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<h3><a name="s03_03_01">3.3.1 </a>Camera</h3>
<a name="s03_03_01_i1"><a name="camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i2"><a name="camera, keyword"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i3"><a name="s03_03_01_i4"><a name="perspective, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i5"><a name="s03_03_01_i6"><a name="orthographic, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i7"><a name="s03_03_01_i8"><a name="fisheye, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i9"><a name="s03_03_01_i10"><a name="ultra_wide_angle, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i11"><a name="s03_03_01_i12"><a name="omnimax, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i13"><a name="s03_03_01_i14"><a name="panoramic, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i15"><a name="s03_03_01_i16"><a name="cylinder, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i17"><a name="s03_03_01_i18"><a name="spherical, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i19"><a name="s03_03_01_i20"><a name="location, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i21"><a name="s03_03_01_i22"><a name="right, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i23"><a name="s03_03_01_i24"><a name="up, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i25"><a name="s03_03_01_i26"><a name="direction, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i27"><a name="s03_03_01_i28"><a name="sky, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i29"><a name="s03_03_01_i30"><a name="angle, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i31"><a name="s03_03_01_i32"><a name="look_at, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i33"><a name="s03_03_01_i34"><a name="blur_samples, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i35"><a name="s03_03_01_i36"><a name="aperture, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i37"><a name="s03_03_01_i38"><a name="focal_point, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i39"><a name="s03_03_01_i40"><a name="confidence, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i41"><a name="s03_03_01_i42"><a name="variance, camera"></a><a name="s03_03_01_i43">
<p>
  The camera definition describes the position, projection type and properties of the camera viewing the scene. Its 
 syntax is: 
</p>

<pre>
CAMERA:
    camera{ [CAMERA_ITEMS...] }
CAMERA_ITEM:
    CAMERA_TYPE | CAMERA_VECTOR | CAMERA_MODIFIER |
    CAMERA_IDENTIFIER
CAMERA_TYPE:
    perspective | orthographic | fisheye | ultra_wide_angle |
    omnimax | panoramic | cylinder CylinderType | spherical
CAMERA_VECTOR:
    location &lt;Location&gt; | right &lt;Right&gt; | up &lt;Up&gt; | 
    direction &lt;Direction&gt; | sky &lt;Sky&gt;
CAMERA_MODIFIER:
    angle HORIZONTAL [VERTICAL] | look_at &lt;Look_At&gt; |
    blur_samples Num_of_Samples | aperture Size |
    focal_point &lt;Point&gt; | confidence Blur_Confidence |
    variance Blur_Variance | NORMAL | TRANSFORMATION
</pre>

<p>
  Camera default values: <a name="s03_03_01_i44"> 
</p>

<pre>
DEFAULT CAMERA:
  camera {
    perspective
    location &lt;0,0,0&gt;
    direction &lt;0,0,1&gt;
    right 1.33*x
    up y
    sky &lt;0,1,0&gt;
  }

CAMERA TYPE: perspective
angle      : ~67.380 ( direction_length=0.5*
                       right_length/tan(angle/2) )
confidence : 0.9 (90%)
direction  : &lt;0,0,1&gt;
focal_point: &lt;0,0,0&gt;
location   : &lt;0,0,0&gt;
look_at    : z
right      : 1.33*x
sky        : &lt;0,1,0&gt;
up         : y
variance   : 1/128
</pre>

<p>
  Depending on the projection type zero or more of the parameters are required: 
</p>

<ul>
 
 <li>
   If no camera is specified the default camera is used. 
 </li>

 <li>
   If no projection type is given the perspective camera will be used (pinhole camera). 
 </li>

 <li>
   The <em>CAMERA_TYPE</em> has to be the first item in the camera statement. 
 </li>

 <li>
   Other <em>CAMERA_ITEMs</em> may legally appear in any order. 
 </li>

 <li>
   For other than the perspective camera, the minimum that has to be specified is the CAMERA_TYPE, the cylindrical 
  camera also requires the <em>CAMERA_TYPE</em> to be followed by a float. 
 </li>

 <li>
   The Orthographic camera has two 'modes'. For the pure orthographic projection up or right have to be specified. 
  For an orthographic camera, with the same area of view as a perspective camera at the plane which goes through the 
  look_at point, the angle keyword has to be use. A value for the angle is optional. 
 </li>

 <li>
   All other <em>CAMERA_ITEM</em>s are taken from the default camera, unless they are specified differently. 
 </li>

</ul>

<h4><a name="s03_03_01_01">3.3.1.1 </a>Placing the Camera</h4>
<a name="s03_03_01_01_i1"><a name="s03_03_01_01_i2">
<p>
  The POV-Ray camera has ten different models, each of which uses a different projection method to project the scene 
 onto your screen. Regardless of the projection type all cameras use the <code>location</code>, <code> right</code>, <code>up</code>, 
 <code>direction</code>, and keywords to determine the location and orientation of the camera. The type keywords and 
 these four vectors fully define the camera. All other camera modifiers adjust how the camera does its job. The meaning 
 of these vectors and other modifiers differ with the projection type used. A more detailed explanation of the camera 
 types follows later. In the sub-sections which follows, we explain how to place and orient the camera by the use of 
 these four vectors and the <code>sky</code> and <code> look_at</code> modifiers. You may wish to refer to the 
 illustration of the perspective camera below as you read about these vectors.<br><center><img alt="The perspective camera." src="images/reference/perspcam.png"></center> 
 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_01_01">3.3.1.1.1 </a>Location and Look_At</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_01_01_i1"><a name="location"></a><a name="s03_03_01_01_01_i2"><a name="look_at"></a>
<p>
  Under many circumstances just two vectors in the camera statement are all you need to position the camera: <code>location</code> 
 and <code>look_at</code> vectors. For example: 
</p>

<pre>
 camera {
  location &lt;3,5,-10&gt;
  look_at &lt;0,2,1&gt;
 }
</pre>

<p>
  The location is simply the x, y, z coordinates of the camera. The camera can be located anywhere in the ray-tracing 
 universe. The default location is <code>&lt;0,0,0&gt;</code>. The <code>look_at</code> vector tells POV-Ray to pan and 
 tilt the camera until it is looking at the specified x, y, z coordinates. By default the camera looks at a point one 
 unit in the z-direction from the location. 
</p>

<p>
  The <code>look_at</code> modifier should almost always be the last item in the camera statement. If other camera 
 items are placed after the <code> look_at</code> vector then the camera may not continue to look at the specified 
 point. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_01_02">3.3.1.1.2 </a>The Sky Vector</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_01_02_i1"><a name="s03_03_01_01_02_i2"><a name="sky"></a>
<p>
  Normally POV-Ray pans left or right by rotating about the y-axis until it lines up with the <code>look_at</code> 
 point and then tilts straight up or down until the point is met exactly. However you may want to slant the camera 
 sideways like an airplane making a banked turn. You may change the tilt of the camera using the <code>sky</code> 
 vector. For example: 
</p>

<pre>
 camera {
  location &lt;3,5,-10&gt;
  sky   &lt;1,1,0&gt;
  look_at &lt;0,2,1&gt;
 }
</pre>

<p>
  This tells POV-Ray to roll the camera until the top of the camera is in line with the sky vector. Imagine that the 
 sky vector is an antenna pointing out of the top of the camera. Then it uses the <code>sky</code> vector as the axis 
 of rotation left or right and then to tilt up or down in line with the <code>sky</code> until pointing at the <code>look_at</code> 
 point. In effect you are telling POV-Ray to assume that the sky isn't straight up. 
</p>

<p>
  The <code>sky</code> vector does nothing on its own. It only modifies the way the <code>look_at</code> vector turns 
 the camera. The default value is <code> sky&lt;0,1,0&gt;</code>. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_01_03">3.3.1.1.3 </a>Angles</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_01_03_i1"><a name="angle"></a><a name="s03_03_01_01_03_i2">
<p>
  The <code>angle</code> keyword followed by a float expression specifies the (horizontal) viewing angle in degrees 
 of the camera used. Even though it is possible to use the <code>direction</code> vector to determine the viewing angle 
 for the perspective camera it is much easier to use the <code> angle</code> keyword. 
</p>

<p>
  When you specify the <code>angle</code>, POV-Ray adjusts the length of the <code>direction</code> vector 
 accordingly. The formula used is <em> direction_length = 0.5 * right_length / tan(angle / 2)</em> where <em> 
 right_length</em> is the length of the <code>right</code> vector. You should therefore specify the <code> direction</code> 
 and <code> right</code> vectors before the <code> angle</code> keyword. The <code> right</code> vector is explained in 
 the next section. 
</p>

<p>
  There is no limitation to the viewing angle except for the perspective projection. If you choose viewing angles 
 larger than 360 degrees you will see repeated images of the scene (the way the repetition takes place depends on the 
 camera). This might be useful for special effects. 
</p>

<p>
  The <code>spherical</code> camera has the option to also specify a vertical angle. If not specified it defaults to 
 the horizontal angle/2 
</p>

<p>
  For example if you render an image with a 2:1 aspect ratio and map it to a sphere using spherical mapping, it will 
 recreate the scene. Another use is to map it onto an object and if you specify transformations for the object before 
 the texture, say in an animation, it will look like reflections of the environment (sometimes called environment 
 mapping). 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_01_04">3.3.1.1.4 </a>The Direction Vector</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_01_04_i1"><a name="s03_03_01_01_04_i2"><a name="direction"></a>
<p>
  You will probably not need to explicitly specify or change the camera <code>direction</code> vector but it is 
 described here in case you do. It tells POV-Ray the initial direction to point the camera before moving it with the <code>look_at</code> 
 or <code>rotate</code> vectors (the default value is <code>direction&lt;0,0,1&gt;</code>). It may also be used to 
 control the (horizontal) field of view with some types of projection. The length of the vector determines the distance 
 of the viewing plane from the camera's location. A shorter <code>direction</code> vector gives a wider view while a 
 longer vector zooms in for close-ups. In early versions of POV-Ray, this was the only way to adjust field of view. 
 However zooming should now be done using the easier to use <code>angle</code> keyword. 
</p>

<p>
  If you are using the <code>ultra_wide_angle</code>, <code>panoramic</code>, or <code> cylindrical</code> projection 
 you should use a unit length <code> direction</code> vector to avoid strange results. The length of the <code> 
 direction</code> vector does not matter when using the <code> orthographic</code>, <code>fisheye</code>, or <code>omnimax</code> 
 projection types. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_01_05">3.3.1.1.5 </a>Up and Right Vectors</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_01_05_i1"><a name="up"></a><a name="s03_03_01_01_05_i2"><a name="right"></a>
<p>
  The primary purpose of the <code>up</code> and <code>right</code> vectors is to tell POV-Ray the relative height 
 and width of the view screen. The default values are: 
</p>

<pre>
 right 4/3*x
 up y
</pre>

<p>
  In the default <code>perspective</code> camera, these two vectors also define the initial plane of the view screen 
 before moving it with the <code> look_at</code> or <code>rotate</code> vectors. The length of the <code> right</code> 
 vector (together with the <code>direction</code> vector) may also be used to control the (horizontal) field of view 
 with some types of projection. The <code>look_at</code> modifier changes both the <code>up</code> and <code>right</code> 
 vectors. The <code>angle</code> calculation depends on the <code> right</code> vector. 
</p>

<p>
  Most camera types treat the <code>up</code> and <code> right</code> vectors the same as the <code>perspective</code> 
 type. However several make special use of them. In the <code>orthographic</code> projection: The lengths of the <code> 
 up</code> and <code>right</code> vectors set the size of the viewing window regardless of the <code> direction</code> 
 vector length, which is not used by the orthographic camera. 
</p>

<p>
  When using <code>cylindrical</code> projection: types 1 and 3, the axis of the cylinder lies along the <code>up</code> 
 vector and the width is determined by the length of <code>right</code> vector or it may be overridden with the <code>angle</code> 
 vector. In type 3 the <code> up</code> vector determines how many units high the image is. For example if you have <code>up 
 4*y</code> on a camera at the origin. Only points from y=2 to y=-2 are visible. All viewing rays are perpendicular to 
 the y-axis. For type 2 and 4, the cylinder lies along the <code>right</code> vector. Viewing rays for type 4 are 
 perpendicular to the <code>right</code> vector. 
</p>

<p class="Note">
  <strong>Note:</strong> that the <code>up</code>, <code>right</code>, and <code> direction</code> 
 vectors should always remain perpendicular to each other or the image will be distorted. If this is not the case a 
 warning message will be printed. The vista buffer will not work for non-perpendicular camera vectors. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_01_06">3.3.1.1.6 </a>Aspect Ratio</h5>

<p>
  Together the <code>up</code> and <code>right</code> vectors define the <em>aspect ratio</em> (height to width 
 ratio) of the resulting image. The default values <code>up&lt;0,1,0&gt;</code> and <code> right&lt;1.33,0,0&gt;</code> 
 result in an aspect ratio of 4 to 3. This is the aspect ratio of a typical computer monitor. If you wanted a tall 
 skinny image or a short wide panoramic image or a perfectly square image you should adjust the <code>up</code> and <code>right</code> 
 vectors to the appropriate proportions. 
</p>

<p>
  Most computer video modes and graphics printers use perfectly square pixels. For example Macintosh displays and IBM 
 SVGA modes 640x480, 800x600 and 1024x768 all use square pixels. When your intended viewing method uses square pixels 
 then the width and height you set with the <code> Width</code> and <code>Height</code> options or <code>+W</code> or <code>+H</code> 
 switches should also have the same ratio as the <code>up</code> and <code>right</code> vectors. 
</p>

<p class="Note">
  <strong>Note:</strong> 640/480 = 4/3 so the ratio is proper for this square pixel mode. 
</p>

<p>
  Not all display modes use square pixels however. For example IBM VGA mode 320x200 and Amiga 320x400 modes do not 
 use square pixels. These two modes still produce a 4/3 aspect ratio image. Therefore images intended to be viewed on 
 such hardware should still use 4/3 ratio on their <code>up</code> and <code>right</code> vectors but the pixel 
 settings will not be 4/3. 
</p>

<p>
  For example: 
</p>

<pre>
 camera {
  location &lt;3,5,-10&gt;
  up    &lt;0,1,0&gt;
  right  &lt;1,0,0&gt;
  look_at &lt;0,2,1&gt;
 }
</pre>

<p>
  This specifies a perfectly square image. On a square pixel display like SVGA you would use pixel settings such as <code>+W480 
 +H480</code> or <code> +W600 +H600</code>. However on the non-square pixel Amiga 320x400 mode you would want to use 
 values of <code>+W240 +H400</code> to render a square image. 
</p>

<p>
  The bottom line issue is this: the <code>up</code> and <code> right</code> vectors should specify the artist's 
 intended aspect ratio for the image and the pixel settings should be adjusted to that same ratio for square pixels and 
 to an adjusted pixel resolution for non-square pixels. The <code> up</code> and <code>right</code> vectors should <em> 
 not</em> be adjusted based on non-square pixels. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_01_07">3.3.1.1.7 </a>Handedness</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_01_07_i1"><a name="s03_03_01_01_07_i2">
<p>
  The <code>right</code> vector also describes the direction to the right of the camera. It tells POV-Ray where the 
 right side of your screen is. The sign of the <code>right</code> vector can be used to determine the handedness of the 
 coordinate system in use. The default value is: <code> right&lt;1.33,0,0&gt;</code>. This means that the +x-direction 
 is to the right. It is called a <em>left-handed</em> system because you can use your left hand to keep track of the 
 axes. Hold out your left hand with your palm facing to your right. Stick your thumb up. Point straight ahead with your 
 index finger. Point your other fingers to the right. Your bent fingers are pointing to the +x-direction. Your thumb 
 now points into +y-direction. Your index finger points into the +z-direction. 
</p>

<p>
  To use a right-handed coordinate system, as is popular in some CAD programs and other ray-tracers, make the same 
 shape using your right hand. Your thumb still points up in the +y-direction and your index finger still points forward 
 in the +z-direction but your other fingers now say the +x-direction is to the left. That means that the right side of 
 your screen is now in the -x-direction. To tell POV-Ray to act like this you can use a negative x value in the <code> 
 right</code> vector such as: <code> right&lt;-1.33,0,0&gt;</code>. Since having x values increasing to the left does 
 not make much sense on a 2D screen you now rotate the whole thing 180 degrees around by using a positive z value in 
 your camera's location. You end up with something like this. 
</p>

<pre>
 camera {
  location &lt;0,0,10&gt;
  up    &lt;0,1,0&gt;
  right  &lt;-1.33,0,0&gt;
  look_at &lt;0,0,0&gt;
 }
</pre>

<p>
  Now when you do your ray-tracer's aerobics, as explained in the section &quot;<a href="s_57.html#s02_02_01_01">Understanding 
 POV-Ray's Coordinate System</a>&quot;, you use your right hand to determine the direction of rotations. 
</p>

<p>
  In a two dimensional grid, x is always to the right and y is up. The two versions of handedness arise from the 
 question of whether z points into the screen or out of it and which axis in your computer model relates to up in the 
 real world. 
</p>

<p>
  Architectural CAD systems, like AutoCAD, tend to use the <em> God's Eye</em> orientation that the z-axis is the 
 elevation and is the model's up direction. This approach makes sense if you are an architect looking at a building 
 blueprint on a computer screen. z means up, and it increases towards you, with x and y still across and up the screen. 
 This is the basic right handed system. 
</p>

<p>
  Stand alone rendering systems, like POV-Ray, tend to consider you as a participant. You are looking at the screen 
 as if you were a photographer standing in the scene. The up direction in the model is now y, the same as up in the 
 real world and x is still to the right, so z must be depth, which increases away from you into the screen. This is the 
 basic left handed system. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_01_08">3.3.1.1.8 </a>Transforming the Camera</h5>

<p>
  The various transformations such as <code>translate</code> and <code> rotate</code> modifiers can re-position the 
 camera once you have defined it. For example: 
</p>

<pre>
 camera {
  location &lt; 0, 0, 0&gt;
  direction &lt; 0, 0, 1&gt;
  up    &lt; 0, 1, 0&gt;
  right   &lt; 1, 0, 0&gt;
  rotate  &lt;30, 60, 30&gt;
  translate &lt; 5, 3, 4&gt;
 }
</pre>

<p>
  In this example, the camera is created, then rotated by 30 degrees about the x-axis, 60 degrees about the y-axis 
 and 30 degrees about the z-axis, then translated to another point in space. 
</p>

<h4><a name="s03_03_01_02">3.3.1.2 </a>Types of Projection</h4>
<a name="s03_03_01_02_i1">
<p>
  The following list explains the different projection types that can be used with the camera. The most common types 
 are the perspective and orthographic projections. The <em>CAMERA_TYPE</em> should be the <em>first</em> item in a <code>camera</code> 
 statement. If none is specified, the <code>perspective</code> camera is the default. 
</p>

<p>
  You should note that the vista buffer can only be used with the perspective and orthographic camera. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_02_01">3.3.1.2.1 </a>Perspective projection</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_02_01_i1"><a name="perspective"></a><a name="s03_03_01_02_01_i2">
<p>
  The <code>perspective</code> keyword specifies the default perspective camera which simulates the classic pinhole 
 camera. The (horizontal) viewing angle is either determined by the ratio between the length of the <code>direction</code> 
 vector and the length of the <code> right</code> vector or by the optional keyword <code>angle</code>, which is the 
 preferred way. The viewing angle has to be larger than 0 degrees and smaller than 180 degrees. See the figure in 
 &quot;Placing the Camera&quot; for the geometry of the perspective camera. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_02_02">3.3.1.2.2 </a>Orthographic projection</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_02_02_i1"><a name="orthographic"></a><a name="s03_03_01_02_02_i2">
<p>
  The orthographic camera offers two modes of operation: 
</p>

<p>
  The pure <code>orthographic</code> projection. This projection uses parallel camera rays to create an image of the 
 scene. The area of view is determined by the lengths of the <code>right</code> and <code>up</code> vectors. One of 
 these has to be specified, they are not taken from the default camera. If omitted the second method of the camera is 
 used. 
</p>

<p>
  If, in a perspective camera, you replace the <code>perspective</code> keyword by <code>orthographic</code> and 
 leave all other parameters the same, you will get an orthographic view with the same image area, i.e. the size of the 
 image is the same. The same can be achieved by adding the <code>angle</code> keyword to an orthographic camera. A 
 value for the angle is optional. So this second mode is active if no up and right are within the camera statement, or 
 when the angle keyword is within the camera statement. 
</p>

<p>
  You should be aware though that the visible parts of the scene change when switching from perspective to 
 orthographic view. As long as all objects of interest are near the look_at point they will be still visible if the 
 orthographic camera is used. Objects farther away may get out of view while nearer objects will stay in view. 
</p>

<p>
  If objects are too close to the camera location they may disappear. Too close here means, behind the orthographic 
 camera projection plane (the plane that goes through the <code>look_at</code> point). 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_02_03">3.3.1.2.3 </a>Fisheye projection</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_02_03_i1"><a name="fisheye"></a><a name="s03_03_01_02_03_i2">
<p>
  This is a spherical projection. The viewing angle is specified by the <code>angle</code> keyword. An angle of 180 
 degrees creates the &quot;standard&quot; fisheye while an angle of 360 degrees creates a super-fisheye 
 (&quot;I-see-everything-view&quot;). If you use this projection you should get a circular image. If this is not the 
 case, i.e. you get an elliptical image, you should read &quot;Aspect Ratio&quot;. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_02_04">3.3.1.2.4 </a>Ultra wide angle projection</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_02_04_i1"><a name="ultra_wide_angle"></a><a name="s03_03_01_02_04_i2">
<p>
  This projection is somewhat similar to the fisheye but it projects the image onto a rectangle instead of a circle. 
 The viewing angle can be specified using the <code>angle</code> keyword. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_02_05">3.3.1.2.5 </a>Omnimax projection</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_02_05_i1"><a name="omnimax"></a><a name="s03_03_01_02_05_i2">
<p>
  The omnimax projection is a 180 degrees fisheye that has a reduced viewing angle in the vertical direction. In 
 reality this projection is used to make movies that can be viewed in the dome-like Omnimax theaters. The image will 
 look somewhat elliptical. The <code>angle</code> keyword is not used with this projection. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_02_06">3.3.1.2.6 </a>Panoramic projection</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_02_06_i1"><a name="panoramic"></a><a name="s03_03_01_02_06_i2">
<p>
  This projection is called &quot;cylindrical equirectangular projection&quot;. It overcomes the degeneration problem 
 of the perspective projection if the viewing angle approaches 180 degrees. It uses a type of cylindrical projection to 
 be able to use viewing angles larger than 180 degrees with a tolerable lateral-stretching distortion. The <code>angle</code> 
 keyword is used to determine the viewing angle. 
</p>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_02_07">3.3.1.2.7 </a>Cylindrical projection</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_02_07_i1"><a name="s03_03_01_02_07_i2">
<p>
  Using this projection the scene is projected onto a cylinder. There are four different types of cylindrical 
 projections depending on the orientation of the cylinder and the position of the viewpoint. A float value in the range 
 1 to 4 must follow the <code> cylinder</code> keyword. The viewing angle and the length of the <code> up</code> or <code>right</code> 
 vector determine the dimensions of the camera and the visible image. The camera to use is specified by a number. The 
 types are: 
</p>

<ol>
 
 <li>
   vertical cylinder, fixed viewpoint 
 </li>

 <li>
   horizontal cylinder, fixed viewpoint 
 </li>

 <li>
   vertical cylinder, viewpoint moves along the cylinder's axis 
 </li>

 <li>
   horizontal cylinder, viewpoint moves along the cylinder's axis 
 </li>

</ol>

<h5><a name="s03_03_01_02_08">3.3.1.2.8 </a>Spherical projection</h5>
<a name="s03_03_01_02_08_i1"><a name="s03_03_01_02_08_i2">
<p>
  Using this projection the scene is projected onto a sphere. <br>Syntax: 
</p>

<pre>
  camera {
    spherical
    [angle HORIZONTAL [VERTICAL]]
    [CAMERA_ITEMS...]
  }
</pre>

<p>
  The first value after <code>angle</code> sets the horizontal viewing angle of the camera. With the optional second 
 value, the vertical viewing angle is set: both in degrees. If the vertical angle is not specified, it defaults to half 
 the horizontal angle. 
</p>

<p>
  The spherical projection is similar to the fisheye projection, in that the scene is projected on a sphere. But 
 unlike the fisheye camera, it uses rectangular coordinates instead of polar coordinates; in this it works the same way 
 as spherical mapping (map_type 1). 
</p>

<p>
  This has a number of uses. Firstly, it allows an image rendered with the spherical camera to be mapped on a sphere 
 without distortion (with the fisheye camera, you first have to convert the image from polar to rectangular coordinates 
 in some image editor). Also, it allows effects such as &quot;environment mapping&quot;, often used for simulating 
 reflections in scanline renderers. 
</p>

<h4><a name="s03_03_01_03">3.3.1.3 </a>Focal Blur</h4>
<a name="s03_03_01_03_i1"><a name="s03_03_01_03_i2"><a name="s03_03_01_03_i3"><a name="s03_03_01_03_i4"><a name="aperture"></a>
<p>
  POV-Ray can simulate focal depth-of-field by shooting a number of sample rays from jittered points within each 
 pixel and averaging the results. 
</p>

<p>
  To turn on focal blur, you must specify the <code>aperture</code> keyword followed by a float value which 
 determines the depth of the sharpness zone. Large apertures give a lot of blurring, while narrow apertures will give a 
 wide zone of sharpness. 
</p>

<p class="Note">
  <strong>Note:</strong> while this behaves as a real camera does, the values for aperture are purely 
 arbitrary and are not related to <em>f</em>-stops. 
</p>

<p>
  You must also specify the <code>blur_samples</code> keyword followed by an integer value specifying the maximum 
 number of rays to use for each pixel. More rays give a smoother appearance but is slower. By default no focal blur is 
 used, i. e. the default aperture is 0 and the default number of samples is 0.<a name="s03_03_01_03_i5"><a name="focal_point"></a> 
 
</p>

<p>
  The center of the <em>zone of sharpness</em> is specified by the <code> focal_point</code> vector. The <em>zone of 
 sharpness</em> is a plane through the <code>focal_point</code> and is parallel to the camera. Objects close to this 
 plane of focus are in focus and those farther from that plane are more blurred. The default value is <code> 
 focal_point&lt;0,0,0&gt;</code>.<a name="s03_03_01_03_i6"><a name="blur_samples"></a> 
</p>

<p>
  Although <code>blur_samples</code> specifies the maximum number of samples, there is an adaptive mechanism that 
 stops shooting rays when a certain degree of confidence has been reached. At that point, shooting more rays would not 
 result in a significant change.<a name="s03_03_01_03_i7"><a name="variance"></a><a name="s03_03_01_03_i8"><a name="confidence"></a><a name="s03_03_01_03_i9"><a name="s03_03_01_03_i10"> 
 
</p>

<p>
  The <code>confidence</code> and <code> variance</code> keywords are followed by float values to control the 
 adaptive function. The <code>confidence</code> value is used to determine when the samples seem to be <em>close enough</em> 
 to the correct color. The <code> variance</code> value specifies an acceptable tolerance on the variance of the 
 samples taken so far. In other words, the process of shooting sample rays is terminated when the estimated color value 
 is very likely (as controlled by the confidence probability) near the real color value. 
</p>

<p>
  Since the <code>confidence</code> is a probability its values can range from 0 to &lt;1 (the default is 0.9, i. e. 
 90%). The value for the <code> variance</code> should be in the range of the smallest displayable color difference 
 (the default is 1/128). If 1 is used POV-Ray will issue a warning and then use the default instead. 
</p>

<p>
  Rendering with the default settings can result in quite grainy images. This can be improved by using a lower <code>variance</code>. 
 A value of 1/10000 gives a fairly good result (with default confidence and blur_samples set to something like 100) 
 without being unacceptably slow. 
</p>

<p>
  Larger <code>confidence</code> values will lead to more samples, slower traces and better images. The same holds 
 for smaller <code>variance</code> thresholds. 
</p>

<h4><a name="s03_03_01_04">3.3.1.4 </a>Camera Ray Perturbation</h4>
<a name="s03_03_01_04_i1">
<p>
  The optional <code><a href="#l122">normal</a></code> may be used to assign a normal pattern to the camera. For 
 example: 
</p>

<pre>
 camera{
   location Here
   look_at There
   normal { bumps 0.5 }
 }
</pre>

<p>
  All camera rays will be perturbed using this pattern. The image will be distorted as though you were looking 
 through bumpy glass or seeing a reflection off of a bumpy surface. This lets you create special effects. See the 
 animated scene <code>camera2.pov</code> for an example. See &quot;Normal&quot; for information on normal patterns. 
</p>

<h4><a name="s03_03_01_05">3.3.1.5 </a>Camera Identifiers</h4>
<a name="s03_03_01_05_i1">
<p>
  Camera identifiers may be declared to make scene files more readable and to parameterize scenes so that changing a 
 single declaration changes many values. You may declare several camera identifiers if you wish. This makes it easy to 
 quickly change cameras. An identifier is declared as follows. 
</p>

<pre>
CAMERA_DECLARATION:
    #declare IDENTIFIER = CAMERA |
    #local IDENTIFIER = CAMERA
</pre>

<p>
  Where <em>IDENTIFIER</em> is the name of the identifier up to 40 characters long and <em>CAMERA</em> is any valid 
 camera statement. See &quot;<a href="s_98.html#s03_02_02_02_02">#declare vs. #local</a>&quot; for information on 
 identifier scope. Here is an example... 
</p>

<pre>
 #declare Long_Lens = camera {
    location -z*100
    look_at &lt;0,0,0&gt;
    angle 3
 }
 
 #declare Short_Lens = camera {
    location -z*50
    look_at &lt;0,0,0&gt;
    angle 15
 }
    
 camera {
    Long_Lens  // edit this line to change lenses
    translate &lt;33,2,0&gt;
 }
</pre>

<p class="Note">
  <strong>Note:</strong> only camera transformations can be added to an already declared camera. Camera 
 behaviour changing keywords are not allowed, as they are needed in an earlier stage for resolving the keyword order 
 dependencies. 
</p>

<p>
 <a name="l122">
<small><strong>More about &quot;normal&quot;</strong></small>
</a>
 <ul>
  
  <li><small>
   <a href="s_116.html#s03_05_02">3.5.2 Normal</a> in 3.5 Textures
  </small>

  <li><small>
   <a href="s_162.html#s03_08_10_05">3.8.10.5 Normal</a> in 3.8.10 Texture
  </small>

  <li><small>
   <a href="s_69.html#s02_03_04_02">2.3.4.2 Normals</a> in 2.3.4 Advanced Texture Options
  </small>

 </ul>

</p>
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