// Copyright © 2024 Institute of Software, CAS. All rights reserved.
//
// Copyright 2018 Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.
// SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0 OR MIT
//
// Portions Copyright 2017 The Chromium OS Authors. All rights reserved.
// Use of this source code is governed by a BSD-style license that can be
// found in the THIRD-PARTY file.

use kvm_bindings::*;
use std::fs::File;
use std::os::raw::c_void;
use std::os::raw::{c_int, c_ulong};
use std::os::unix::io::{AsRawFd, FromRawFd, RawFd};

use crate::cap::Cap;
use crate::ioctls::device::new_device;
use crate::ioctls::device::DeviceFd;
use crate::ioctls::vcpu::new_vcpu;
use crate::ioctls::vcpu::VcpuFd;
use crate::ioctls::{KvmRunWrapper, Result};
use crate::kvm_ioctls::*;
use vmm_sys_util::errno;
use vmm_sys_util::eventfd::EventFd;
#[cfg(any(target_arch = "x86_64", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
use vmm_sys_util::ioctl::ioctl;
#[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
use vmm_sys_util::ioctl::ioctl_with_mut_ptr;
use vmm_sys_util::ioctl::{ioctl_with_mut_ref, ioctl_with_ref, ioctl_with_val};

/// An address either in programmable I/O space or in memory mapped I/O space.
///
/// The `IoEventAddress` is used for specifying the type when registering an event
/// in [register_ioevent](struct.VmFd.html#method.register_ioevent).
#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
pub enum IoEventAddress {
    /// Representation of an programmable I/O address.
    Pio(u64),
    /// Representation of an memory mapped I/O address.
    Mmio(u64),
}

/// Helper structure for disabling datamatch.
///
/// The structure can be used as a parameter to
/// [`register_ioevent`](struct.VmFd.html#method.register_ioevent)
/// to disable filtering of events based on the datamatch flag. For details check the
/// [KVM API documentation](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
pub struct NoDatamatch;
impl From<NoDatamatch> for u64 {
    fn from(_: NoDatamatch) -> u64 {
        0
    }
}

/// Wrapper over KVM VM ioctls.
#[derive(Debug)]
pub struct VmFd {
    vm: File,
    run_size: usize,
}

impl VmFd {
    /// Creates/modifies a guest physical memory slot.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_SET_USER_MEMORY_REGION`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `user_memory_region` - Guest physical memory slot. For details check the
    ///         `kvm_userspace_memory_region` structure in the
    ///             [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This function is unsafe because there is no guarantee `userspace_addr` points to a valid
    /// memory region, nor the memory region lives as long as the kernel needs it to.
    ///
    /// The caller of this method must make sure that:
    /// - the raw pointer (`userspace_addr`) points to valid memory
    /// - the regions provided to KVM are not overlapping other memory regions.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// extern crate kvm_bindings;
    ///
    /// use kvm_bindings::kvm_userspace_memory_region;
    /// use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let mem_region = kvm_userspace_memory_region {
    ///     slot: 0,
    ///     guest_phys_addr: 0x10000 as u64,
    ///     memory_size: 0x10000 as u64,
    ///     userspace_addr: 0x0 as u64,
    ///     flags: 0,
    /// };
    /// unsafe {
    ///     vm.set_user_memory_region(mem_region).unwrap();
    /// };
    /// ```
    pub unsafe fn set_user_memory_region(
        &self,
        user_memory_region: kvm_userspace_memory_region,
    ) -> Result<()> {
        let ret = ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_SET_USER_MEMORY_REGION(), &user_memory_region);
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Creates/modifies a guest physical memory slot.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_SET_USER_MEMORY_REGION2`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `user_memory_region2` - Guest physical memory slot. For details check the
    ///             `kvm_userspace_memory_region2` structure in the
    ///             [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This function is unsafe because there is no guarantee `userspace_addr` points to a valid
    /// memory region, nor the memory region lives as long as the kernel needs it to.
    ///
    /// The caller of this method must make sure that:
    /// - the raw pointer (`userspace_addr`) points to valid memory
    /// - the regions provided to KVM are not overlapping other memory regions.
    /// - the guest_memfd points at a file created via KVM_CREATE_GUEST_MEMFD on
    ///   the current VM, and the target range must not be bound to any other memory region
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// On x86, create a `KVM_X86_SW_PROTECTED_VM` with a memslot that has a `guest_memfd` associated.
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// extern crate kvm_bindings;
    ///
    /// use kvm_bindings::{
    ///     kvm_create_guest_memfd, kvm_userspace_memory_region2, KVM_CAP_GUEST_MEMFD,
    ///     KVM_CAP_USER_MEMORY2, KVM_MEM_GUEST_MEMFD,
    /// };
    /// use kvm_ioctls::{Cap, Kvm};
    /// use std::os::fd::RawFd;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// let vm = kvm
    ///     .create_vm_with_type(kvm_bindings::KVM_X86_SW_PROTECTED_VM as u64)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap(); /* non-x86 does not yet have a vm type that supports gmem */
    ///
    /// let address_space = unsafe { libc::mmap(0 as _, 10000, 3, 34, -1, 0) };
    /// let userspace_addr = address_space as *const u8 as u64;
    ///
    /// if !vm.check_extension(Cap::GuestMemfd) || !vm.check_extension(Cap::UserMemory2) {
    ///     return;
    /// }
    ///
    /// let gmem = kvm_create_guest_memfd {
    ///     size: 0x10000,
    ///     flags: 0,
    ///     reserved: [0; 6],
    /// };
    ///
    /// let fd: RawFd = unsafe { vm.create_guest_memfd(gmem).unwrap() };
    ///
    /// let mem_region = kvm_userspace_memory_region2 {
    ///     slot: 0,
    ///     flags: KVM_MEM_GUEST_MEMFD,
    ///     guest_phys_addr: 0x10000 as u64,
    ///     memory_size: 0x10000 as u64,
    ///     userspace_addr,
    ///     guest_memfd_offset: 0,
    ///     guest_memfd: fd as u32,
    ///     pad1: 0,
    ///     pad2: [0; 14],
    /// };
    /// unsafe {
    ///     vm.set_user_memory_region2(mem_region).unwrap();
    /// };
    /// ```
    pub unsafe fn set_user_memory_region2(
        &self,
        user_memory_region2: kvm_userspace_memory_region2,
    ) -> Result<()> {
        let ret = ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_SET_USER_MEMORY_REGION2(), &user_memory_region2);
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Sets the address of the three-page region in the VM's address space.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_SET_TSS_ADDR`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `offset` - Physical address of a three-page region in the guest's physical address space.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// vm.set_tss_address(0xfffb_d000).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn set_tss_address(&self, offset: usize) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_val(self, KVM_SET_TSS_ADDR(), offset as c_ulong) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Sets the address of the one-page region in the VM's address space.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_SET_IDENTITY_MAP_ADDR`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `address` - Physical address of a one-page region in the guest's physical address space.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// vm.set_identity_map_address(0xfffb_c000).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn set_identity_map_address(&self, address: u64) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_SET_IDENTITY_MAP_ADDR(), &address) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Creates an in-kernel interrupt controller.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_CREATE_IRQCHIP`.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    ///
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    /// {
    ///     use kvm_bindings::{
    ///         kvm_create_device, kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_ARM_VGIC_V2, KVM_CREATE_DEVICE_TEST,
    ///     };
    ///     let mut gic_device = kvm_create_device {
    ///         type_: kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_ARM_VGIC_V2,
    ///         fd: 0,
    ///         flags: KVM_CREATE_DEVICE_TEST,
    ///     };
    ///     if vm.create_device(&mut gic_device).is_ok() {
    ///         vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    ///     }
    /// }
    /// ```
    #[cfg(any(target_arch = "x86_64", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
    pub fn create_irq_chip(&self) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl(self, KVM_CREATE_IRQCHIP()) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// X86 specific call to retrieve the state of a kernel interrupt controller.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_GET_IRQCHIP` in the
    /// [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `irqchip` - `kvm_irqchip` (input/output) to be read.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # use kvm_bindings::{kvm_irqchip, KVM_IRQCHIP_PIC_MASTER};
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    ///
    /// vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    /// let mut irqchip = kvm_irqchip::default();
    /// irqchip.chip_id = KVM_IRQCHIP_PIC_MASTER;
    /// vm.get_irqchip(&mut irqchip).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn get_irqchip(&self, irqchip: &mut kvm_irqchip) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Here we trust the kernel not to read past the end of the kvm_irqchip struct.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_mut_ref(self, KVM_GET_IRQCHIP(), irqchip) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// X86 specific call to set the state of a kernel interrupt controller.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_SET_IRQCHIP` in the
    /// [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `irqchip` - `kvm_irqchip` (input/output) to be written.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # use kvm_bindings::{kvm_irqchip, KVM_IRQCHIP_PIC_MASTER};
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    ///
    /// vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    /// let mut irqchip = kvm_irqchip::default();
    /// irqchip.chip_id = KVM_IRQCHIP_PIC_MASTER;
    /// // Your `irqchip` manipulation here.
    /// vm.set_irqchip(&mut irqchip).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn set_irqchip(&self, irqchip: &kvm_irqchip) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Here we trust the kernel not to read past the end of the kvm_irqchip struct.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_SET_IRQCHIP(), irqchip) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Creates a PIT as per the `KVM_CREATE_PIT2` ioctl.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * pit_config - PIT configuration. For details check the `kvm_pit_config` structure in the
    ///                [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// use kvm_bindings::kvm_pit_config;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    /// let pit_config = kvm_pit_config::default();
    /// vm.create_pit2(pit_config).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn create_pit2(&self, pit_config: kvm_pit_config) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_CREATE_PIT2(), &pit_config) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// X86 specific call to retrieve the state of the in-kernel PIT model.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_GET_PIT2` in the
    /// [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `pitstate` - `kvm_pit_state2` to be read.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # use kvm_bindings::kvm_pit_config;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    ///
    /// let pit_config = kvm_pit_config::default();
    /// vm.create_pit2(pit_config).unwrap();
    /// let pitstate = vm.get_pit2().unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn get_pit2(&self) -> Result<kvm_pit_state2> {
        let mut pitstate = Default::default();
        // SAFETY: Here we trust the kernel not to read past the end of the kvm_pit_state2 struct.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_mut_ref(self, KVM_GET_PIT2(), &mut pitstate) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(pitstate)
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// X86 specific call to set the state of the in-kernel PIT model.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_SET_PIT2` in the
    /// [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `pitstate` - `kvm_pit_state2` to be written.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # use kvm_bindings::{kvm_pit_config, kvm_pit_state2};
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    ///
    /// let pit_config = kvm_pit_config::default();
    /// vm.create_pit2(pit_config).unwrap();
    /// let mut pitstate = kvm_pit_state2::default();
    /// // Your `pitstate` manipulation here.
    /// vm.set_pit2(&mut pitstate).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn set_pit2(&self, pitstate: &kvm_pit_state2) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Here we trust the kernel not to read past the end of the kvm_pit_state2 struct.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_SET_PIT2(), pitstate) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// X86 specific call to retrieve the current timestamp of kvmclock.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_GET_CLOCK` in the
    /// [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `clock` - `kvm_clock_data` to be read.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let clock = vm.get_clock().unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn get_clock(&self) -> Result<kvm_clock_data> {
        let mut clock = Default::default();
        // SAFETY: Here we trust the kernel not to read past the end of the kvm_clock_data struct.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_mut_ref(self, KVM_GET_CLOCK(), &mut clock) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(clock)
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// X86 specific call to set the current timestamp of kvmclock.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_SET_CLOCK` in the
    /// [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `clock` - `kvm_clock_data` to be written.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # use kvm_bindings::kvm_clock_data;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let mut clock = kvm_clock_data::default();
    /// vm.set_clock(&mut clock).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn set_clock(&self, clock: &kvm_clock_data) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Here we trust the kernel not to read past the end of the kvm_clock_data struct.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_SET_CLOCK(), clock) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Directly injects a MSI message as per the `KVM_SIGNAL_MSI` ioctl.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_SIGNAL_MSI`.
    ///
    /// This ioctl returns > 0 when the MSI is successfully delivered and 0
    /// when the guest blocked the MSI.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * kvm_msi - MSI message configuration. For details check the `kvm_msi` structure in the
    ///                [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// In this example, the important function signal_msi() calling into
    /// the actual ioctl is commented out. The reason is that MSI vectors are
    /// not chosen from the HW side (VMM). The guest OS (or anything that runs
    /// inside the VM) is supposed to allocate the MSI vectors, and usually
    /// communicate back through PCI configuration space. Sending a random MSI
    /// vector through this signal_msi() function will always result in a
    /// failure, which is why it needs to be commented out.
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// use kvm_bindings::kvm_msi;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let msi = kvm_msi::default();
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    /// //vm.signal_msi(msi).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(any(
        target_arch = "x86_64",
        target_arch = "aarch64",
        target_arch = "riscv64"
    ))]
    pub fn signal_msi(&self, msi: kvm_msi) -> Result<c_int> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we allocated the structure and we know the kernel
        // will read exactly the size of the structure.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_SIGNAL_MSI(), &msi) };
        if ret >= 0 {
            Ok(ret)
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Sets the GSI routing table entries, overwriting any previously set
    /// entries, as per the `KVM_SET_GSI_ROUTING` ioctl.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_SET_GSI_ROUTING`.
    ///
    /// Returns an io::Error when the table could not be updated.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * kvm_irq_routing - IRQ routing configuration. Describe all routes
    ///                     associated with GSI entries. For details check
    ///                     the `kvm_irq_routing` and `kvm_irq_routing_entry`
    ///                     structures in the
    ///                     [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// use kvm_bindings::kvm_irq_routing;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    ///
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    ///
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
    /// vm.create_device(&mut kvm_bindings::kvm_create_device {
    ///     type_: kvm_bindings::kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_RISCV_AIA,
    ///     fd: 0,
    ///     flags: 0,
    /// })
    /// .expect("Cannot create KVM vAIA device.");
    ///
    /// let irq_routing = kvm_irq_routing::default();
    /// vm.set_gsi_routing(&irq_routing).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(any(
        target_arch = "x86_64",
        target_arch = "aarch64",
        target_arch = "riscv64"
    ))]
    pub fn set_gsi_routing(&self, irq_routing: &kvm_irq_routing) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we allocated the structure and we know the kernel
        // will read exactly the size of the structure.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_SET_GSI_ROUTING(), irq_routing) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Registers an event to be signaled whenever a certain address is written to.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_IOEVENTFD`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `fd` - `EventFd` which will be signaled. When signaling, the usual `vmexit` to userspace
    ///           is prevented.
    /// * `addr` - Address being written to.
    /// * `datamatch` - Limits signaling `fd` to only the cases where the value being written is
    ///                 equal to this parameter. The size of `datamatch` is important and it must
    ///                 match the expected size of the guest's write.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// extern crate libc;
    /// extern crate vmm_sys_util;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::{IoEventAddress, Kvm, NoDatamatch};
    /// use libc::{eventfd, EFD_NONBLOCK};
    /// use vmm_sys_util::eventfd::EventFd;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm_fd = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let evtfd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
    /// vm_fd
    ///     .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &IoEventAddress::Pio(0xf4), NoDatamatch)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// vm_fd
    ///     .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &IoEventAddress::Mmio(0x1000), NoDatamatch)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// ```
    pub fn register_ioevent<T: Into<u64>>(
        &self,
        fd: &EventFd,
        addr: &IoEventAddress,
        datamatch: T,
    ) -> Result<()> {
        let mut flags = 0;
        if std::mem::size_of::<T>() > 0 {
            flags |= 1 << kvm_ioeventfd_flag_nr_datamatch
        }
        if let IoEventAddress::Pio(_) = *addr {
            flags |= 1 << kvm_ioeventfd_flag_nr_pio
        }

        let ioeventfd = kvm_ioeventfd {
            datamatch: datamatch.into(),
            len: std::mem::size_of::<T>() as u32,
            addr: match addr {
                IoEventAddress::Pio(ref p) => *p,
                IoEventAddress::Mmio(ref m) => *m,
            },
            fd: fd.as_raw_fd(),
            flags,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_IOEVENTFD(), &ioeventfd) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Unregisters an event from a certain address it has been previously registered to.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_IOEVENTFD`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `fd` - FD which will be unregistered.
    /// * `addr` - Address being written to.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This function is unsafe because it relies on RawFd.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// extern crate libc;
    /// extern crate vmm_sys_util;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::{IoEventAddress, Kvm, NoDatamatch};
    /// use libc::EFD_NONBLOCK;
    /// use vmm_sys_util::eventfd::EventFd;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm_fd = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let evtfd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
    /// let pio_addr = IoEventAddress::Pio(0xf4);
    /// let mmio_addr = IoEventAddress::Mmio(0x1000);
    /// vm_fd
    ///     .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &pio_addr, NoDatamatch)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// vm_fd
    ///     .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &mmio_addr, 0x1234u32)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// vm_fd
    ///     .unregister_ioevent(&evtfd, &pio_addr, NoDatamatch)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// vm_fd
    ///     .unregister_ioevent(&evtfd, &mmio_addr, 0x1234u32)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// ```
    pub fn unregister_ioevent<T: Into<u64>>(
        &self,
        fd: &EventFd,
        addr: &IoEventAddress,
        datamatch: T,
    ) -> Result<()> {
        let mut flags = 1 << kvm_ioeventfd_flag_nr_deassign;
        if std::mem::size_of::<T>() > 0 {
            flags |= 1 << kvm_ioeventfd_flag_nr_datamatch
        }
        if let IoEventAddress::Pio(_) = *addr {
            flags |= 1 << kvm_ioeventfd_flag_nr_pio
        }

        let ioeventfd = kvm_ioeventfd {
            datamatch: datamatch.into(),
            len: std::mem::size_of::<T>() as u32,
            addr: match addr {
                IoEventAddress::Pio(ref p) => *p,
                IoEventAddress::Mmio(ref m) => *m,
            },
            fd: fd.as_raw_fd(),
            flags,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_IOEVENTFD(), &ioeventfd) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Gets the bitmap of pages dirtied since the last call of this function.
    ///
    /// Leverages the dirty page logging feature in KVM. As a side-effect, this also resets the
    /// bitmap inside the kernel. For the dirty log to be available, you have to set the flag
    /// `KVM_MEM_LOG_DIRTY_PAGES` when creating guest memory regions.
    ///
    /// Check the documentation for `KVM_GET_DIRTY_LOG`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `slot` - Guest memory slot identifier.
    /// * `memory_size` - Size of the memory region.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # use std::io::Write;
    /// # use std::ptr::null_mut;
    /// # use std::slice;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::{Kvm, VcpuExit};
    /// # use kvm_bindings::{kvm_userspace_memory_region, KVM_MEM_LOG_DIRTY_PAGES};
    /// # let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// # let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// // This example is based on https://lwn.net/Articles/658511/.
    /// let mem_size = 0x4000;
    /// let guest_addr: u64 = 0x1000;
    /// let load_addr: *mut u8 = unsafe {
    ///     libc::mmap(
    ///         null_mut(),
    ///         mem_size,
    ///         libc::PROT_READ | libc::PROT_WRITE,
    ///         libc::MAP_ANONYMOUS | libc::MAP_SHARED | libc::MAP_NORESERVE,
    ///         -1,
    ///         0,
    ///     ) as *mut u8
    /// };
    ///
    /// // Initialize a guest memory region using the flag `KVM_MEM_LOG_DIRTY_PAGES`.
    /// let mem_region = kvm_userspace_memory_region {
    ///     slot: 0,
    ///     guest_phys_addr: guest_addr,
    ///     memory_size: mem_size as u64,
    ///     userspace_addr: load_addr as u64,
    ///     flags: KVM_MEM_LOG_DIRTY_PAGES,
    /// };
    /// unsafe { vm.set_user_memory_region(mem_region).unwrap() };
    ///
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// // ASM code that just forces a MMIO Write.
    /// let asm_code = [0xc6, 0x06, 0x00, 0x80, 0x00];
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    /// let asm_code = [
    ///     0x01, 0x00, 0x00, 0x10, /* adr x1, <this address> */
    ///     0x22, 0x10, 0x00, 0xb9, /* str w2, [x1, #16]; write to this page */
    ///     0x02, 0x00, 0x00, 0xb9, /* str w2, [x0]; force MMIO exit */
    ///     0x00, 0x00, 0x00,
    ///     0x14, /* b <this address>; shouldn't get here, but if so loop forever */
    /// ];
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
    /// let asm_code = [
    ///     0x17, 0x03, 0x00, 0x00, // auipc t1, 0;     <this address> -> t1
    ///     0xa3, 0x23, 0x73, 0x00, // sw t2, t1 + 7;   dirty current page
    ///     0x23, 0x20, 0x75, 0x00, // sw t2, a0;       trigger MMIO exit
    ///     0x6f, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, // j .;shouldn't get here, but if so loop forever
    /// ];
    ///
    /// // Write the code in the guest memory. This will generate a dirty page.
    /// unsafe {
    ///     let mut slice = slice::from_raw_parts_mut(load_addr, mem_size);
    ///     slice.write(&asm_code).unwrap();
    /// }
    ///
    /// let mut vcpu_fd = vm.create_vcpu(0).unwrap();
    ///
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// {
    ///     // x86_64 specific registry setup.
    ///     let mut vcpu_sregs = vcpu_fd.get_sregs().unwrap();
    ///     vcpu_sregs.cs.base = 0;
    ///     vcpu_sregs.cs.selector = 0;
    ///     vcpu_fd.set_sregs(&vcpu_sregs).unwrap();
    ///
    ///     let mut vcpu_regs = vcpu_fd.get_regs().unwrap();
    ///     // Set the Instruction Pointer to the guest address where we loaded the code.
    ///     vcpu_regs.rip = guest_addr;
    ///     vcpu_regs.rax = 2;
    ///     vcpu_regs.rbx = 3;
    ///     vcpu_regs.rflags = 2;
    ///     vcpu_fd.set_regs(&vcpu_regs).unwrap();
    /// }
    ///
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    /// {
    ///     // aarch64 specific registry setup.
    ///     let mut kvi = kvm_bindings::kvm_vcpu_init::default();
    ///     vm.get_preferred_target(&mut kvi).unwrap();
    ///     vcpu_fd.vcpu_init(&kvi).unwrap();
    ///
    ///     let core_reg_base: u64 = 0x6030_0000_0010_0000;
    ///     let mmio_addr: u64 = guest_addr + mem_size as u64;
    ///     vcpu_fd.set_one_reg(core_reg_base + 2 * 32, &guest_addr.to_le_bytes()); // set PC
    ///     vcpu_fd.set_one_reg(core_reg_base + 2 * 0, &mmio_addr.to_le_bytes()); // set X0
    /// }
    ///
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
    /// {
    ///     let core_reg_base: u64 = 0x8030_0000_0200_0000;
    ///     let mmio_addr: u64 = guest_addr + mem_size as u64;
    ///     vcpu_fd.set_one_reg(core_reg_base, &guest_addr.to_le_bytes()); // set PC
    ///     vcpu_fd.set_one_reg(core_reg_base + 10, &mmio_addr.to_le_bytes()); // set A0
    /// }
    ///
    /// loop {
    ///     match vcpu_fd.run().expect("run failed") {
    ///         VcpuExit::MmioWrite(addr, data) => {
    ///             // On x86_64, the code snippet dirties 1 page when loading the code in memory
    ///             // while on aarch64 the dirty bit comes from writing to guest_addr (current PC).
    ///             let dirty_pages_bitmap = vm.get_dirty_log(0, mem_size).unwrap();
    ///             let dirty_pages = dirty_pages_bitmap
    ///                 .into_iter()
    ///                 .map(|page| page.count_ones())
    ///                 .fold(0, |dirty_page_count, i| dirty_page_count + i);
    ///             assert_eq!(dirty_pages, 1);
    ///             break;
    ///         }
    ///         exit_reason => panic!("unexpected exit reason: {:?}", exit_reason),
    ///     }
    /// }
    /// ```
    pub fn get_dirty_log(&self, slot: u32, memory_size: usize) -> Result<Vec<u64>> {
        // Compute the length of the bitmap needed for all dirty pages in one memory slot.
        // One memory page is `page_size` bytes and `KVM_GET_DIRTY_LOG` returns one dirty bit for
        // each page.
        // SAFETY: We trust the sysconf libc function and we're calling it with a correct parameter.
        let page_size = match unsafe { libc::sysconf(libc::_SC_PAGESIZE) } {
            -1 => return Err(errno::Error::last()),
            ps => ps as usize,
        };

        // For ease of access we are saving the bitmap in a u64 vector. We are using ceil to
        // make sure we count all dirty pages even when `memory_size` is not a multiple of
        // `page_size * 64`.
        let bitmap_size = memory_size.div_ceil(page_size * 64);
        let mut bitmap = vec![0u64; bitmap_size];
        let dirtylog = kvm_dirty_log {
            slot,
            padding1: 0,
            __bindgen_anon_1: kvm_dirty_log__bindgen_ty_1 {
                dirty_bitmap: bitmap.as_mut_ptr() as *mut c_void,
            },
        };
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, and we know that the amount of
        // memory we allocated for the bitmap is at least one bit per page.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_GET_DIRTY_LOG(), &dirtylog) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(bitmap)
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Registers an event that will, when signaled, trigger the `gsi` IRQ.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `fd` - `EventFd` to be signaled.
    /// * `gsi` - IRQ to be triggered.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate libc;
    /// # extern crate vmm_sys_util;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// # use libc::EFD_NONBLOCK;
    /// # use vmm_sys_util::eventfd::EventFd;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let evtfd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// {
    ///     vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    ///     vm.register_irqfd(&evtfd, 0).unwrap();
    /// }
    /// ```
    #[cfg(any(
        target_arch = "x86_64",
        target_arch = "aarch64",
        target_arch = "riscv64"
    ))]
    pub fn register_irqfd(&self, fd: &EventFd, gsi: u32) -> Result<()> {
        let irqfd = kvm_irqfd {
            fd: fd.as_raw_fd() as u32,
            gsi,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_IRQFD(), &irqfd) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Registers an event that will, when signaled, assert the `gsi` IRQ.
    /// If the irqchip is resampled by the guest, the IRQ is de-asserted,
    /// and `resamplefd` is notified.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `fd` - `EventFd` to be signaled.
    /// * `resamplefd` - `EventFd`to be notified on resample.
    /// * `gsi` - IRQ to be triggered.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate libc;
    /// # extern crate vmm_sys_util;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// # use libc::EFD_NONBLOCK;
    /// # use vmm_sys_util::eventfd::EventFd;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let evtfd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
    /// let resamplefd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// {
    ///     vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    ///     vm.register_irqfd_with_resample(&evtfd, &resamplefd, 0)
    ///         .unwrap();
    /// }
    /// ```
    #[cfg(any(
        target_arch = "x86_64",
        target_arch = "aarch64",
        target_arch = "riscv64"
    ))]
    pub fn register_irqfd_with_resample(
        &self,
        fd: &EventFd,
        resamplefd: &EventFd,
        gsi: u32,
    ) -> Result<()> {
        let irqfd = kvm_irqfd {
            fd: fd.as_raw_fd() as u32,
            resamplefd: resamplefd.as_raw_fd() as u32,
            gsi,
            flags: KVM_IRQFD_FLAG_RESAMPLE,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_IRQFD(), &irqfd) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Unregisters an event that will, when signaled, trigger the `gsi` IRQ.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `fd` - `EventFd` to be signaled.
    /// * `gsi` - IRQ to be triggered.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate libc;
    /// # extern crate vmm_sys_util;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// # use libc::EFD_NONBLOCK;
    /// # use vmm_sys_util::eventfd::EventFd;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let evtfd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
    /// let resamplefd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// {
    ///     vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    ///     vm.register_irqfd(&evtfd, 0).unwrap();
    ///     vm.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd, 0).unwrap();
    ///     vm.register_irqfd_with_resample(&evtfd, &resamplefd, 0)
    ///         .unwrap();
    ///     vm.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd, 0).unwrap();
    /// }
    /// ```
    #[cfg(any(
        target_arch = "x86_64",
        target_arch = "aarch64",
        target_arch = "riscv64"
    ))]
    pub fn unregister_irqfd(&self, fd: &EventFd, gsi: u32) -> Result<()> {
        let irqfd = kvm_irqfd {
            fd: fd.as_raw_fd() as u32,
            gsi,
            flags: KVM_IRQFD_FLAG_DEASSIGN,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_IRQFD(), &irqfd) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Sets the level on the given irq to 1 if `active` is true, and 0 otherwise.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `irq` - IRQ to be set.
    /// * `active` - Level of the IRQ input.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns an io::Error when the irq field is invalid
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate libc;
    /// # extern crate vmm_sys_util;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::{Kvm, VmFd};
    /// # use libc::EFD_NONBLOCK;
    /// # use vmm_sys_util::eventfd::EventFd;
    /// fn arch_setup(vm_fd: &VmFd) {
    ///     // Arch-specific setup:
    ///     // For x86 architectures, it simply means calling vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap().
    /// #   #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// #   vm_fd.create_irq_chip().unwrap();
    ///     // For Arm architectures, the IRQ controllers need to be setup first.
    ///     // Details please refer to the kernel documentation.
    ///     // https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt
    /// #   #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")] {
    /// #       vm_fd.create_vcpu(0).unwrap();
    /// #       // ... rest of setup for Arm goes here
    /// #   }
    /// }
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// arch_setup(&vm);
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// {
    ///     vm.set_irq_line(4, true);
    ///     // ...
    /// }
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    /// {
    ///     vm.set_irq_line(0x01_00_0020, true);
    ///     // ....
    /// }
    /// ```
    #[cfg(any(
        target_arch = "x86_64",
        target_arch = "aarch64",
        target_arch = "riscv64"
    ))]
    pub fn set_irq_line(&self, irq: u32, active: bool) -> Result<()> {
        let mut irq_level = kvm_irq_level::default();
        irq_level.__bindgen_anon_1.irq = irq;
        irq_level.level = u32::from(active);

        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_IRQ_LINE(), &irq_level) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Creates a new KVM vCPU file descriptor and maps the memory corresponding
    /// its `kvm_run` structure.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_CREATE_VCPU`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `id` - The vCPU ID.
    ///
    /// # Errors
    ///
    /// Returns an io::Error when the VM fd is invalid or the vCPU memory cannot
    /// be mapped correctly.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// // Create one vCPU with the ID=0.
    /// let vcpu = vm.create_vcpu(0);
    /// ```
    pub fn create_vcpu(&self, id: u64) -> Result<VcpuFd> {
        #[allow(clippy::cast_lossless)]
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that vm is a VM fd and we verify the return result.
        let vcpu_fd = unsafe { ioctl_with_val(&self.vm, KVM_CREATE_VCPU(), id as c_ulong) };
        if vcpu_fd < 0 {
            return Err(errno::Error::last());
        }

        // Wrap the vCPU now in case the following ? returns early.
        // SAFETY: This is safe because we verified the value of the fd and we own the fd.
        let vcpu = unsafe { File::from_raw_fd(vcpu_fd) };

        let kvm_run_ptr = KvmRunWrapper::mmap_from_fd(&vcpu, self.run_size)?;

        Ok(new_vcpu(vcpu, kvm_run_ptr))
    }

    /// Creates a VcpuFd object from a vcpu RawFd.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `fd` - the RawFd used for creating the VcpuFd object.
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This function is unsafe as the primitives currently returned have the contract that
    /// they are the sole owner of the file descriptor they are wrapping. Usage of this function
    /// could accidentally allow violating this contract which can cause memory unsafety in code
    /// that relies on it being true.
    ///
    /// The caller of this method must make sure the fd is valid and nothing else uses it.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # use std::os::unix::io::AsRawFd;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// // Create one vCPU with the ID=0.
    /// let vcpu = vm.create_vcpu(0).unwrap();
    /// let rawfd = unsafe { libc::dup(vcpu.as_raw_fd()) };
    /// assert!(rawfd >= 0);
    /// let vcpu = unsafe { vm.create_vcpu_from_rawfd(rawfd).unwrap() };
    /// ```
    pub unsafe fn create_vcpu_from_rawfd(&self, fd: RawFd) -> Result<VcpuFd> {
        let vcpu = File::from_raw_fd(fd);
        let kvm_run_ptr = KvmRunWrapper::mmap_from_fd(&vcpu, self.run_size)?;
        Ok(new_vcpu(vcpu, kvm_run_ptr))
    }

    /// Creates an emulated device in the kernel.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_CREATE_DEVICE`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `device`: device configuration. For details check the `kvm_create_device` structure in the
    ///                [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// use kvm_bindings::{
    ///     kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_ARM_VGIC_V2, kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_ARM_VGIC_V3,
    ///     kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_RISCV_AIA, kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_VFIO,
    ///     KVM_CREATE_DEVICE_TEST,
    /// };
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Creating a device with the KVM_CREATE_DEVICE_TEST flag to check
    /// // whether the device type is supported. This will not create the device.
    /// // To create the device the flag needs to be removed.
    /// let mut device = kvm_bindings::kvm_create_device {
    ///     #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    ///     type_: kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_VFIO,
    ///     #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    ///     type_: kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_ARM_VGIC_V3,
    ///     #[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
    ///     type_: kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_RISCV_AIA,
    ///     fd: 0,
    ///     flags: KVM_CREATE_DEVICE_TEST,
    /// };
    /// // On ARM, creating VGICv3 may fail due to hardware dependency.
    /// // Retry to create VGICv2 in that case.
    /// let device_fd = vm.create_device(&mut device).unwrap_or_else(|_| {
    ///     #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    ///     panic!("Cannot create VFIO device.");
    ///     #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    ///     {
    ///         device.type_ = kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_ARM_VGIC_V2;
    ///         vm.create_device(&mut device)
    ///             .expect("Cannot create vGIC device")
    ///     }
    ///     #[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
    ///     panic!("Cannot create vAIA device.");
    /// });
    /// ```
    pub fn create_device(&self, device: &mut kvm_create_device) -> Result<DeviceFd> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we are calling this with the VM fd and we trust the kernel.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_mut_ref(self, KVM_CREATE_DEVICE(), device) };
        if ret == 0 {
            // SAFETY: We validated the return of the function creating the fd and we trust the
            // kernel.
            Ok(new_device(unsafe { File::from_raw_fd(device.fd as i32) }))
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Returns the preferred CPU target type which can be emulated by KVM on underlying host.
    ///
    /// The preferred CPU target is returned in the `kvi` parameter.
    /// See documentation for `KVM_ARM_PREFERRED_TARGET`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    /// * `kvi` - CPU target configuration (out). For details check the `kvm_vcpu_init`
    ///           structure in the
    ///           [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// use kvm_bindings::kvm_vcpu_init;
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let mut kvi = kvm_vcpu_init::default();
    /// vm.get_preferred_target(&mut kvi).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    pub fn get_preferred_target(&self, kvi: &mut kvm_vcpu_init) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: The ioctl is safe because we allocated the struct and we know the
        // kernel will write exactly the size of the struct.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_mut_ref(self, KVM_ARM_PREFERRED_TARGET(), kvi) };
        if ret != 0 {
            return Err(errno::Error::last());
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Enable the specified capability as per the `KVM_ENABLE_CAP` ioctl.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_ENABLE_CAP`.
    ///
    /// Returns an io::Error when the capability could not be enabled.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * kvm_enable_cap - KVM capability structure. For details check the `kvm_enable_cap`
    ///                    structure in the
    ///                    [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// extern crate kvm_bindings;
    ///
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// use kvm_bindings::{kvm_enable_cap, KVM_CAP_SPLIT_IRQCHIP};
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let mut cap: kvm_enable_cap = Default::default();
    /// cap.cap = KVM_CAP_SPLIT_IRQCHIP;
    /// // As per the KVM documentation, KVM_CAP_SPLIT_IRQCHIP only emulates
    /// // the local APIC in kernel, expecting that a userspace IOAPIC will
    /// // be implemented by the VMM.
    /// // Along with this capability, the user needs to specify the number
    /// // of pins reserved for the userspace IOAPIC. This number needs to be
    /// // provided through the first argument of the capability structure, as
    /// // specified in KVM documentation:
    /// //     args[0] - number of routes reserved for userspace IOAPICs
    /// //
    /// // Because an IOAPIC supports 24 pins, that's the reason why this test
    /// // picked this number as reference.
    /// cap.args[0] = 24;
    /// vm.enable_cap(&cap).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(any(target_arch = "x86_64", target_arch = "s390x", target_arch = "powerpc"))]
    pub fn enable_cap(&self, cap: &kvm_enable_cap) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: The ioctl is safe because we allocated the struct and we know the
        // kernel will write exactly the size of the struct.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_ENABLE_CAP(), cap) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Get the `kvm_run` size.
    pub fn run_size(&self) -> usize {
        self.run_size
    }

    /// Wrapper over `KVM_CHECK_EXTENSION`.
    ///
    /// Returns 0 if the capability is not available and a positive integer otherwise.
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_CHECK_EXTENSION`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `c` - KVM capability to check.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// use kvm_ioctls::Cap;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// assert!(vm.check_extension_int(Cap::MaxVcpus) > 0);
    /// ```
    pub fn check_extension_int(&self, c: Cap) -> i32 {
        self.check_extension_raw(c as c_ulong)
    }

    /// Wrapper over `KVM_CHECK_EXTENSION`.
    ///
    /// Returns 0 if the capability is not available and a positive integer otherwise.
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_CHECK_EXTENSION`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `c` - KVM capability to check in a form of a raw integer.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// # use std::os::raw::c_ulong;
    /// use kvm_ioctls::Cap;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// assert!(vm.check_extension_raw(Cap::MaxVcpus as c_ulong) > 0);
    /// ```
    pub fn check_extension_raw(&self, c: c_ulong) -> i32 {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a KVM fd.
        // If `c` is not a known kernel extension, kernel will return 0.
        unsafe { ioctl_with_val(self, KVM_CHECK_EXTENSION(), c) }
    }

    /// Checks if a particular `Cap` is available.
    ///
    /// Returns true if the capability is supported and false otherwise.
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_CHECK_EXTENSION`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `c` - VM capability to check.
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// use kvm_ioctls::Cap;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// // Check if `KVM_CAP_MP_STATE` is supported.
    /// assert!(vm.check_extension(Cap::MpState));
    /// ```
    pub fn check_extension(&self, c: Cap) -> bool {
        self.check_extension_int(c) > 0
    }

    /// Creates an anonymous file and returns a file descriptor that refers to it.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_CREATE_GUEST_MEMFD`.
    ///
    /// Returns an io::Error when the file could not be created.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * kvm_create_guest_memfd - KVM create guest memfd structure. For details check the
    ///                    `kvm_create_guest_memfd` structure in the
    ///                    [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// extern crate kvm_bindings;
    ///
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::{Cap, Kvm};
    /// use kvm_bindings::{kvm_create_guest_memfd, KVM_CAP_GUEST_MEMFD};
    /// use std::os::fd::RawFd;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// let vm = kvm
    ///     .create_vm_with_type(kvm_bindings::KVM_X86_SW_PROTECTED_VM as u64)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap(); /* non-x86 does not yet have a vm type that supports gmem */
    ///
    /// if !vm.check_extension(Cap::GuestMemfd) {
    ///     return;
    /// }
    ///
    /// let gmem = kvm_create_guest_memfd {
    ///     size: 0x1000,
    ///     flags: 0,
    ///     reserved: [0; 6],
    /// };
    ///
    /// let guest_memfd = vm.create_guest_memfd(gmem).unwrap();
    /// ```
    pub fn create_guest_memfd(&self, gmem: kvm_create_guest_memfd) -> Result<RawFd> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only
        // read the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_CREATE_GUEST_MEMFD(), &gmem) };
        if ret < 0 {
            return Err(errno::Error::last());
        }
        Ok(ret)
    }

    /// Allows userspace to set memory attributes for a range of guest physical memory.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_SET_MEMORY_ATTRIBUTES`.
    ///
    /// Returns an io::Error when the attributes could not be set.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * kvm_memory_attributes - KVM set memory attributes structure. For details check the
    ///                    `kvm_memory_attributes` structure in the
    ///                    [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Example
    ///
    /// ```rust
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// extern crate kvm_bindings;
    ///
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::{Cap, Kvm};
    /// use kvm_bindings::{
    ///     kvm_create_guest_memfd, kvm_memory_attributes, kvm_userspace_memory_region2,
    ///     KVM_CAP_GUEST_MEMFD, KVM_CAP_MEMORY_ATTRIBUTES, KVM_CAP_USER_MEMORY2,
    ///     KVM_MEMORY_ATTRIBUTE_PRIVATE, KVM_MEM_GUEST_MEMFD,
    /// };
    /// use std::os::fd::RawFd;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    /// let vm = kvm
    ///     .create_vm_with_type(kvm_bindings::KVM_X86_SW_PROTECTED_VM as u64)
    ///     .unwrap();
    /// #[cfg(not(target_arch = "x86_64"))]
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap(); /* non-x86 does not yet have a vm type that supports gmem */
    /// let gmem = kvm_create_guest_memfd {
    ///     size: 0x10000,
    ///     flags: 0,
    ///     reserved: [0; 6],
    /// };
    ///
    /// let address_space = unsafe { libc::mmap(0 as _, 10000, 3, 34, -1, 0) };
    /// let userspace_addr = address_space as *const u8 as u64;
    ///
    /// if !vm.check_extension(Cap::GuestMemfd)
    ///     || !vm.check_extension(Cap::UserMemory2)
    ///     || !vm.check_extension(Cap::MemoryAttributes)
    /// {
    ///     return;
    /// }
    ///
    /// let fd: RawFd = unsafe { vm.create_guest_memfd(gmem).unwrap() };
    /// let mem_region = kvm_userspace_memory_region2 {
    ///     slot: 0,
    ///     flags: KVM_MEM_GUEST_MEMFD,
    ///     guest_phys_addr: 0x10000 as u64,
    ///     memory_size: 0x10000 as u64,
    ///     userspace_addr,
    ///     guest_memfd_offset: 0,
    ///     guest_memfd: fd as u32,
    ///     pad1: 0,
    ///     pad2: [0; 14],
    /// };
    /// unsafe {
    ///     vm.set_user_memory_region2(mem_region).unwrap();
    /// };
    ///
    /// let attr = kvm_memory_attributes {
    ///     address: 0x10000,
    ///     size: 0x10000,
    ///     attributes: KVM_MEMORY_ATTRIBUTE_PRIVATE as u64,
    ///     flags: 0,
    /// };
    /// vm.set_memory_attributes(attr).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(any(target_arch = "x86_64", target_arch = "aarch64"))]
    pub fn set_memory_attributes(&self, attr: kvm_memory_attributes) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_SET_MEMORY_ATTRIBUTES(), &attr) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Issues platform-specific memory encryption commands to manage encrypted VMs if
    /// the platform supports creating those encrypted VMs.
    ///
    /// Currently, this ioctl is used for issuing Secure Encrypted Virtualization
    /// (SEV) commands on AMD Processors.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_MEMORY_ENCRYPT_OP` in the
    /// [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// For SEV-specific functionality, prefer safe wrapper:
    /// - [`encrypt_op_sev`](Self::encrypt_op_sev)
    ///
    /// # Safety
    ///
    /// This function is unsafe because there is no guarantee `T` is valid in this context, how
    /// much data kernel will read from memory and where it will write data on error.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `op` - an opaque platform specific structure.
    ///
    /// # Example
    #[cfg_attr(has_sev, doc = "```rust")]
    #[cfg_attr(not(has_sev), doc = "```rust,no_run")]
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// use kvm_bindings::bindings::kvm_sev_cmd;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Initialize the SEV platform context.
    /// let mut init: kvm_sev_cmd = Default::default();
    /// unsafe { vm.encrypt_op(&mut init).unwrap() };
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub unsafe fn encrypt_op<T>(&self, op: *mut T) -> Result<()> {
        let ret = ioctl_with_mut_ptr(self, KVM_MEMORY_ENCRYPT_OP(), op);
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Issue common lifecycle events of SEV guests, such as launching, running, snapshotting,
    /// migrating and decommissioning via `KVM_MEMORY_ENCRYPT_OP` ioctl.
    ///
    /// Kernel documentation states that this ioctl can be used for testing whether SEV is enabled
    /// by sending `NULL`. To do that, pass [`std::ptr::null_mut`](std::ptr::null_mut) to [`encrypt_op`](Self::encrypt_op).
    ///
    /// See the documentation for Secure Encrypted Virtualization (SEV).
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `op` - SEV-specific structure. For details check the
    ///         [Secure Encrypted Virtualization (SEV) doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/amd-memory-encryption.rst).
    ///
    /// # Example
    #[cfg_attr(has_sev, doc = "```rust")]
    #[cfg_attr(not(has_sev), doc = "```rust,no_run")]
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # use std::{os::raw::c_void, ptr::null_mut};
    /// use kvm_bindings::bindings::kvm_sev_cmd;
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Check whether SEV is enabled, optional.
    /// unsafe { vm.encrypt_op(null_mut() as *mut c_void) }.unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Initialize the SEV platform context.
    /// let mut init: kvm_sev_cmd = Default::default();
    /// vm.encrypt_op_sev(&mut init).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn encrypt_op_sev(&self, op: &mut kvm_sev_cmd) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that kernel will only read the correct amount of memory
        // from our pointer and we know where it will write it (op.error).
        unsafe { self.encrypt_op(op) }
    }

    /// Register a guest memory region which may contain encrypted data.
    ///
    /// It is used in the SEV-enabled guest.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_MEMORY_ENCRYPT_REG_REGION` in the
    /// [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `memory_region` - Guest physical memory region.
    ///
    /// # Example
    #[cfg_attr(has_sev, doc = "```rust")]
    #[cfg_attr(not(has_sev), doc = "```rust,no_run")]
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate libc;
    /// # use std::{fs::OpenOptions, ptr::null_mut};
    /// # use std::os::unix::io::AsRawFd;
    /// use kvm_bindings::bindings::{kvm_enc_region, kvm_sev_cmd, kvm_sev_launch_start, sev_cmd_id_KVM_SEV_LAUNCH_START};
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// use libc;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let sev = OpenOptions::new()
    ///     .read(true)
    ///     .write(true)
    ///     .open("/dev/sev")
    ///     .unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Initialize the SEV platform context.
    /// let mut init: kvm_sev_cmd = Default::default();
    /// vm.encrypt_op_sev(&mut init).unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Create the memory encryption context.
    /// let start_data: kvm_sev_launch_start = Default::default();
    /// let mut start = kvm_sev_cmd {
    ///     id: sev_cmd_id_KVM_SEV_LAUNCH_START,
    ///     data: &start_data as *const kvm_sev_launch_start as _,
    ///     sev_fd: sev.as_raw_fd() as _,
    ///     ..Default::default()
    /// };
    /// vm.encrypt_op_sev(&mut start).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let addr = unsafe {
    ///     libc::mmap(
    ///         null_mut(),
    ///         4096,
    ///         libc::PROT_READ | libc::PROT_WRITE,
    ///         libc::MAP_PRIVATE | libc::MAP_ANONYMOUS,
    ///         -1,
    ///         0,
    ///     )
    /// };
    /// assert_ne!(addr, libc::MAP_FAILED);
    ///
    /// let memory_region = kvm_enc_region {
    ///     addr: addr as _,
    ///     size: 4096,
    /// };
    /// vm.register_enc_memory_region(&memory_region).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn register_enc_memory_region(&self, memory_region: &kvm_enc_region) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_MEMORY_ENCRYPT_REG_REGION(), memory_region) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Unregister a guest memory region registered with
    /// [`register_enc_memory_region`](Self::register_enc_memory_region).
    ///
    /// It is used in the SEV-enabled guest.
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_MEMORY_ENCRYPT_UNREG_REGION` in the
    /// [KVM API doc](https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/api.txt).
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `memory_region` - Guest physical memory region.
    ///
    /// # Example
    #[cfg_attr(has_sev, doc = "```rust")]
    #[cfg_attr(not(has_sev), doc = "```rust,no_run")]
    /// # extern crate kvm_bindings;
    /// # extern crate kvm_ioctls;
    /// # extern crate libc;
    /// # use std::{fs::OpenOptions, ptr::null_mut};
    /// # use std::os::unix::io::AsRawFd;
    /// use kvm_bindings::bindings::{kvm_enc_region, kvm_sev_cmd, kvm_sev_launch_start, sev_cmd_id_KVM_SEV_LAUNCH_START};
    /// # use kvm_ioctls::Kvm;
    /// use libc;
    ///
    /// let kvm = Kvm::new().unwrap();
    /// let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
    /// let sev = OpenOptions::new()
    ///     .read(true)
    ///     .write(true)
    ///     .open("/dev/sev")
    ///     .unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Initialize the SEV platform context.
    /// let mut init: kvm_sev_cmd = Default::default();
    /// vm.encrypt_op_sev(&mut init).unwrap();
    ///
    /// // Create the memory encryption context.
    /// let start_data: kvm_sev_launch_start = Default::default();
    /// let mut start = kvm_sev_cmd {
    ///     id: sev_cmd_id_KVM_SEV_LAUNCH_START,
    ///     data: &start_data as *const kvm_sev_launch_start as _,
    ///     sev_fd: sev.as_raw_fd() as _,
    ///     ..Default::default()
    /// };
    /// vm.encrypt_op_sev(&mut start).unwrap();
    ///
    /// let addr = unsafe {
    ///     libc::mmap(
    ///         null_mut(),
    ///         4096,
    ///         libc::PROT_READ | libc::PROT_WRITE,
    ///         libc::MAP_PRIVATE | libc::MAP_ANONYMOUS,
    ///         -1,
    ///         0,
    ///     )
    /// };
    /// assert_ne!(addr, libc::MAP_FAILED);
    ///
    /// let memory_region = kvm_enc_region {
    ///     addr: addr as _,
    ///     size: 4096,
    /// };
    /// vm.register_enc_memory_region(&memory_region).unwrap();
    /// vm.unregister_enc_memory_region(&memory_region).unwrap();
    /// ```
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    pub fn unregister_enc_memory_region(&self, memory_region: &kvm_enc_region) -> Result<()> {
        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_MEMORY_ENCRYPT_UNREG_REGION(), memory_region) };
        if ret == 0 {
            Ok(())
        } else {
            Err(errno::Error::last())
        }
    }

    /// Registers an address for coalesced MMIO. Write accesses to the address
    /// will not cause a corresponding [`VcpuExit`](crate::VcpuExit), but
    /// instead will be appended to the MMIO ring buffer. The [`VcpuFd`] can
    /// read entries in the ring buffer via [`VcpuFd::coalesced_mmio_read()`].
    /// If entries are not read the buffer will eventually be full,
    /// preventing further elements from being appended by the kernel.
    ///
    /// Needs `KVM_CAP_COALESCED_MMIO` ([`Cap::CoalescedMmio`](crate::Cap::CoalescedMmio))
    /// and/or `KVM_CAP_COALESCED_PIO` ([`Cap::CoalescedMmio`](crate::Cap::CoalescedPio)).
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_REGISTER_COALESCED_MMIO`.
    ///
    /// # Arguments
    ///
    /// * `addr` - Address being written to.
    /// * `size` - The size of the write for the mechanism to trigger.
    pub fn register_coalesced_mmio(&self, addr: IoEventAddress, size: u32) -> Result<()> {
        let (addr, pio) = match addr {
            IoEventAddress::Pio(addr) => (addr, 1),
            IoEventAddress::Mmio(addr) => (addr, 0),
        };
        let mut zone = kvm_coalesced_mmio_zone {
            addr,
            size,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        zone.__bindgen_anon_1.pio = pio;

        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_REGISTER_COALESCED_MMIO(), &zone) };
        if ret != 0 {
            return Err(errno::Error::last());
        }
        Ok(())
    }

    /// Unregister an address that was previously registered via
    /// [`register_coalesced_mmio()`](VmFd::register_coalesced_mmio).
    ///
    /// See the documentation for `KVM_UNREGISTER_COALESCED_MMIO`.
    pub fn unregister_coalesced_mmio(&self, addr: IoEventAddress, size: u32) -> Result<()> {
        let (addr, pio) = match addr {
            IoEventAddress::Pio(addr) => (addr, 1),
            IoEventAddress::Mmio(addr) => (addr, 0),
        };
        let mut zone = kvm_coalesced_mmio_zone {
            addr,
            size,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        zone.__bindgen_anon_1.pio = pio;

        // SAFETY: Safe because we know that our file is a VM fd, we know the kernel will only read
        // the correct amount of memory from our pointer, and we verify the return result.
        let ret = unsafe { ioctl_with_ref(self, KVM_UNREGISTER_COALESCED_MMIO(), &zone) };
        if ret != 0 {
            return Err(errno::Error::last());
        }
        Ok(())
    }
}

/// Helper function to create a new `VmFd`.
///
/// This should not be exported as a public function because the preferred way is to use
/// `create_vm` from `Kvm`. The function cannot be part of the `VmFd` implementation because
/// then it would be exported with the public `VmFd` interface.
pub fn new_vmfd(vm: File, run_size: usize) -> VmFd {
    VmFd { vm, run_size }
}

impl AsRawFd for VmFd {
    fn as_raw_fd(&self) -> RawFd {
        self.vm.as_raw_fd()
    }
}

/// Create a dummy GIC device.
///
/// # Arguments
///
/// * `vm` - The vm file descriptor.
/// * `flags` - Flags to be passed to `KVM_CREATE_DEVICE`.
#[cfg(test)]
#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
pub(crate) fn create_gic_device(vm: &VmFd, flags: u32) -> DeviceFd {
    let mut gic_device = kvm_create_device {
        type_: kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_ARM_VGIC_V3,
        fd: 0,
        flags,
    };
    match vm.create_device(&mut gic_device) {
        Ok(fd) => fd,
        Err(_) => {
            gic_device.type_ = kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_ARM_VGIC_V2;
            vm.create_device(&mut gic_device)
                .expect("Cannot create KVM vGIC device")
        }
    }
}

/// Set supported number of IRQs for vGIC.
///
/// # Arguments
///
/// * `vgic` - The vGIC file descriptor.
/// * `nr_irqs` - Number of IRQs.
#[cfg(test)]
#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
pub(crate) fn set_supported_nr_irqs(vgic: &DeviceFd, nr_irqs: u32) {
    let vgic_attr = kvm_device_attr {
        group: KVM_DEV_ARM_VGIC_GRP_NR_IRQS,
        attr: 0,
        addr: &nr_irqs as *const u32 as u64,
        flags: 0,
    };
    vgic.has_device_attr(&vgic_attr).unwrap();
    vgic.set_device_attr(&vgic_attr).unwrap();
}

/// Request the initialization of the vGIC.
///
/// # Arguments
///
/// * `vgic` - The vGIC file descriptor.
#[cfg(test)]
#[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
pub(crate) fn request_gic_init(vgic: &DeviceFd) {
    let vgic_attr = kvm_device_attr {
        group: KVM_DEV_ARM_VGIC_GRP_CTRL,
        attr: u64::from(KVM_DEV_ARM_VGIC_CTRL_INIT),
        addr: 0,
        flags: 0,
    };
    vgic.has_device_attr(&vgic_attr).unwrap();
    vgic.set_device_attr(&vgic_attr).unwrap();
}

/// Create a dummy AIA device.
///
/// # Arguments
///
/// * `vm` - The vm file descriptor.
/// * `flags` - Flags to be passed to `KVM_CREATE_DEVICE`.
#[cfg(test)]
#[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
pub(crate) fn create_aia_device(vm: &VmFd, flags: u32) -> DeviceFd {
    let mut aia_device = kvm_create_device {
        type_: kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_RISCV_AIA,
        fd: 0,
        flags,
    };
    vm.create_device(&mut aia_device)
        .expect("Cannot create KVM vAIA device")
}

/// Set supported number of IRQs for vAIA.
///
/// # Arguments
///
/// * `vaia` - The vAIA file descriptor.
/// * `nr_irqs` - Number of IRQs.
#[cfg(test)]
#[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
pub(crate) fn set_supported_nr_irqs(vaia: &DeviceFd, nr_irqs: u32) {
    let vaia_attr = kvm_device_attr {
        group: KVM_DEV_RISCV_AIA_GRP_CONFIG,
        attr: u64::from(KVM_DEV_RISCV_AIA_CONFIG_SRCS),
        addr: &nr_irqs as *const u32 as u64,
        flags: 0,
    };
    vaia.has_device_attr(&vaia_attr).unwrap();
    vaia.set_device_attr(&vaia_attr).unwrap();
}

/// Request the initialization of the vAIA.
///
/// # Arguments
///
/// * `vaia` - The vAIA file descriptor.
#[cfg(test)]
#[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
pub(crate) fn request_aia_init(vaia: &DeviceFd) {
    let vaia_attr = kvm_device_attr {
        group: KVM_DEV_RISCV_AIA_GRP_CTRL,
        attr: u64::from(KVM_DEV_RISCV_AIA_CTRL_INIT),
        addr: 0,
        flags: 0,
    };
    vaia.has_device_attr(&vaia_attr).unwrap();
    vaia.set_device_attr(&vaia_attr).unwrap();
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    #![allow(clippy::undocumented_unsafe_blocks)]
    use super::*;
    use crate::Kvm;

    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    use std::{fs::OpenOptions, os::fd::IntoRawFd, ptr::null_mut};

    use libc::EFD_NONBLOCK;

    #[test]
    fn test_set_invalid_memory() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let invalid_mem_region = kvm_userspace_memory_region {
            slot: 0,
            guest_phys_addr: 0,
            memory_size: 0,
            userspace_addr: 0,
            flags: 0,
        };
        unsafe { vm.set_user_memory_region(invalid_mem_region) }.unwrap_err();
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_set_invalid_memory2() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let invalid_mem_region = kvm_userspace_memory_region2 {
            slot: 0,
            flags: 0,
            guest_phys_addr: 0,
            memory_size: 0,
            userspace_addr: 0,
            guest_memfd_offset: 0,
            guest_memfd: 0,
            pad1: 0,
            pad2: [0; 14],
        };
        unsafe { vm.set_user_memory_region2(invalid_mem_region) }.unwrap_err();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    fn test_set_tss_address() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        vm.set_tss_address(0xfffb_d000).unwrap();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    fn test_set_identity_map_address() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        if kvm.check_extension(Cap::SetIdentityMapAddr) {
            let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
            vm.set_identity_map_address(0xfffb_c000).unwrap();
            vm.create_vcpu(0).unwrap();
            // Setting the identity map after creating a vCPU must fail.
            vm.set_identity_map_address(0xfffb_c000).unwrap_err();
        }
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    fn test_irq_chip() {
        use Cap;

        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        assert!(kvm.check_extension(Cap::Irqchip));
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();

        let mut irqchip = kvm_irqchip {
            chip_id: KVM_IRQCHIP_PIC_MASTER,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        // Set the irq_base to a non-default value to check that set & get work.
        irqchip.chip.pic.irq_base = 10;
        vm.set_irqchip(&irqchip).unwrap();

        // We initialize a dummy irq chip (`other_irqchip`) in which the
        // function `get_irqchip` returns its result.
        let mut other_irqchip = kvm_irqchip {
            chip_id: KVM_IRQCHIP_PIC_MASTER,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        vm.get_irqchip(&mut other_irqchip).unwrap();

        // Safe because we know that the irqchip type is PIC.
        unsafe { assert_eq!(irqchip.chip.pic, other_irqchip.chip.pic) };
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    fn test_irq_chip() {
        use Cap;

        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        assert!(kvm.check_extension(Cap::Irqchip));

        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();

        // On ARM/arm64, a GICv2 is created. It's better to check ahead whether GICv2
        // can be emulated or not.
        let mut gic_device = kvm_create_device {
            type_: kvm_device_type_KVM_DEV_TYPE_ARM_VGIC_V2,
            fd: 0,
            flags: KVM_CREATE_DEVICE_TEST,
        };

        let vgic_v2_supported = vm.create_device(&mut gic_device).is_ok();
        assert_eq!(vm.create_irq_chip().is_ok(), vgic_v2_supported);
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    fn test_pit2() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        assert!(kvm.check_extension(Cap::Irqchip));
        vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();

        vm.create_pit2(kvm_pit_config::default()).unwrap();

        let pit2 = vm.get_pit2().unwrap();
        vm.set_pit2(&pit2).unwrap();
        let mut other_pit2 = vm.get_pit2().unwrap();
        // Load time will differ, let's overwrite it so we can test equality.
        other_pit2.channels[0].count_load_time = pit2.channels[0].count_load_time;
        other_pit2.channels[1].count_load_time = pit2.channels[1].count_load_time;
        other_pit2.channels[2].count_load_time = pit2.channels[2].count_load_time;
        assert_eq!(pit2, other_pit2);
    }

    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    #[test]
    fn test_clock() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();

        // Get current time.
        let orig = vm.get_clock().unwrap();

        // Reset time.
        let fudged = kvm_clock_data {
            clock: 10,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        vm.set_clock(&fudged).unwrap();

        // Get new time.
        let new = vm.get_clock().unwrap();

        // Verify new time has progressed but is smaller than orig time.
        assert!(fudged.clock < new.clock);
        assert!(new.clock < orig.clock);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_register_ioevent() {
        assert_eq!(std::mem::size_of::<NoDatamatch>(), 0);

        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm_fd = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let evtfd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        vm_fd
            .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &IoEventAddress::Pio(0xf4), NoDatamatch)
            .unwrap();
        vm_fd
            .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &IoEventAddress::Mmio(0x1000), NoDatamatch)
            .unwrap();
        vm_fd
            .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &IoEventAddress::Pio(0xc1), 0x7fu8)
            .unwrap();
        vm_fd
            .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &IoEventAddress::Pio(0xc2), 0x1337u16)
            .unwrap();
        vm_fd
            .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &IoEventAddress::Pio(0xc4), 0xdead_beefu32)
            .unwrap();
        vm_fd
            .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &IoEventAddress::Pio(0xc8), 0xdead_beef_dead_beefu64)
            .unwrap()
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_unregister_ioevent() {
        assert_eq!(std::mem::size_of::<NoDatamatch>(), 0);

        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm_fd = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let evtfd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let pio_addr = IoEventAddress::Pio(0xf4);
        let mmio_addr = IoEventAddress::Mmio(0x1000);

        // First try to unregister addresses which have not been registered.
        vm_fd
            .unregister_ioevent(&evtfd, &pio_addr, NoDatamatch)
            .unwrap_err();
        vm_fd
            .unregister_ioevent(&evtfd, &mmio_addr, NoDatamatch)
            .unwrap_err();

        // Now register the addresses
        vm_fd
            .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &pio_addr, NoDatamatch)
            .unwrap();
        vm_fd
            .register_ioevent(&evtfd, &mmio_addr, 0x1337u16)
            .unwrap();

        // Try again unregistering the addresses. This time it should work
        // since they have been previously registered.
        vm_fd
            .unregister_ioevent(&evtfd, &pio_addr, NoDatamatch)
            .unwrap();
        vm_fd
            .unregister_ioevent(&evtfd, &mmio_addr, 0x1337u16)
            .unwrap();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    fn test_register_unregister_irqfd() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm_fd = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let evtfd1 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let evtfd2 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let evtfd3 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let evtfd4 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let resamplefd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();

        vm_fd.create_irq_chip().unwrap();

        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd1, 4).unwrap();
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd2, 8).unwrap();
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd3, 4).unwrap();
        vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd2, 8).unwrap();
        // KVM irqfd doesn't report failure on this case:(
        vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd2, 8).unwrap();

        // Duplicated eventfd registration.
        // On x86_64 this fails as the event fd was already matched with a GSI.
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd3, 4).unwrap_err();
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd3, 5).unwrap_err();
        // KVM irqfd doesn't report failure on this case:(
        vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd3, 5).unwrap();

        if vm_fd.check_extension(Cap::IrqfdResample) {
            vm_fd
                .register_irqfd_with_resample(&evtfd4, &resamplefd, 6)
                .unwrap();
            vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd4, 6).unwrap();
        } else {
            vm_fd
                .register_irqfd_with_resample(&evtfd4, &resamplefd, 6)
                .unwrap_err();
        }
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    fn test_register_unregister_irqfd() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm_fd = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let evtfd1 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let evtfd2 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let evtfd3 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let evtfd4 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let resamplefd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();

        // Create the vGIC device.
        let vgic_fd = create_gic_device(&vm_fd, 0);

        // GICv3 on arm/aarch64 requires an online vCPU prior to setting device attributes,
        // see: https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/virt/kvm/devices/arm-vgic-v3.html
        vm_fd.create_vcpu(0).unwrap();

        // Set supported number of IRQs.
        set_supported_nr_irqs(&vgic_fd, 128);
        // Request the initialization of the vGIC.
        request_gic_init(&vgic_fd);

        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd1, 4).unwrap();
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd2, 8).unwrap();
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd3, 4).unwrap();
        vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd2, 8).unwrap();
        // KVM irqfd doesn't report failure on this case:(
        vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd2, 8).unwrap();

        // Duplicated eventfd registration.
        // On aarch64, this fails because setting up the interrupt controller is mandatory before
        // registering any IRQ.
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd3, 4).unwrap_err();
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd3, 5).unwrap_err();
        // KVM irqfd doesn't report failure on this case:(
        vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd3, 5).unwrap();

        if vm_fd.check_extension(Cap::IrqfdResample) {
            vm_fd
                .register_irqfd_with_resample(&evtfd4, &resamplefd, 6)
                .unwrap();
            vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd4, 6).unwrap();
        } else {
            vm_fd
                .register_irqfd_with_resample(&evtfd4, &resamplefd, 6)
                .unwrap_err();
        }
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
    fn test_register_unregister_irqfd() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm_fd = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let evtfd1 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let evtfd2 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        let evtfd3 = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();

        // Create the vAIA device.
        let vaia_fd = create_aia_device(&vm_fd, 0);

        // AIA on riscv64 requires at least one online vCPU prior to setting
        // device attributes. Otherwise it would fail when trying ot set address
        // of IMSIC.
        vm_fd.create_vcpu(0).unwrap();

        // Set maximum supported number of IRQs of the vAIA device to 128.
        set_supported_nr_irqs(&vaia_fd, 128);

        // Before request vAIA device to initialize, APLIC and IMSIC must be set
        let aplic_addr: u64 = 0x4000;
        vaia_fd
            .set_device_attr(&kvm_device_attr {
                group: KVM_DEV_RISCV_AIA_GRP_ADDR,
                attr: u64::from(KVM_DEV_RISCV_AIA_ADDR_APLIC),
                addr: &aplic_addr as *const u64 as u64,
                flags: 0,
            })
            .unwrap();
        let imsic_addr: u64 = 0x8000;
        vaia_fd
            .set_device_attr(&kvm_device_attr {
                group: KVM_DEV_RISCV_AIA_GRP_ADDR,
                attr: 1u64,
                addr: &imsic_addr as *const u64 as u64,
                flags: 0,
            })
            .unwrap();

        // Initialize valid vAIA device.
        request_aia_init(&vaia_fd);

        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd1, 4).unwrap();
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd2, 8).unwrap();
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd3, 4).unwrap();
        vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd2, 8).unwrap();
        // KVM irqfd doesn't report failure on this case:(
        vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd2, 8).unwrap();

        // Duplicated eventfd registration.
        // On riscv64 this fails as the event fd was already matched with a GSI.
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd3, 4).unwrap_err();
        vm_fd.register_irqfd(&evtfd3, 5).unwrap_err();
        // KVM irqfd doesn't report failure on this case:(
        vm_fd.unregister_irqfd(&evtfd3, 5).unwrap();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    fn test_set_irq_line() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm_fd = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();

        vm_fd.create_irq_chip().unwrap();

        vm_fd.set_irq_line(4, true).unwrap();
        vm_fd.set_irq_line(4, false).unwrap();
        vm_fd.set_irq_line(4, true).unwrap();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    #[allow(clippy::unusual_byte_groupings)]
    fn test_set_irq_line() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm_fd = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        // Create a vcpu for test case 2 of the KVM_IRQ_LINE API on aarch64.
        vm_fd.create_vcpu(0).unwrap();

        // Create the vGIC device.
        let vgic_fd = create_gic_device(&vm_fd, 0);
        // Set supported number of IRQs.
        set_supported_nr_irqs(&vgic_fd, 128);
        // Request the initialization of the vGIC.
        request_gic_init(&vgic_fd);

        // On arm/aarch64, irq field is interpreted like this:
        // bits:  | 31 ... 24 | 23  ... 16 | 15    ...    0 |
        // field: | irq_type  | vcpu_index |     irq_id     |
        // The irq_type field has the following values:
        // - irq_type[0]: out-of-kernel GIC: irq_id 0 is IRQ, irq_id 1 is FIQ
        // - irq_type[1]: in-kernel GIC: SPI, irq_id between 32 and 1019 (incl.) (the vcpu_index field is ignored)
        // - irq_type[2]: in-kernel GIC: PPI, irq_id between 16 and 31 (incl.)
        // Hence, using irq_type = 1, irq_id = 32 (decimal), the irq field in hex is: 0x01_00_0020
        vm_fd.set_irq_line(0x01_00_0020, true).unwrap();
        vm_fd.set_irq_line(0x01_00_0020, false).unwrap();
        vm_fd.set_irq_line(0x01_00_0020, true).unwrap();

        // Case 2: using irq_type = 2, vcpu_index = 0, irq_id = 16 (decimal), the irq field in hex is: 0x02_00_0010
        vm_fd.set_irq_line(0x02_00_0010, true).unwrap();
        vm_fd.set_irq_line(0x02_00_0010, false).unwrap();
        vm_fd.set_irq_line(0x02_00_0010, true).unwrap();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
    fn test_set_irq_line() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm_fd = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        vm_fd.create_vcpu(0).unwrap();

        // Create the vAIA device.
        let vaia_fd = create_aia_device(&vm_fd, 0);
        // Set maximum supported number of IRQs of the vAIA device to 128.
        set_supported_nr_irqs(&vaia_fd, 128);

        // Before request vAIA device to initialize, APLIC and IMSIC must be set
        let aplic_addr: u64 = 0x4000;
        vaia_fd
            .set_device_attr(&kvm_device_attr {
                group: KVM_DEV_RISCV_AIA_GRP_ADDR,
                attr: u64::from(KVM_DEV_RISCV_AIA_ADDR_APLIC),
                addr: &aplic_addr as *const u64 as u64,
                flags: 0,
            })
            .unwrap();
        let imsic_addr: u64 = 0x8000;
        vaia_fd
            .set_device_attr(&kvm_device_attr {
                group: KVM_DEV_RISCV_AIA_GRP_ADDR,
                attr: 1u64,
                addr: &imsic_addr as *const u64 as u64,
                flags: 0,
            })
            .unwrap();

        // Initialize valid vAIA device.
        request_aia_init(&vaia_fd);

        vm_fd.set_irq_line(7, true).unwrap();
        vm_fd.set_irq_line(7, false).unwrap();
        vm_fd.set_irq_line(7, true).unwrap();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    fn test_faulty_vm_fd() {
        let badf_errno = libc::EBADF;

        let faulty_vm_fd = VmFd {
            vm: unsafe { File::from_raw_fd(-2) },
            run_size: 0,
        };

        let invalid_mem_region = kvm_userspace_memory_region {
            slot: 0,
            guest_phys_addr: 0,
            memory_size: 0,
            userspace_addr: 0,
            flags: 0,
        };

        assert_eq!(
            unsafe {
                faulty_vm_fd
                    .set_user_memory_region(invalid_mem_region)
                    .unwrap_err()
                    .errno()
            },
            badf_errno
        );
        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd.set_tss_address(0).unwrap_err().errno(),
            badf_errno
        );
        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd.create_irq_chip().unwrap_err().errno(),
            badf_errno
        );
        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd
                .create_pit2(kvm_pit_config::default())
                .unwrap_err()
                .errno(),
            badf_errno
        );
        let event_fd = EventFd::new(EFD_NONBLOCK).unwrap();
        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd
                .register_ioevent(&event_fd, &IoEventAddress::Pio(0), 0u64)
                .unwrap_err()
                .errno(),
            badf_errno
        );
        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd
                .get_irqchip(&mut kvm_irqchip::default())
                .unwrap_err()
                .errno(),
            badf_errno
        );
        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd
                .set_irqchip(&kvm_irqchip::default())
                .unwrap_err()
                .errno(),
            badf_errno
        );
        assert_eq!(faulty_vm_fd.get_clock().unwrap_err().errno(), badf_errno);
        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd
                .set_clock(&kvm_clock_data::default())
                .unwrap_err()
                .errno(),
            badf_errno
        );
        assert_eq!(faulty_vm_fd.get_pit2().unwrap_err().errno(), badf_errno);
        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd
                .set_pit2(&kvm_pit_state2::default())
                .unwrap_err()
                .errno(),
            badf_errno
        );
        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd
                .register_irqfd(&event_fd, 0)
                .unwrap_err()
                .errno(),
            badf_errno
        );

        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd.create_vcpu(0).err().unwrap().errno(),
            badf_errno
        );

        assert_eq!(
            faulty_vm_fd.get_dirty_log(0, 0).unwrap_err().errno(),
            badf_errno
        );

        // Don't drop the File object, or it'll notice the file it's trying to close is
        // invalid and abort the process.
        let _ = faulty_vm_fd.vm.into_raw_fd();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "aarch64")]
    fn test_get_preferred_target() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let mut kvi = kvm_vcpu_init::default();
        vm.get_preferred_target(&mut kvi).unwrap();
    }

    /// As explained in the example code related to signal_msi(), sending
    /// a random MSI vector will always fail because no vector has been
    /// previously allocated from the guest itself.
    #[test]
    #[cfg(any(
        target_arch = "x86_64",
        target_arch = "aarch64",
        target_arch = "riscv64"
    ))]
    fn test_signal_msi_failure() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let msi = kvm_msi::default();
        vm.signal_msi(msi).unwrap_err();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(not(any(target_arch = "aarch64", target_arch = "riscv64")))]
    fn test_enable_cap_failure() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let cap: kvm_enable_cap = Default::default();
        // Providing the `kvm_enable_cap` structure filled with default() should
        // always result in a failure as it is not a valid capability.
        vm.enable_cap(&cap).unwrap_err();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    fn test_enable_split_irqchip_cap() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let mut cap = kvm_enable_cap {
            cap: KVM_CAP_SPLIT_IRQCHIP,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        // As per the KVM documentation, KVM_CAP_SPLIT_IRQCHIP only emulates
        // the local APIC in kernel, expecting that a userspace IOAPIC will
        // be implemented by the VMM.
        // Along with this capability, the user needs to specify the number
        // of pins reserved for the userspace IOAPIC. This number needs to be
        // provided through the first argument of the capability structure, as
        // specified in KVM documentation:
        //     args[0] - number of routes reserved for userspace IOAPICs
        //
        // Because an IOAPIC supports 24 pins, that's the reason why this test
        // picked this number as reference.
        cap.args[0] = 24;
        vm.enable_cap(&cap).unwrap();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(any(
        target_arch = "x86_64",
        target_arch = "aarch64",
        target_arch = "riscv64"
    ))]
    fn test_set_gsi_routing() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        let irq_routing = kvm_irq_routing::default();

        // Expect failure for x86 since the irqchip is not created yet.
        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
        vm.set_gsi_routing(&irq_routing).unwrap_err();
        #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
        vm.create_irq_chip().unwrap();

        // RISC-V 64-bit expect an AIA device to be created in advance of
        // committing irq_routing table.
        #[cfg(target_arch = "riscv64")]
        create_aia_device(&vm, 0);

        vm.set_gsi_routing(&irq_routing).unwrap();
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_create_vcpu_different_ids() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();

        // Fails when an arbitrarily large value
        let err = vm.create_vcpu(65537_u64).err();
        assert_eq!(err.unwrap().errno(), libc::EINVAL);

        // Fails when input `id` = `max_vcpu_id`
        let max_vcpu_id = kvm.get_max_vcpu_id();
        vm.create_vcpu((max_vcpu_id - 1) as u64).unwrap();

        let vcpu_err = vm.create_vcpu(max_vcpu_id as u64).err();
        assert_eq!(vcpu_err.unwrap().errno(), libc::EINVAL);
    }

    #[test]
    fn test_check_extension() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();
        assert!(vm.check_extension(Cap::MpState));
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    #[cfg_attr(not(has_sev), ignore)]
    fn test_encrypt_op_sev() {
        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();

        let mut init: kvm_sev_cmd = Default::default();
        vm.encrypt_op_sev(&mut init).unwrap();
    }

    #[test]
    #[cfg(target_arch = "x86_64")]
    #[cfg_attr(not(has_sev), ignore)]
    fn test_register_unregister_enc_memory_region() {
        let sev = OpenOptions::new()
            .read(true)
            .write(true)
            .open("/dev/sev")
            .unwrap();

        let Ok(kvm) = Kvm::new() else { return };
        let vm = kvm.create_vm().unwrap();

        // Perform SEV launch sequence according to
        // https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/virtual/kvm/amd-memory-encryption.rst

        let mut init: kvm_sev_cmd = Default::default();
        vm.encrypt_op_sev(&mut init).unwrap();

        let start_data: kvm_sev_launch_start = Default::default();
        let mut start = kvm_sev_cmd {
            id: sev_cmd_id_KVM_SEV_LAUNCH_START,
            data: &start_data as *const kvm_sev_launch_start as _,
            sev_fd: sev.as_raw_fd() as _,
            ..Default::default()
        };
        vm.encrypt_op_sev(&mut start).unwrap();

        let addr = unsafe {
            libc::mmap(
                null_mut(),
                4096,
                libc::PROT_READ | libc::PROT_WRITE,
                libc::MAP_PRIVATE | libc::MAP_ANONYMOUS,
                -1,
                0,
            )
        };
        assert_ne!(addr, libc::MAP_FAILED);

        assert_eq!(
            vm.register_enc_memory_region(&Default::default())
                .unwrap_err()
                .errno(),
            libc::EINVAL
        );
        assert_eq!(
            vm.unregister_enc_memory_region(&Default::default())
                .unwrap_err()
                .errno(),
            libc::EINVAL
        );

        let memory_region = kvm_enc_region {
            addr: addr as _,
            size: 4096,
        };
        assert_eq!(
            vm.unregister_enc_memory_region(&memory_region)
                .unwrap_err()
                .errno(),
            libc::EINVAL
        );
        vm.register_enc_memory_region(&memory_region).unwrap();
        vm.unregister_enc_memory_region(&memory_region).unwrap();
    }
}