
            strptime($rfc3339_date, "2006-01-02T15:04:05-07:00")
        }
        # Call into the decorated block
        next
    }
}
```

This can be used around any blocks later in the program.

```
@syslog {
/foo/ {
  ...
}

/bar/ {
}
} # end @syslog decorator
```

Both the foo and bar pattern actions will have the syslog timestamp parsed from
them before being called.


## Conditional structures

The `/pattern/ { action }` idiom is the normal conditional control flow structure in `mtail` programs.

If the pattern matches, then the actions in the block are executed.  If the
pattern does not match, the block is skipped.

The `else` keyword allows the program to perform action if the pattern does not match.

```
/pattern/ {
  action
} else {
  alternative
}
```

The example above would execute the "alternative" block if the pattern did not
match the current line.

The `otherwise` keyword can be used to create control flow structure
reminiscent of the C `switch` statement.  In a containing block, the
`otherwise` keyword indicates that this block should be executed only if no
other pattern in the same scope has matched.

```
{
/pattern1/ { _action1_ }
/pattern2/ { _action2_ }
otherwise { _action3_ }
}
```

In this example, "action3" would execute if both pattern1 and pattern2 did not
match the current line.

## Storing intermediate state

Hidden metrics are metrics that can be used for internal state and are never
exported outside of `mtail`.  For example if the time between pairs of log
lines needs to be computed, then a hidden metric can be used to record the
timestamp of the start of the pair.

**Note** that the `timestamp` builtin _requires_ that the program has set a log
line timestamp with `strptime` or `settime` before it is called.

```
hidden gauge connection_time by pid
...

  # Connection starts
  /connect from \S+ \(\d+\.\d+\.\d+\.\d+\)/ {
    connections_total++

    # Record the start time of the connection, using the log timestamp.
    connection_time[$pid] = timestamp()
  }

...

  # Connection summary when session closed
  /sent (?P<sent>\d+) bytes  received (?P<received>\d+) bytes  total size \d+/ {
    # Sum total bytes across all sessions for this process
    bytes_total["sent"] += $sent
    bytes_total["received"] += $received
    
    # Count total time spent with connections open, according to the log timestamp.
    connection_time_total += timestamp() - connection_time[$pid]

    # Delete the datum referenced in this dimensional metric.  We assume that
    # this will never happen again, and hint to the VM that we can garbage
    # collect the memory used.
    del connection_time[$pid]
  }
```

In this example, the connection timestamp is recorded in the hidden variable
`connection_time` keyed by the "pid" of the connection.  Later when the
connection end is logged, the delta between the current log timestamp and the
start timestamp is computed and added to the total connection time.

In this example, the average connection time can be computed in a collection
system by taking the ratio of the number of connections (`connections_total`)
over the time spent (`connection_time_total`).  For example
in [Prometheus](http://prometheus.io) one might write:

```
connection_time_10s_moving_avg = 
  rate(connections_total[10s])
    / on job
  rate(connection_time_total[10s])
```

Note also that the `del` keyword is used to signal to `mtail` that the
connection_time value is no longer needed.  This will cause `mtail` to delete
the datum referenced by that label from this metric, keeping `mtail`'s memory
usage under control and speeding up labelset search time (by reducing the
search space!)

Alternatively, the statement `del connection_time[$pid] after 72h` would do the
same, but only if `connection_time[$pid]` is not changed for 72 hours.  This
form is more convenient when the connection close event is lossy or difficult
to determine.

See [state](state.md) for more information.

## Computing moving averages

`mtail` deliberately does not implement complex mathematical functions.  It
wants to process a log line as fast as it can.  Many other products on the
market already do complex mathematical functions on timeseries data,
like [Prometheus](http://prometheus.io) and [Riemann](http://riemann.io), so
`mtail` defers that responsibility to them.  (Do One Thing, and Do It Pretty
Good.)

But say you still want to do a moving average in `mtail`.  First note that
`mtail` has no history available, only point in time data.  You can update an
average with a weighting to make it an exponential moving average (EMA).

```
gauge average

/some (\d+) match/ {
  # Use a smoothing constant 2/(N + 1) to make the average over the last N observations
  average = 0.9 * $1 + 0.1 * average
}
```

However this doesn't take into account the likely situation that the matches arrive irregularly (the time interval between them is not constant.)  Unfortunately the formula for this requires the exp() function (`e^N`) as described here: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/1023860/exponential-moving-average-sampled-at-varying-times .  I recommend you defer this computation to the collection system

## Histograms

Histograms are preferred over averages in many monitoring howtos, blogs, talks,
and rants, in order to give the operators better visibility into the behaviour
of a system.

`mtail` supports histograms as a first class metric kind, and should be created with a list of bucket boundaries:

```
histogram foo buckets 1, 2, 4, 8
```
creates a new histogram `foo` with buckets for ranges [0-1), [1-2), [2-4), [4-8), and from 8 to positive infinity.

> *NOTE: The 0-n and m-+Inf buckets are created automatically.*

You can put labels on a histogram as well:
```
histogram apache_http_request_time_seconds buckets 0.005, 0.01, 0.025, 0.05 by server_port, handler, request_method, request_status, request_protocol
```

At the moment all bucket boundaries (excepting 0 and positive infinity) need to be explicitly named (there is no shorthand form to create geometric progressions).

Assignment to the histogram records the observation:
```
  ###
  # HTTP Requests with histogram buckets.
  #
  apache_http_request_time_seconds[$server_port][$handler][$request_method][$request_status][$request_protocol] = $time_us / 1000000
```

In tools like [Prometheus](http://prometheus.io) these can be manipulated in
aggregate for computing percentiles of response latency.

```
apache_http_request_time:rate10s = rate(apache_http_request_time_seconds_bucket[10s])
apache_http_request_time_count:rate10s = rate(apache_http_request_time_seconds_count[10s])


apache_http_request_time:percentiles = 
  apache_http_request_time:rate10s
    / on (job, port, handler, request_method, request_status, request_protocol)
  apache_http_request_time_seconds_count:rate10s
```

This new timeseries can be plotted to see the percentile bands of each bucket,
for example to visualise the distribution of requests moving between buckets as
the performance of the server changes.

Further, these timeseries can be used
for
[Service Level](https://landing.google.com/sre/book/chapters/service-level-objectives.html)-based
alerting (a technique for declaring what a defensible service level is based on
the relative costs of engineering more reliability versus incident response,
maintenance costs, and other factors), as we can now see what percentage of
responses fall within and without a predefined service level:

```
apache_http_request_time:latency_sli = 
  apache_http_request_time:rate10s{le="200"}
    / on (job, port, handler, request_method, request_status, request_protocol)
  apache_http_request_time_seconds_count:rate10s

ALERT LatencyTooHigh
IF apache_http_request_time:latency_sli < 0.555555555
LABELS { severity="page" }
ANNOTATIONS {
  summary = "Latency is missing the service level objective"
  description = "Latency service level indicator is {{ $value }}, which is below nine fives SLO."
}
```

In this example, prometheus computes a service level indicator of the ratio of
requests at or below the target of 200ms against the total count, and then
fires an alert if the indicator drops below nine fives.


## Parsing number fields that are sometimes not numbers

Some logs, for example Varnish and Apache access logs, use a hyphen rather than a zero.

You may be tempted to use a programme like

```
counter total

/^[a-z]+ ((?P<response_size>\d+)|-)$/ {
  $response_size > 0 {
    total = $response_size
  }
}
```

to parse a log like

```
a 99
b -
```

except that `mtail` will issue a runtime error on the second line like `Runtime error: strconv.ParseInt: parsing "": invalid syntax`.

This is because in this programme the capture group is only matching on a set of digits, and is not defined when the alternate group matches (i.e. the hyphen).

Instead one can test the value of the surrounding capture group and do nothing if the value matches a hyphen:

```
counter total

/^[a-z]+ ((?P<response_size>\d+)|-)$/ {
  $1 != "-" {
    total = $response_size
  }
}
```

`mtail` does not presently have a way to test if a capture group is defined or not.

# Avoiding unnecessary work

You can stop the program if it's fed data from a log file you know you want to ignore:

```
getfilename() !~ /apache.access.?log/ {
  stop
}
```

This will check to see if the input filename looks like
`/var/log/apache/accesslog` and not attempt any further pattern matching on the
log line if it doesn't.