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</head>

<body id="top" lang="en">
<a name="Environments" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="Environments-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h2 class="chapter">Environments</h2>

<a name="index-environments" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cbegin" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cend" class="anchor"></a>

<p>LaTeX provides many environments for delimiting certain behavior.
An environment begins with <code>\begin</code> and ends with <code>\end</code>,
like this:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{<var>environment-name</var>}
  ...
\end{<var>environment-name</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>The <var>environment-name</var> at the beginning must exactly match that at
the end. For instance, the input
<code>\begin{table*}...\end{table}</code> will cause an error like:
&lsquo;<samp>! LaTeX Error: \begin{table*} on input line 5 ended by
\end{table}.</samp>&rsquo;
</p>
<a name="index-group_002c-and-environments" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Environments are executed within a group.
</p>


<hr>
<a name="abstract" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="abstract-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>abstract</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-abstract" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-abstract-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-abstracts" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{abstract}
...
\end{abstract}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs.  This environment
is only defined in the <code>article</code> and <code>report</code> document classes
(see <a href="latex2e_3.html#Document-classes">Document classes</a>).
</p>
<p>Using the example below in the <code>article</code> class produces a displayed
paragraph.  Document class option <code>titlepage</code> causes the abstract
to be on a separate page (see <a href="latex2e_3.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>); this is the
default only in the <code>report</code> class.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{abstract}
  We compare all known accounts of the proposal made by Porter Alexander 
  to Robert E Lee at the Appomattox Court House that the army continue
  in a guerrilla war, which Lee refused.
\end{abstract}
</pre></div>

<p>The next example produces a one column abstract in a two column document (for
a more flexible solution, use the package <samp>abstract</samp>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
  ...
\begin{document}
\title{Babe Ruth as Cultural Progenitor: a Atavistic Approach}
\author{Smith \\ Jones \\ Robinson\thanks{Railroad tracking grant.}}
\twocolumn[
  \begin{@twocolumnfalse}
     \maketitle
     \begin{abstract}
       Ruth was not just the Sultan of Swat, he was the entire swat
       team.   
     \end{abstract}
   \end{@twocolumnfalse}
   ]
{   % by-hand insert a footnote at page bottom
 \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
 \footnotetext[1]{Thanks for all the fish.}
}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="array" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="array-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>array</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-array" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-array-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-arrays_002c-math" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{array}{<var>cols</var>}
  <var>column 1 entry</var> &amp;<var>column 2 entry</var> ... &amp;<var>column n entry</var> \\
  ...
\end{array}
</pre></div>

<p>or:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{array}[<var>pos</var>]{<var>cols</var>}
  <var>column 1 entry</var> &amp;<var>column 2 entry</var> ... &amp;<var>column n entry</var> \\
  ...
\end{array}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a mathematical array.  This environment can only be used in math
mode, and normally appears within a displayed mathematics environment
such as <code>equation</code> (see <a href="#equation">equation</a>).  Inside of each row the
column entries are separated by an ampersand, (<code>&amp;</code>).  Rows are
terminated with double-backslashes (see <a href="latex2e_9.html#g_t_005c_005c">\\</a>).
</p>
<p>This example shows a three by three array.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{equation*}
  \chi(x) =
  \left|              % vertical bar fence
    \begin{array}{ccc}
      x-a  &amp;-b  &amp;-c  \\
      -d   &amp;x-e &amp;-f  \\
      -g   &amp;-h  &amp;x-i
    \end{array}
 \right|
\end{equation*}
</pre></div>

<p>The required argument <var>cols</var> describes the number of columns, their
alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions.  For instance,
<code>\begin{array}{rcl}...\end{array}</code> gives three columns: the
first flush right, the second centered, and the third flush left.  See
<a href="#tabular">tabular</a> for the complete description of <var>cols</var> and of the
other common features of the two environments, including the optional
<var>pos</var> argument.
</p>
<p>There are two ways that <code>array</code> diverges from <code>tabular</code>.  The
first is that <code>array</code> entries are typeset in math mode, in
textstyle (see <a href="latex2e_17.html#Modes">Modes</a>) except if the <var>cols</var> definition specifies
the column with <code>p{...}</code>, which causes the entry to be typeset in
text mode.  The second is that, instead of <code>tabular</code>&rsquo;s parameter
<code>\tabcolsep</code>, LaTeX&rsquo;s intercolumn space in an <code>array</code> is
governed by
<a name="index-_005carraycolsep" class="anchor"></a>
<code>\arraycolsep</code>, which gives half the width between columns. The
default for this is &lsquo;<samp>5pt</samp>&rsquo; so that between two columns comes
10pt of space.
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-amsmath" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-amsmath-package" class="anchor"></a>

<p>To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the <samp>amsmath</samp>
package.  It comes with environments <code>pmatrix</code> for an array
surrounded by parentheses&nbsp;<code>(...)</code>, <code>bmatrix</code> for an array
surrounded by square brackets&nbsp;<code>[...]</code>, <code>Bmatrix</code> for an
array surrounded by curly braces&nbsp;<code>{...}</code>, <code>vmatrix</code> for
an array surrounded by vertical bars&nbsp;<code>|...|</code>, and
<code>Vmatrix</code> for an array surrounded by double vertical
bars&nbsp;<code>||...||</code>, along with a number of other array constructs.
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-amsmath-1" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-amsmath-package-1" class="anchor"></a>

<p>The next example uses the <samp>amsmath</samp> package.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\usepackage{amsmath}  % in preamble

\begin{equation}    
  \begin{vmatrix}{cc}  % array with vert lines
    a  &amp;b \\
    c  &amp;d       
  \end{vmatrix}=ad-bc
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<a name="index-package_002c-array-_0028package_0029" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-array-_0028package_0029-package" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-package_002c-dcolumn" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-dcolumn-package" class="anchor"></a>

<p>There are many packages concerning arrays.  The <samp>array</samp> package has
many useful extensions, including more column types.  The <samp>dcolumn</samp>
package adds a column type to center on a decimal point.  For both see
the documentation on CTAN.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="center" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="center-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>center</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-center" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-center-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-centering-text_002c-environment-for" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{center}
  <var>line1</var> \\
  <var>line2</var> \\
  ...
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a new paragraph consisting of a sequence of lines that are
centered within the left and right margins.  Use
double-backslash, <code>\\</code>, to get a line break (see <a href="latex2e_9.html#g_t_005c_005c">\\</a>).
<a name="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-center_0029" class="anchor"></a>
If some text is too long to fit on a line then LaTeX will insert line
breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any
interword space.
</p>
<p>This environment inserts space above and below the text body.  See
<a href="#g_t_005ccentering">\centering</a> to avoid such space, for example inside a <code>figure</code>
environment.
</p>
<p>This example produces three centered lines.  There is extra vertical
space between the last two lines.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{center}
  A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fufillment \\
  of the Requirements of \\[0.5ex]
  the School of Environmental Engineering
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>In this example, depending on the page&rsquo;s line width, LaTeX may choose
a line break for the part before the double backslash.  If so, it will
center each of the two lines and if not it will center the single line.
Then LaTeX will break at the double backslash, and will center the
ending.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{center}
  My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink 
  alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\ 
  I grew up in that belief.  --Richard Burton 
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>A double backslash after the final line is optional.  If present it
doesn&rsquo;t add any vertical space.
</p>
<p>In a two-column document the text is centered in a column, not in the
entire page.
</p>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005ccentering" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005ccentering-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\centering</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005ccentering" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-centering-text_002c-declaration-for" class="anchor"></a>


<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">{\centering ... }
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{group}
  \centering ...
\end{group}
</pre></div>

<p>Center the material in its scope.  It is most often used inside an
environment such as <code>figure</code>, or in a <code>parbox</code>.
</p>
<p>This example&rsquo;s <code>\centering</code> declaration causes the graphic to be
horizontally centered.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{figure}
  \centering
  \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png}
  \caption{CTAN Lion}  \label{fig:CTANLion}
\end{figure}
</pre></div>

<p>The scope of this <code>\centering</code> ends with the <code>\end{figure}</code>.
</p>
<p>Unlike the <code>center</code> environment, the <code>\centering</code> command does
not add vertical space above and below the text.  That&rsquo;s its advantage
in the above example; there is not an excess of space.
</p>
<p>It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units.  If <code>ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz</code> is
surrounded by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose
first line &lsquo;<samp>ww xx</samp>&rsquo; is centered and whose second line, not centered,
contains &lsquo;<samp>yy zz</samp>&rsquo;.  Usually what is desired is for the scope of the
declaration to contain a blank line or the <code>\end</code> command of an
environment such as <code>figure</code> or <code>table</code> that ends the
paragraph unit.  Thus, if <code>{\centering xx \\ yy\par} zz</code> is
surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph with two
centered lines &lsquo;<samp>xx</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp>yy</samp>&rsquo;, followed by a new paragraph with
&lsquo;<samp>zz</samp>&rsquo; that is formatted as usual.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="description" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="description-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>description</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-description" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-description-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-labelled-lists_002c-creating" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-description-lists_002c-creating" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{description}
  \item[<var>label of first item</var>] <var>text of first item</var>
  \item[<var>label of second item</var>] <var>text of second item</var>
   ...
\end{description}
</pre></div>

<p>Environment to make a list of labeled items.  Each item&rsquo;s <var>label</var> is
typeset in bold and is flush left, so that long labels continue into the
first line of the item text.  There must be at least one item; having
none causes the LaTeX error &lsquo;<samp>Something's wrong--perhaps a
missing \item</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This example shows the environment used for a sequence of definitions.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{definition}
  \item[lama] A priest.
  \item[llama] A beast.
\end{definition}
</pre></div>

<p>The labels &lsquo;<samp>lama</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp>llama</samp>&rsquo; are output in boldface, with the
left edge on the left margin.
</p>
<a name="index-_005citem" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Start list items with the <code>\item</code> command (see <a href="#g_t_005citem">\item</a>).  Use the
optional labels, as in <code>\item[Main point]</code>, because there is
no sensible default.  Following the <code>\item</code> is optional text, which
may contain multiple paragraphs.
</p>
<a name="index-bold-typewriter_002c-avoiding" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-typewriter-labels-in-lists" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a font
change given in argument style (see <a href="latex2e_4.html#Font-styles">Font styles</a>) then it will come
out bold.  For instance, if the label text calls for typewriter with
<code>\item[\texttt{label text}]</code> then it will appear in bold
typewriter, if that is available. The simplest way around this, in this
example to get non-bold typewriter, is to use declarative style:
<code>\item[{\tt label text}]</code>.  Similarly, get the standard roman
font with <code>\item[{\rm label text}]</code>.
</p>
<p>For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see <a href="#itemize">itemize</a>
and <a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a>.  Unlike those environments, nesting
<code>description</code> environments does not change the default label; it is
boldface and flush left at all levels.
</p>
<p>For information about list layout parameters, including the default
values, and for information about customizing list layout, see
<a href="#list">list</a>.  The package <samp>enumitem</samp> is useful for customizing
lists.
</p>
<p>This example changes the description labels to small caps.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\renewcommand{\descriptionlabel}[1]{%
  {\hspace{\labelsep}\textsc{#1}}}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="displaymath" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="displaymath-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>displaymath</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-displaymath" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-displaymath-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{displaymath}
  <var>mathematical text</var>
\end{displaymath}
</pre></div>

<p>Environment to typeset the math text on its own line, in display style
and centered.  To make the text be flush-left use the global option
<code>fleqn</code>; see <a href="latex2e_3.html#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>.
</p>
<p>In the <code>displaymath</code> environment no equation number is added to the
math text. One way to get an equation number is to use the
<code>equation</code> environment (see <a href="#equation">equation</a>).
</p>
<p>LaTeX will not break the <var>math text</var> across lines.
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-amsmath-2" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-amsmath-package-2" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Note that the <samp>amsmath</samp> package has significantly more extensive
displayed equation facilities.  For example, there are a number of
ways in that package for having math text broken across lines.
</p>
<p>The construct <code>\[<var>math text</var>\]</code> is essentially a synonym for
<code>\begin{displaymath}<var>math text</var>\end{displaymath}</code> but the
latter is easier to work with in the source file; for instance,
searching for a square bracket may get false positives but the word
<code>displaymath</code> will likely be unique.  (The construct
<code>$$<var>math text</var>$$</code> from Plain&nbsp;TeX is sometimes
mistakenly used as a synonym for <code>displaymath</code>.  It is not a
synonym, because the <code>displaymath</code> environment checks that it isn&rsquo;t
started in math mode and that it ends in math mode begun by the matching
environment start, because the <code>displaymath</code> environment has
different vertical spacing, and because the <code>displaymath</code>
environment honors the <code>fleqn</code> option.)
</p>
<p>The output from this example is centered and alone on its line. 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{displaymath}
  \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3
\end{displaymath}
</pre></div>

<p>Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version  
<code>\( \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \)</code> produces.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="document" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="document-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>document</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-document" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-document-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        

<p>The <code>document</code> environment encloses the entire body of a document.
It is required in every LaTeX document.  See <a href="latex2e_2.html#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a>.
</p>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cAtBeginDocument" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cAtBeginDocument-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\AtBeginDocument</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cAtBeginDocument" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-beginning-of-document-hook" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\AtBeginDocument{<var>code</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Save <var>code</var> and execute it when <code>\begin{document}</code> is
executed, at the very end of the preamble.  The code is executed after
the font selection tables have been set up, so the normal font for the
document is the current font.  However, the code is executed as part of
the preamble so you cannot do any typesetting with it.
</p>
<p>You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines
will be executed in the order that you gave them.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cAtEndDocument" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cAtEndDocument-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\AtEndDocument</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cAtEndDocument" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-end-of-document-hook" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\AtEndDocument{<var>code</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Save <var>code</var> and execute it near the end of the document.
Specifically, it is executed when <code>\end{document}</code> is executed,
before the final page is finished and before any leftover floating
environments are processed. If you want some of the code to be executed
after these two processes then include a <code>\clearpage</code> at the
appropriate point in <var>code</var>.
</p>
<p>You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines
will be executed in the order that you gave them.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="enumerate" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="enumerate-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>enumerate</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-enumerate" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-enumerate-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-lists-of-items_002c-numbered" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{enumerate}
  \item[<var>optional label of first item</var>] <var>text of first item</var>
  \item[<var>optional label of second item</var>] <var>text of second item</var>
  ...
\end{enumerate}
</pre></div>

<p>Environment to produce a numbered list of items.  The format of the
label numbering depends on the nesting level of this environment; see
below. The default top-level numbering is &lsquo;<samp>1.</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp>2.</samp>&rsquo;,
etc. Each <code>enumerate</code> list environment must have at least one item;
having none causes the LaTeX error &lsquo;<samp>Something's wrong--perhaps a
missing \item</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This example gives the first two finishers in the 1908 Olympic marathon.
As a top-level list the labels would come out as &lsquo;<samp>1.</samp>&rsquo; and
&lsquo;<samp>2.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{enumerate}
 \item Johnny Hayes (USA)
 \item Charles Hefferon (RSA) 
\end{enumerate}
</pre></div>

<a name="index-_005citem-1" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Start list items with the <code>\item</code> command (see <a href="#g_t_005citem">\item</a>).  If you
give <code>\item</code> an optional argument by following it with square
brackets, as in <code>\item[Interstitial label]</code>, then the next item
will continue the interrupted sequence (see <a href="#g_t_005citem">\item</a>).  That is, you
will get labels like &lsquo;<samp>1.</samp>&rsquo;, then &lsquo;<samp>Interstitial label</samp>&rsquo;, then
&lsquo;<samp>2.</samp>&rsquo;.  Following the <code>\item</code> is optional text, which may
contain multiple paragraphs.
</p>
<p>Enumerations may be nested within other <code>enumerate</code> environments,
or within any paragraph-making environment such as <code>itemize</code>
(see <a href="#itemize">itemize</a>), up to four levels deep.  This gives LaTeX&rsquo;s
default for the format at each nesting level, where 1 is the top level,
the outermost level.
</p>
<ol>
<li> arabic number followed by a period: &lsquo;<samp>1.</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp>2.</samp>&rsquo;,&nbsp;&hellip;
</li><li> lowercase letter inside parentheses: &lsquo;<samp>(a)</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp>(b)</samp>&rsquo;&nbsp;&hellip;
</li><li> lowercase roman numeral followed by a period: &lsquo;<samp>i.</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp>ii.</samp>&rsquo;,&nbsp;&hellip;
</li><li> uppercase letter followed by a period: &lsquo;<samp>A.</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp>B.</samp>&rsquo;,&nbsp;&hellip;
</li></ol>

<a name="index-_005cenumi" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cenumii" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cenumiii" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cenumiv" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="enumerate-enumi" class="anchor"></a><a name="enumerate-enumii" class="anchor"></a><a name="enumerate-enumiii" class="anchor"></a><a name="enumerate-enumiv" class="anchor"></a><p>The <code>enumerate</code> environment uses the counters <code>\enumi</code> through
<code>\enumiv</code> (see <a href="latex2e_13.html#Counters">Counters</a>).
</p>
<p>For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see
<a href="#description">description</a> and <a href="#itemize">itemize</a>.  For information about list layout
parameters, including the default values, and for information about
customizing list layout, see <a href="#list">list</a>.  The package <samp>enumitem</samp> is
useful for customizing lists.
</p>
<a name="index-_005clabelenumi" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005clabelenumii" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005clabelenumiii" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005clabelenumiv" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="enumerate-labelenumi" class="anchor"></a><a name="enumerate-labelenumii" class="anchor"></a><a name="enumerate-labelenumiii" class="anchor"></a><a name="enumerate-labelenumiv" class="anchor"></a><p>To change the format of the label use <code>\renewcommand</code>
(see <a href="latex2e_12.html#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a>) on the commands <code>\labelenumi</code>
through <code>\labelenumiv</code>. For instance, this first level list will be
labelled with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing
period.
</p>
<a name="index-_005cAlph-example" class="anchor"></a>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}}
\begin{enumerate}
  \item Shows as boldface A
  \item Shows as boldface B
\end{enumerate}
</pre></div>

<p>For a list of counter-labeling commands see <a href="latex2e_13.html#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a>.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="eqnarray" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="eqnarray-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>eqnarray</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-eqnarray" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-eqnarray-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-equations_002c-aligning" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-aligning-equations" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-align-environment_002c-from-amsmath" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-amsmath-package_002c-replacing-eqnarray" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-Madsen_002c-Lars" class="anchor"></a>
<p>The <code>eqnarray</code> environment is obsolete.  It has infelicities,
including spacing that is inconsistent with other mathematics elements.
(See &ldquo;Avoid eqnarray!&rdquo; by Lars Madsen
<a class="external" href="http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf">http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf</a>).  New documents
should include the <samp>amsmath</samp> package and use the displayed
mathematics environments provided there, such as the <code>align</code>
environment.  We include a description only for completeness and for
working with old documents.
</p>
<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{eqnarray} 
  <var>first formula left</var>  &amp;<var>first formula middle</var>  &amp;<var>first formula right</var> \\
  ...
\end{eqnarray}
</pre></div>

<p>or 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{eqnarray*} 
  <var>first formula left</var>  &amp;<var>first formula middle</var>  &amp;<var>first formula right</var> \\
  ...
\end{eqnarray*}
</pre></div>

<a name="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-eqnarray_0029" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Display a sequence of equations or inequalities.  The left and right
sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text
mode.
</p>
<p>It is similar to a three-column <code>array</code> environment, with items
within a row separated by an ampersand&nbsp;(<code>&amp;</code>), and with rows
separated by double backslash&nbsp; <code>\\</code>).
<a name="index-_005c_005c_002a-_0028for-eqnarray_0029" class="anchor"></a>
The starred form of line break (<code>\\*</code>) can also be used to separate
equations, and will disallow a page break there (see <a href="latex2e_9.html#g_t_005c_005c">\\</a>).
</p>
<a name="index-_005cnonumber" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-equation-numbers_002c-omitting" class="anchor"></a>
<p>The unstarred form <code>eqnarray</code> places an equation number on every
line (using the <code>equation</code> counter), unless that line contains a
<code>\nonumber</code> command.  The starred form <code>eqnarray*</code> omits
equation numbering, while otherwise being the same.
</p>
<a name="index-_005clefteqn" class="anchor"></a>
<p>The command <code>\lefteqn</code> is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
</p>
<p>This example shows three lines.  The first two lines make an inequality,
while the third line has not entry on the left side.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{eqnarray*}
  \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n}     \\
    &amp;\leq &amp;y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n      \\
    &amp;=    &amp;z+y_3+\cdots+y_n
\end{eqnarray*}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="equation" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="equation-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>equation</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-equation" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-equation-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-equations_002c-environment-for" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-formulas_002c-environment-for" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{equation}
  <var>mathematical text</var>
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>The same as a <code>displaymath</code> environment (see <a href="#displaymath">displaymath</a>)
except that LaTeX puts an equation number flush to the right margin.
The equation number is generated using the <code>equation</code> counter.
</p>
<p>You should have no blank lines between <code>\begin{equation}</code> and
<code>\begin{equation}</code>, or LaTeX will tell you that there is a
missing dollar sign.
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-amsmath-3" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-amsmath-package-3" class="anchor"></a>

<p>The package <samp>amsmath</samp> package has extensive displayed equation
facilities.  New documents should include this package.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="figure" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="figure-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>figure</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-figure" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-figure-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-inserting-figures" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-figures_002c-inserting" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{figure}[<var>placement</var>]
  <var>figure body</var>
  \caption[<var>loftitle</var>]{<var>title</var>}  % optional
  \label{<var>label}</var>              % optional
\end{figure}
</pre></div>

<p>or:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{figure*}[<var>placement</var>]
  <var>figure body</var>
  \caption[<var>loftitle</var>]{<var>title</var>}  % optional
  \label{<var>label}</var>              % optional  
\end{figure*}
</pre></div>

<p>Figures are for material that is not part of the normal text.  An
example is material that you cannot have split between two pages, such
as a graphic.  Because of this, LaTeX does not typeset figures in
sequence with normal text but instead &ldquo;floats&rdquo; them to a convenient
place, such as the top of a following page (see <a href="latex2e_5.html#Floats">Floats</a>).
</p>
<p>The <var>figure body</var> can consist of imported graphics
(see <a href="latex2e_22.html#Graphics">Graphics</a>), or text, LaTeX commands, etc.  It is typeset in a
<code>parbox</code> of width <code>\textwidth</code>.
</p>
<p>The possible values of <var>placement</var> are <code>h</code> for &lsquo;<samp>here</samp>&rsquo;,
<code>t</code> for &lsquo;<samp>top</samp>&rsquo;, <code>b</code> for &lsquo;<samp>bottom</samp>&rsquo;, and <code>p</code> for
&lsquo;<samp>on a separate page of floats</samp>&rsquo;.  For the effect of these options on
the float placement algorithm, see <a href="latex2e_5.html#Floats">Floats</a>.
</p>
<p>The starred form <code>figure*</code> is used when a document is in
double-column mode (see <a href="latex2e_5.html#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a>).  It produces a figure that
spans both columns, at the top of the page.  To add the possibility of
placing at a page bottom see the discussion of <var>placement</var> <code>b</code>
in <a href="latex2e_5.html#Floats">Floats</a>.
</p>
<p>The label is optional; it is used for cross references (see <a href="latex2e_7.html#Cross-references">Cross references</a>).
<a name="index-_005ccaption" class="anchor"></a>
The optional <code>\caption</code> command specifies caption text for the
figure.  By default it is numbered.  If <var>loftitle</var> is present, it is
used in the list of figures instead of <var>title</var> (see <a href="latex2e_25.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a>).
</p>
<p>This example makes a figure out of a graphic.  LaTeX will place that
graphic and its caption at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the
end of the document, on a page of floats.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\usepackage{graphicx}  % in preamble
  ...
\begin{figure}[t]
  \centering
  \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png}
  \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby}
\end{figure}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="filecontents" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="filecontents_003a-Write-an-external-file" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>filecontents</code>: Write an external file</h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-filecontents" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-filecontents-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-environment_002c-filecontents_002a" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-filecontents_002a-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-external-files_002c-writing" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-writing-external-files" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{filecontents}{<var>filename</var>}
  <var>text</var>
\end{filecontents}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{filecontents*}{<var>filename</var>}
  <var>text</var>
\end{filecontents*}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a file named <var>filename</var> and fill it with <var>text</var>.  The
unstarred version of the environment <code>filecontents</code> prefixes the
content of the created file with a header; see the example below.  The
starred version <code>filecontents*</code> does not include the header.
</p>
<p>This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it often
appears before the <code>\documentclass</code> command.  It is typically used
when a source file requires a nonstandard style or class file.  The
environment will write that file to the directory containing the source
and thus make the source file self-contained.  Another use is to include
<code>bib</code> references in the file, again to make it self-contained.
</p>
<p>The environment checks whether a file of that name already exists and if
so, does not do anything.  There is a <samp>filecontents</samp> package that
redefines the <code>filecontents</code> environment so that instead of doing
nothing in that case, it will overwrite the existing file.
</p>
<p>For example, this document
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\documentclass{article}
\begin{filecontents}{JH.sty}
\newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
\end{filecontents}
\usepackage{JH}
\begin{document}
Article by \myname.
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>produces this file <samp>JH.sty</samp>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">%% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty'
%% generated by the `filecontents' environment
%% from source `test' on 2015/10/12.
%%
\newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="flushleft" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="flushleft-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>flushleft</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-flushleft" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-flushleft-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-left_002djustifying-text_002c-environment-for" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-ragged-right-text_002c-environment-for" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{flushleft}
  <var>line1</var> \\
  <var>line2</var> \\
  ...
\end{flushleft}
</pre></div>

<a name="index-_005c_005c-for-flushleft" class="anchor"></a>
<p>An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the
left-hand margin, and ragged right. If you have lines that are too long
then LaTeX will linebreak them in a way that avoids hyphenation and
stretching or shrinking spaces.  To force a new line use a double
backslash, <code>\\</code>.  For the declaration form
see&nbsp;<a href="#g_t_005craggedright">\raggedright</a>.
</p>
<p>This creates a box of text that is at most 3 inches wide, with the text
flush left and ragged right.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\noindent\begin{minipage}{3in}
\begin{flushleft}
  A long sentence that will be broken by \LaTeX{}
    at a convenient spot. \\
  And, a fresh line forced by the double backslash.
\end{flushleft}
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>




<hr>
<a name="g_t_005craggedright" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005craggedright-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\raggedright</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005craggedright" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-ragged-right-text" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-left_002djustifying-text" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-justification_002c-ragged-right" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">{\raggedright  ... }
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{<var>environment</var>} \raggedright
  ...
\end{<var>environment</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the left margin and
ragged right. It can be used inside an environment such as <code>quote</code>
or in a <code>parbox</code>.  For the environment form
see&nbsp;<a href="#flushleft">flushleft</a>.
</p>
<p>Unlike the <code>flushleft</code> environment, the <code>\raggedright</code>
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units.  To affect a paragraph unit&rsquo;s format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or <code>\end</code>
command that ends the paragraph unit.
</p>
<p>Here <code>\raggedright</code> in each second column keeps LaTeX from doing
very awkward typesetting to fit the text into the narrow column.  Note
that <code>\raggedright</code> is inside the curly braces <code>{...}</code> to
delimit its effect.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular}{rp{2in}}
  Team alpha  &amp;{\raggedright This team does all the real work.} \\
  Team beta   &amp;{\raggedright This team ensures that the water
                cooler is never empty.}                         \\
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="flushright" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="flushright-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>flushright</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-flushright" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-flushright-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-ragged-left-text_002c-environment-for" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-right_002djustifying-text_002c-environment-for" class="anchor"></a>

<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{flushright}
  <var>line1</var> \\
  <var>line2</var> \\
  ...
\end{flushright}
</pre></div>

<a name="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-flushright_0029" class="anchor"></a>
<p>An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the
right-hand margin and ragged left. If you have lines that are too long
to fit the margins then LaTeX will linebreak them in a way that
avoids hyphenation and stretching or shrinking spaces.  To force a new
line use a double backslash, <code>\\</code>.  For the declaration form
see&nbsp;<a href="#g_t_005craggedleft">\raggedleft</a>.
</p>
<p>For an example related to this environment, see&nbsp;<a href="#flushleft">flushleft</a>.
</p>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005craggedleft" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005craggedleft-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\raggedleft</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005craggedleft" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-ragged-left-text" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-justification_002c-ragged-left" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-right_002djustifying-text" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">{\raggedleft  ... }
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{<var>environment</var>} \raggedleft
  ...
\end{<var>environment</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the right margin and
ragged left. It can be used inside an environment such as <code>quote</code>
or in a <code>parbox</code>.  For the environment form
see&nbsp;<a href="#flushright">flushright</a>.
</p>
<p>Unlike the <code>flushright</code> environment, the <code>\raggedleft</code>
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units.  To affect a paragraph unit&rsquo;s format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or <code>\end</code>
command that ends the paragraph unit.
</p>
<p>For an example related to this environment, see&nbsp;<a href="#g_t_005craggedright">\raggedright</a>.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="itemize" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="itemize-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>itemize</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-itemize" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-itemize-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-_005citem-2" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-lists-of-items" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-unordered-lists" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-bulleted-lists" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-bullet-lists" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{itemize}
  \item[<var>optional label of first item</var>] <var>text of first item</var>
  \item[<var>optional label of second item</var>] <var>text of second item</var>
  ...
\end{itemize}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a list that is unordered, sometimes called a bullet list.  The
environment must have at least one <code>\item</code>; having none causes the
LaTeX error &lsquo;<samp>Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This gives a two-item list.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{itemize}
 \item Pencil and watercolor sketch by Cassandra
 \item Rice portrait 
\end{itemize}
</pre></div>

<p>As a top-level list each label would come out as a bullet, &bull;.
The format of the labeling depends on the nesting level; see below.
</p>
<a name="index-_005citem-3" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Start list items with the <code>\item</code> command (see <a href="#g_t_005citem">\item</a>).  If you
give <code>\item</code> an optional argument by following it with square
brackets, as in <code>\item[Optional label]</code>, then by default it will
appear in bold and be flush right, so it could extend into the left
margin.  For labels that are flush left see the <a href="#description">description</a>
environment. Following the <code>\item</code> is optional text, which may
contain multiple paragraphs.
</p>
<a name="index-_005clabelitemi" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005clabelitemii" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005clabelitemiii" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005clabelitemiv" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="itemize-labelitemi" class="anchor"></a><a name="itemize-labelitemii" class="anchor"></a><a name="itemize-labelitemiii" class="anchor"></a><a name="itemize-labelitemiv" class="anchor"></a><p>Itemized lists can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep.
They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such
as <code>enumerate</code> (see <a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a>).  The <code>itemize</code> environment
uses the commands <code>\labelitemi</code> through <code>\labelitemiv</code> to
produce the default label (this also uses the convention of lowercase
roman numerals at the end of the command names that signify the nesting
level).  These are the default marks at each level.
</p>
<ol>
<li> &bull; (bullet, from <code>\textbullet</code>)
</li><li> <b>-<span class="nolinebreak">-</span><!-- /@w --></b> (bold en-dash, from <code>\normalfont\bfseries\textendash</code>)
</li><li> * (asterisk, from <code>\textasteriskcentered</code>)
</li><li> . (centered dot, rendered here as a period, from <code>\textperiodcentered</code>)
</li></ol>

<p>Change the labels with <code>\renewcommand</code>.  For instance, this makes
the first level use diamonds.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}
</pre></div>

<a name="index-_005cleftmargin" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cleftmargini" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cleftmarginii" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cleftmarginiii" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cleftmarginiv" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cleftmarginv" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cleftmarginvi" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="itemize-leftmargin" class="anchor"></a><a name="itemize-leftmargini" class="anchor"></a><a name="itemize-leftmarginii" class="anchor"></a><a name="itemize-leftmarginiii" class="anchor"></a><a name="itemize-leftmarginiv" class="anchor"></a><a name="itemize-leftmarginv" class="anchor"></a><a name="itemize-leftmarginvi" class="anchor"></a><p>The distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and
the left margin of the <code>itemize</code> list is determined by the
parameters <code>\leftmargini</code> through <code>\leftmarginvi</code>.  (Note the
convention of using lowercase roman numerals a the end of the command
name to denote the nesting level.)  The defaults are: <code>2.5em</code> in
level 1 (<code>2em</code> in two-column mode), <code>2.2em</code> in level 2,
<code>1.87em</code> in level 3, and <code>1.7em</code> in level 4, with smaller
values for more deeply nested levels.
</p>
<p>For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see
<a href="#description">description</a> and <a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a>.  For information about list
layout parameters, including the default values, and for information
about customizing list layout, see <a href="#list">list</a>.  The package
<samp>enumitem</samp> is useful for customizing lists.
</p>
<p>This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost itemized
lists.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em
</pre></div>

<a name="index-_005cparskip-example" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide
space between items.  Here is an example defining an <code>itemize*</code>
environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs
within a single item (<code>\parskip</code> is not list-specific,
see <a href="latex2e_15.html#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent &amp; \parskip</a>):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newenvironment{itemize*}%
  {\begin{itemize}%
    \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
    \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
    \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
  {\end{itemize}}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="letter" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="letter-environment_003a-writing-letters" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>letter</code> environment: writing letters</h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-letter" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-letter-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        

<p>This environment is used for creating letters.  See <a href="latex2e_26.html#Letters">Letters</a>.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="list" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="list-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>list</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-list" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-list-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-lists-of-items_002c-generic" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{list}{<var>labeling</var>}{<var>spacing</var>}
  \item[<var>optional label of first item</var>] <var>text of first item</var>
  \item[<var>optional label of second item</var>] <var>text of second item</var>
  ...
\end{list}
</pre></div>

<p>An environment for constructing lists.
</p>
<p>Note that this environment does not typically appear in the document
body.  Most lists created by LaTeX authors are the ones that come
standard: the <code>description</code>, <code>enumerate</code>, and <code>itemize</code>
environments (see <a href="#description">description</a>, <a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a>, and <a href="#itemize">itemize</a>).
</p>
<p>Instead, the <code>list</code> environment is most often used in macros.  For
example, many standard LaTeX environments that do not immediately
appear to be lists are in fact constructed using <code>list</code>, including
<code>quotation</code>, <code>quote</code>, and <code>center</code> (see <a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a>, see <a href="#center">center</a>).
</p>
<p>This uses the <code>list</code> environment to define a new custom
environment.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcounter{namedlistcounter}  % number the items
\newenvironment{named}
  {\begin{list}
     {Item~\Roman{namedlistcounter}.} % labeling 
     {\usecounter{namedlistcounter}   % set counter
      \setlength{\leftmargin}{3.5em}} % set spacing 
  }
  {\end{list}}

\begin{named}
  \item Shows as ``Item~I.''
  \item[Special label.] Shows as ``Special label.''
  \item Shows as ``Item~II.''
\end{named}
</pre></div>

<p>The mandatory first argument <var>labeling</var> specifies the default
labeling of list items.  It can contain text and LaTeX commands, as
above where it contains both &lsquo;<samp>Item</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp>\Roman{...}</samp>&rsquo;.
LaTeX forms the label by putting the <var>labeling</var> argument in a box
of width <code>\labelwidth</code>.  If the label is wider than that, the
additional material extends to the right.  When making an instance of a
list you can override the default labeling by giving <code>\item</code> an
optional argument by including square braces and the text, as in the
above <code>\item[Special label.]</code>; see <a href="#g_t_005citem">\item</a>.
</p>
<p>The mandatory second argument <var>spacing</var> has a list of commands.
This list can be empty.  A command that can go in here is
<code>\usecounter{<var>countername</var>}</code> (see <a href="latex2e_13.html#g_t_005cusecounter">\usecounter</a>).  Use this
to tell LaTeX to number the items using the given counter.  The
counter will be reset to zero each time LaTeX enters the environment,
and the counter is incremented by one each time LaTeX encounters an
<code>\item</code> that does not have an optional argument.
</p>
<a name="index-_005cmakelabel" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="list-makelabel" class="anchor"></a><p>Another command that can go in <var>spacing</var> is
<code>\makelabel</code>, which constructs the label box.  By default it puts
the contents flush right.  Its only argument is the label, which it
typesets in LR mode (see <a href="latex2e_17.html#Modes">Modes</a>). One example of changing its
definition is that to the above <code>named</code> example, before the
definition of the environment add
<code>\newcommand{\namedmakelabel}[1]{\textsc{#1}}</code>, and between
the <code>\setlength</code> command and the parenthesis that closes the
<var>spacing</var> argument also add <code>\let\makelabel\namedmakelabel</code>.
Then the items will be typeset in small caps.  Similarly, changing the
second code line to <code>\let\makelabel\fbox</code> puts the labels inside a
framed box.  Another example of the <code>\makelabel</code> command is below,
in the definition of the <code>redlabel</code> environment.
</p>
<p>Also often in <var>spacing</var> are commands to redefine the spacing for the
list.  Below are the spacing parameters with their default values.
(Default values for derived environments such as <code>itemize</code> can be
different than the values shown here.) See also the figure that follows
the list.  Each is a length (see <a href="latex2e_14.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  The vertical spaces are
normally rubber lengths, with <code>plus</code> and <code>minus</code> components,
to give TeX flexibility in setting the page.  Change each with a
command such as <code>\setlength{itemsep}{2pt plus1pt minus1pt}</code>.
For some effects these lengths should be zero or negative.
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>\itemindent</code>
<a name="index-_005citemindent" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-itemindent" class="anchor"></a><p>Extra horizontal space indentation, beyond <code>leftmargin</code>, of the
first line each item.  Its default value is <code>0pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\itemsep</code>
<a name="index-_005citemsep" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-itemsep" class="anchor"></a><p>Vertical space between items, beyond the <code>\parsep</code>.  The defaults
for the first three levels in LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp>article</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp>book</samp>&rsquo;,
and &lsquo;<samp>report</samp>&rsquo; classes at 10 point size are: <code>4pt plus2pt
minus1pt</code>, <code>\parsep</code> (that is, <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>), and
<code>\topsep</code> (that is, <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>).  The defaults at
11 point are: <code>4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt</code>, <code>\parsep</code> (that is,
<code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>), and <code>topsep</code> (that is, <code>2pt
plus1pt minus1pt</code>).  The defaults at 12 point are: <code>5pt plus2.5pt
minus1pt</code>, <code>\parsep</code> (that is, <code>2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>), and
<code>\topsep</code> (that is, <code>2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\labelsep</code>
<a name="index-_005clabelsep" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-labelsep" class="anchor"></a><p>Horizontal space between the label and text of an item.
The default for LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp>article</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp>book</samp>&rsquo;,
and &lsquo;<samp>report</samp>&rsquo; classes is <code>0.5em</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\labelwidth</code>
<a name="index-_005clabelwidth" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-labelwidth" class="anchor"></a><p>Horizontal width.  The box containing the label is nominally this wide.
If <code>\makelabel</code> returns text that is wider than this then the first
line of the item will be indented to make room for this extra material.
If <code>\makelabel</code> returns text of width less than or equal to
<code>\labelwidth</code> then LaTeX&rsquo;s default is that the label is typeset
flush right in a box of this width.
</p>
<p>The left edge of the label box is
<code>\leftmargin</code>+<code>\itemindent</code>-<code>\labelsep</code>-<code>\labelwidth</code>
from the left margin of the enclosing environment.
</p>
<p>The default for LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp>article</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp>book</samp>&rsquo;, and
&lsquo;<samp>report</samp>&rsquo; classes at the top level is
<code>\leftmargini</code>-<code>\labelsep</code>, (which is <code>2em</code> in one column
mode and <code>1.5em</code> in two column mode).  At the second level it is
<code>\leftmarginii</code>-<code>\labelsep</code>, and at the third level it is
<code>\leftmarginiii</code>-<code>\labelsep</code>.  These definitions make the
label&rsquo;s left edge coincide with the left margin of the enclosing
environment.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\leftmargin</code>
<a name="index-_005cleftmargin-1" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-leftmargin" class="anchor"></a><p>Horizontal space between the left margin of the enclosing environment
(or the left margin of the page if this is a top-level list), and the
left margin of this list.  It must be non-negative.
</p>
<p>In the standard LaTeX document classes, a top-level list has this set
to the value of <code>\leftmargini</code>, while a list that is nested inside
a top-level list has this margin set to <code>\leftmarginii</code>.  More
deeply nested lists get the values of <code>\leftmarginiii</code> through
<code>\leftmarginvi</code>.  (Nesting greater than level five generates the
error message &lsquo;<samp>Too deeply nested</samp>&rsquo;.)
</p>
<p>The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp>article</samp>&rsquo;,
&lsquo;<samp>book</samp>&rsquo;, and &lsquo;<samp>report</samp>&rsquo; classes are: <code>\leftmargini</code> is
<code>2.5em</code> (in two column mode, <code>2em</code>), <code>\leftmarginii</code> is
<code>2.2em</code>, and <code>\leftmarginiii</code> is <code>1.87em</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\listparindent</code>
<a name="index-_005clistparindent" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-listparindent" class="anchor"></a><p>Horizontal space of additional line indentation, beyond
<code>\leftmargin</code>, for second and subsequent paragraphs within a list
item.  A negative value makes this an &ldquo;outdent&rdquo;.  Its default value
is <code>0pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\parsep</code>
<a name="index-_005cparsep" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-parsep" class="anchor"></a><p>Vertical space between paragraphs within an item.  In the &lsquo;<samp>book</samp>&rsquo;
and &lsquo;<samp>article</samp>&rsquo; classes The defaults for the first three levels in
LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp>article</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp>book</samp>&rsquo;, and &lsquo;<samp>report</samp>&rsquo; classes at 10
point size are: <code>4pt plus2pt minus1pt</code>, <code>2pt plus1pt
minus1pt</code>, and <code>0pt</code>.  The defaults at 11 point size are:
<code>4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt</code>, <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and
<code>0pt</code>.  The defaults at 12 point size are: <code>5pt plus2.5pt
minus1pt</code>, <code>2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and <code>0pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\partopsep</code>
<a name="index-_005cpartopsep" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-partopsep" class="anchor"></a><p>Vertical space added, beyond <code>\topsep</code>+<code>\parskip</code>, to the top
and bottom of the entire environment if the list instance is preceded by
a blank line.  (A blank line in the LaTeX source before the list
changes spacing at both the top and bottom of the list; whether the line
following the list is blank does not matter.)
</p>
<p>The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp>article</samp>&rsquo;,
&lsquo;<samp>book</samp>&rsquo;, and &lsquo;<samp>report</samp>&rsquo; classes at 10 point size are: <code>2pt
plus1 minus1pt</code>, <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and <code>1pt plus0pt
minus1pt</code>.  The defaults at 11 point are: <code>3pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>,
<code>3pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and <code>1pt plus0pt minus1pt</code>).  The
defaults at 12 point are: <code>3pt plus2pt minus3pt</code>, <code>3pt plus2pt
minus2pt</code>, and <code>1pt plus0pt minus1pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\rightmargin</code>
<a name="index-_005crightmargin" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-rightmargin" class="anchor"></a><p>Horizontal space between the right margin of the list and the right
margin of the enclosing environment.  Its default value is <code>0pt</code>.
It must be non-negative.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\topsep</code>
<a name="index-_005ctopsep" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-topsep" class="anchor"></a><p>Vertical space added to both the top and bottom of the list, in addition
to <code>\parskip</code> (see <a href="latex2e_15.html#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent &amp; \parskip</a>).  The defaults for
the first three levels in LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp>article</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp>book</samp>&rsquo;, and
&lsquo;<samp>report</samp>&rsquo; classes at 10 point size are: <code>8pt plus2pt minus4pt</code>,
<code>4pt plus2pt minus1pt</code>, and <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>.  The
defaults at 11 point are: <code>9pt plus3pt minus5pt</code>, <code>4.5pt
plus2pt minus1pt</code>, and <code>2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>.  The defaults at 12
point are: <code>10pt plus4pt minus6pt</code>, <code>5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt</code>,
and <code>2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>This shows the horizontal and vertical distances.
</p>
<div class="float">
<img src="latex2e-figures/list.png" alt="latex2e-figures/list">
</div>
<p>The lengths shown are listed below.  The key relationship is that the
right edge of the bracket for <var>h1</var> equals the right edge of the
bracket for <var>h4</var>, so that the left edge of the label box is at
<var>h3</var>+<var>h4</var>-(<var>h0</var>+<var>h1</var>).
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><var>v0</var></dt>
<dd><p><em><code>\topsep</code> + <code>\parskip</code></em> if
the list environment does not start a new paragraph, and
<code>\topsep</code>+<code>\parskip</code>+<code>\partopsep</code> if it does
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>v1</var></dt>
<dd><p><code>\parsep</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>v2</var></dt>
<dd><p><code>\itemsep</code>+<code>\parsep</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>v3</var></dt>
<dd><p>Same as <var>v0</var>.  (This space is affected by whether a blank line
appears in the source above the environment; whether a blank line
appears in the source below the environment does not matter.)
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>h0</var></dt>
<dd><p><code>\labelwidth</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>h1</var></dt>
<dd><p><code>\labelsep</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>h2</var></dt>
<dd><p><code>\listparindent</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>h3</var></dt>
<dd><p><code>\leftmargin</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>h4</var></dt>
<dd><p><code>\itemindent</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>h5</var></dt>
<dd><p><code>\rightmargin</code>
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>The list&rsquo;s left and right margins, shown above as <var>h3</var> and <var>h5</var>,
are with respect to the ones provided by the surrounding environment, or
with respect to the page margins for a top-level list.  The line width
used for typesetting the list items is <code>\linewidth</code> (see <a href="latex2e_5.html#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a>).  For instance, set the list&rsquo;s left margin to be one
quarter of the distance between the left and right margins of the
enclosing environment with
<code>\setlength{\leftmargin}{0.25\linewidth}</code>.
</p>
<p>Page breaking in a list structure is controlled by the three
parameters below. For each, the LaTeX default is
<code>-\@lowpenalty</code>, that is, <code>-51</code>.  Because it is negative,
it somewhat encourages a page break at each spot.  Change it with,
e.g., <code>\@beginparpenalty=9999</code>; a value of 10000 prohibits a
page break.
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>\@beginparpenalty</code>
<a name="index-_005c_0040beginparpenalty" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-beginparpenalty" class="anchor"></a><p>The page breaking penalty for breaking before the list (default <code>-51</code>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\@itempenalty</code>
<a name="index-_005c_0040itempenalty" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-itempenalty" class="anchor"></a><p>The page breaking penalty for breaking before a list item (default <code>-51</code>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\@endparpenalty</code>
<a name="index-_005c_0040endparpenalty" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="list-endparpenalty" class="anchor"></a><p>The page breaking penalty for breaking after a list (default <code>-51</code>).
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<a name="index-package_002c-enumitem" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-enumitem-package" class="anchor"></a>

<p>The package <code>enumitem</code> is useful for customizing lists.
</p>
<p>This example has the labels in red.  They are numbered, and the left
edge of the label lines up with the left edge of the item text.
See <a href="latex2e_13.html#g_t_005cusecounter">\usecounter</a>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\usepackage{color}
\newcounter{cnt}  
\newcommand{\makeredlabel}[1]{\textcolor{red}{#1.}}
\newenvironment{redlabel}
  {\begin{list}
    {\arabic{cnt}}
    {\usecounter{cnt}
     \setlength{\labelwidth}{0em}
     \setlength{\labelsep}{0.5em}
     \setlength{\leftmargin}{1.5em}
     \setlength{\itemindent}{0.5em} % equals \labelwidth+\labelsep
     \let\makelabel=\makeredlabel
    }
  }
{\end{list} }
</pre></div>



<hr>
<a name="g_t_005citem" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005citem_003a-An-entry-in-a-list" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\item</code>: An entry in a list</h4>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\item text of item
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\item[<var>optional-label</var>] text of item
</pre></div>

<p>An entry in a list.  The entries are prefixed by a label, whose default
depends on the list type.
</p>
<p>Because the optional label is surrounded by square brackets
&lsquo;<samp>[...]</samp>&rsquo;, if you have an item whose text starts with &lsquo;<samp>[</samp>&rsquo;, you
have to hide the bracket inside curly braces, as in: <code>\item
{[} is an open square bracket</code>; otherwise, LaTeX will think it
marks the start of an optional label.
</p>
<p>Similarly, if the item does have the optional label and you need a
close square bracket inside that label, you must hide it in the same
way: <code>\item[Close square bracket, {]}]</code>.  See <a href="latex2e_2.html#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a>.
</p>
<p>In this example the enumerate list has two items that use the default
label and one that uses the optional label.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{enumerate}
  \item Moe
  \item[sometimes] Shemp
  \item Larry
\end{enumerate}
</pre></div>

<p>The first item is labelled &lsquo;<samp>1.</samp>&rsquo;, the second item is labelled
&lsquo;<samp>sometimes</samp>&rsquo;, and the third item is labelled &lsquo;<samp>2.</samp>&rsquo;.  Because
of the optional label in the second item, the third item is not
labelled&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp>3.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>   

<hr>
<a name="trivlist" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="trivlist_003a-A-restricted-form-of-list" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>trivlist</code>: A restricted form of <code>list</code></h4>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{trivlist}
  ...
\end{trivlist}
</pre></div>

<p>A restricted version of the list environment, in which margins are not
indented and an <code>\item</code> without an optional argument produces no
text.  It is most often used in macros, to define an environment where
the <code>\item</code> command as part of the environment&rsquo;s definition.  For
instance, the <code>center</code> environment is defined essentially like
this:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newenvironment{center}
  {\begin{trivlist}\centering\item\relax}
  {\end{trivlist}}
</pre></div>

<p>Using <code>trivlist</code> in this way allows the macro to inherit some
common code: combining vertical space of two adjacent environments;
detecting whether the text following the environment should be
considered a new paragraph or a continuation of the previous one;
adjusting the left and right margins for possible nested list
environments.
</p>
<p>Specifically, <code>trivlist</code> uses the current values of the list
parameters (see <a href="#list">list</a>), except that <code>\parsep</code> is set to the
value of <code>\parskip</code>, and <code>\leftmargin</code>, <code>\labelwidth</code>,
and <code>\itemindent</code> are set to zero.
</p>
<p>This example outputs the items as two paragraphs, except that (by
default) they have no paragraph indent and are vertically separated.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{trivlist}
\item The \textit{Surprise} is not old; no one would call her old.
\item She has a bluff bow, lovely lines.
\end{trivlist}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="math" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="math-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>math</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-math" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-math-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-in_002dline-formulas" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{math}
<var>math</var>
\end{math}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code>math</code> environment inserts given <var>math</var> material within
the running text.  <code>\(...\)</code> and <code>$...$</code> are synonyms.
See <a href="latex2e_16.html#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a>.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="minipage" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="minipage-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>minipage</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-minipage" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-minipage-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-minipage_002c-creating-a" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{minipage}{<var>width</var>}
  <var>contents</var>
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{minipage}[<var>position</var>][<var>height</var>][<var>inner-pos</var>]{<var>width</var>}
  <var>contents</var>
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>

<p>Put <var>contents</var> into a box that is <var>width</var> wide.  This is like a
small version of a page; it can contain its own footnotes, itemized
lists, etc. (There are some restrictions, including that it cannot have
floats.)  This box will not be broken across pages.  So <code>minipage</code>
is similar to <code>\parbox</code> (see <a href="latex2e_20.html#g_t_005cparbox">\parbox</a>) but here you can have
paragraphs.
</p>
<p>This example will be 3&nbsp;inches wide, and has two paragraphs.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{minipage}{3in}
  Stephen Kleene was a founder of the Theory of Computation.

  He was a student of Church, wrote three influential texts,
  was President of the Association for Symbolic Logic,
  and won the National Medal of Science.
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>

<p>See below for a discussion of the paragraph indent inside a
<code>minipage</code>.
</p>
<p>The required argument <var>width</var> is a rigid length (see <a href="latex2e_14.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
It gives the width of the box into which <var>contents</var> are typeset.
</p>
<p>There are three optional arguments, <var>position</var>, <var>height</var>, and
<var>inner-pos</var>.  You need not include all three. For example, get the
default <var>position</var> and set the <var>height</var> with
<code>\begin{minipage}[c][2.54cm] <var>contents</var> \end{minipage}</code>.
(Get the natural height with an empty argument, <code>[]</code>.)
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var>position</var> governs how the <code>minipage</code>
vertically aligns with the surrounding material.
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>c</code></dt>
<dd><p>(synonym <code>m</code>) Default.  Positions the <code>minipage</code> so its
vertical center lines up with the center of the adjacent text line (what
Plain TeX calls <code>\vcenter</code>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>t</code></dt>
<dd><p>Match the top line in the <code>minipage</code> with the baseline of the
surrounding text (Plain TeX&rsquo;s <code>\vtop</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>b</code></dt>
<dd><p>Match the bottom line in the <code>minipage</code> with the baseline of the
surrounding text (Plain TeX&rsquo;s <code>\vbox</code>.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>To see the effects of these, contrast running this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">---\begin{minipage}[c]{0.25in}
  first\\ second\\ third
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>

<p>with the results of changing <code>c</code> to <code>b</code> or&nbsp;<code>t</code>.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var>height</var> is a rigid length (see <a href="latex2e_14.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
It sets the height of the <code>minipage</code>.  You can enter any value
larger than, or equal to, or smaller than the <code>minipage</code>&rsquo;s natural
height and LaTeX will not give an error or warning.  You can also set
it to a height of zero or a negative value.
</p>
<p>The final optional argument <var>inner-pos</var> controls the placement of
<var>content</var> inside the box. These are the possible values are (the
default is the value of <var>position</var>).
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>t</code></dt>
<dd><p>Place <var>content</var> at the top of the box.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>c</code></dt>
<dd><p>Place it in the vertical center.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>b</code></dt>
<dd><p>Place it at the box bottom.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>s</code></dt>
<dd><p>Stretch <var>contents</var> out vertically; it must contain vertically
stretchable space.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>The <var>inner-pos</var> argument makes sense when the <var>height</var> option
is set to a value larger than the <code>minipage</code>&rsquo;s natural height.  To
see the effect of the options, run this example with the various choices
in place of <code>b</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">Text before
\begin{center}
  ---\begin{minipage}[c][3in][b]{0.25\textwidth}
       first\\ second\\ third
  \end{minipage}              
\end{center}
Text after  
</pre></div>

<a name="index-indentation-of-paragraphs_002c-in-minipage" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-paragraph-indentation_002c-in-minipage" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cparindent" class="anchor"></a>
<p>By default paragraphs are not indented in a <code>minipage</code>.  Change
that with a command such as <code>\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}</code> at
the start of <var>contents</var>.
</p>
<a name="index-footnotes-in-figures" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-figures_002c-footnotes-in" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Footnotes in a <code>minipage</code> environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables.  A
<code>\footnote</code> or <code>\footnotetext</code> command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the <code>\mpfootnote</code> counter instead of the ordinary
<code>footnote</code> counter (see <a href="latex2e_13.html#Counters">Counters</a>).
</p>
<p>This puts the footnote at the bottom of the table, not the bottom of the
page.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{center}           % center the minipage on the line
\begin{minipage}{2.5in}
  \begin{center}         % center the table inside the minipage
    \begin{tabular}{ll}
      \textsc{Monarch}  &amp;\textsc{Reign}             \\ \hline
      Elizabeth II      &amp;63 years\footnote{to date} \\
      Victoria          &amp;63 years                   \\
      George III        &amp;59 years
    \end{tabular}
  \end{center}  
\end{minipage}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>If you nest minipages then there is an oddness when using footnotes.
Footnotes appear at the bottom of the text ended by the next
<code>\end{minipage}</code> which may not be their logical place.
</p>
<p>This puts a table containing data side by side with a map graphic.  They
are vertically centered.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}}
  ...
\begin{center}
  \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{nyc.png}}
  \hspace{0.1\textwidth}
  \begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
    \begin{tabular}{r|l}
      \multicolumn{1}{r}{Borough} &amp;Pop (million)  \\ \hline
      The Bronx      &amp;$1.5$  \\
      Brooklyn       &amp;$2.6$  \\
      Manhattan      &amp;$1.6$  \\
      Queens         &amp;$2.3$  \\
      Staten Island  &amp;$0.5$  
    \end{tabular}
  \end{minipage}              
\end{center}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="picture" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="picture-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>picture</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-picture" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-picture-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-creating-pictures" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-pictures_002c-creating" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopses: 
</p><div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{picture}(<var>width</var>,<var>height</var>)
   <var>picture commands</var> 
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{picture}(<var>width</var>,<var>height</var>)(<var>xoffset</var>,<var>yoffset</var>)
  <var>picture commands</var>
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>An environment to create simple pictures containing lines, arrows,
boxes, circles, and text.  Note that while this environment is not
obsolete, new documents typically use much more powerful graphics
creation systems, such as <code>TikZ</code>, <code>PSTricks</code>, <code>MetaPost</code>,
or <code>Asymptote</code>.  These are not covered in this document; see CTAN.
</p>
<p>This shows the parallelogram law for adding vectors.
</p>
<a name="index-_005cunitlength" class="anchor"></a>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
\begin{picture}(6,6)      % picture box will be 6cm wide by 6cm tall
  \put(0,0){\vector(2,1){4}}  % for every 2 over this vector goes 1 up
    \put(2,1){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ first leg}}
  \put(4,2){\vector(1,2){2}}
    \put(5,4){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ second leg}}  
  \put(0,0){\line(1,1){6}}
    \put(3,3){\makebox(0,0)[r]{sum\ }}  
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>You can also use this environment to place arbitrary material at an
exact location.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\usepackage{color,graphicx}  % in preamble
  ...
\begin{center}
\setlength{\unitlength}{\textwidth} 
\begin{picture}(1,1)      % leave space, \textwidth wide and tall
  \put(0,0){\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{desertedisland.jpg}}
  \put(0.25,0.35){\textcolor{red}{X Treasure here}}
\end{picture}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>The red&nbsp;X will be precisely a quarter of the <code>\linewidth</code> from
the left margin, and <code>0.35\linewidth</code> up from the bottom.  Another
example of this usage is to put similar code in the page header to get
repeat material on each of a document&rsquo;s pages.
</p>
<p>The <code>picture</code> environment has one required argument, a pair of
numbers (<var>width</var>,<var>height</var>).  Multiply these by the value
<code>\unitlength</code> to get the nominal size of the output, the space that
LaTeX reserves on the output page.  This nominal size need not be how
large the picture really is; LaTeX will draw things from the picture
outside the picture&rsquo;s box.
</p>
<p>This environment also has an optional argument
(<var>xoffset</var>,<var>yoffset</var>).  It is used to shift the origin.  Unlike
most optional arguments, this one is not contained in square brackets.
As with the required argument, it consists of two real numbers.
Multiply these by <code>\unitlength</code> to get the point at the lower-left
corner of the picture.
</p>
<p>For example, if <code>\unitlength</code> has been set to <code>1mm</code>, the
command
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
</pre></div>

<p>produces a box of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters.  The
picture&rsquo;s origin is the point (10mm,20mm) and so the lower-left corner
is there, and the upper-right corner is at (110mm,220mm).  When you
first draw a picture you typically omit the optional argument, leaving
the origin at the lower-left corner.  If you then want to modify your
picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate
optional argument.
</p>
<a name="index-position_002c-in-picture" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Each <var>picture command</var> tells LaTeX where to put something by
naming its position.  A <em>position</em> is a pair such as <code>(2.4,-5)</code>
giving the x- and y-coordinates.  A <em>coordinate</em> is a not a length,
it is a real number (it may have a decimal point or a minus sign).  It
specifies a length in multiples of the unit length <code>\unitlength</code>,
so if <code>\unitlength</code> has been set to <code>1cm</code>, then the coordinate
2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters.
</p>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s default for <code>\unitlength</code> is <code>1pt</code>.  it is a rigid
length (see <a href="latex2e_14.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  Change it with the <code>\setlength</code> command
(see <a href="latex2e_14.html#g_t_005csetlength">\setlength</a>).  Make this change only outside of a <code>picture</code>
environment.
</p>
<p>Coordinates are given with respect to an origin, which is normally at
the lower-left corner of the picture.  Note that when a position appears
as an argument, as with <code>\put(1,2){...}</code>, it is not enclosed in
braces since the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.  Also,
unlike in some computer graphics systems, larger y-coordinates are
further up the page.
</p>
<p>There are four ways to put things in a picture: <code>\put</code>,
<code>\multiput</code>, <code>\qbezier</code>, and <code>\graphpaper</code>.  The most
often used is <code>\put</code>. This
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\put(11.3,-0.3){...}
</pre></div>

<p>places the object with its reference point at coordinates
<em>(11.3,-0.3)</em>.  The reference points for various objects will be
described below.
<a name="index-LR-box" class="anchor"></a>
The <code>\put</code> command creates an <em>LR box</em> (see <a href="latex2e_17.html#Modes">Modes</a>).
Anything that can go in an <code>\mbox</code> (see <a href="latex2e_20.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a>) can
go in the text argument of the <code>\put</code> command.  The reference point
will be the lower left corner of the box.  In this picture
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
...\begin{picture}(1,1)
  \put(0,0){\line(1,0){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(1,1){1}}
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>the three dots are just slightly left of the point of the angle formed
by the two lines.  (Also, <code>\line(1,1){1}</code> does not call for a
line of length one; rather the line has a change in the x coordinate of
1.)
</p>
<p>The <code>\multiput</code>, <code>qbezier</code>, and <code>graphpaper</code> commands are
described below.
</p>
<p>This draws a rectangle with a wavy top, using <code>\qbezier</code> for
that curve.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{picture}(3,1.5)
  \put(0,0){\vector(1,0){8}}  % x axis
  \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){4}}  % y axis
  \put(2,0){\line(0,1){3}}       % left side rectangle
  \put(4,0){\line(0,1){3.5}}     % right side
  \qbezier(2,3)(2.5,2.9)(3,3.25)
    \qbezier(3,3.25)(3.5,3.6)(4,3.5)
  \thicklines                 % below here, lines are twice as thick
  \put(2,3){\line(4,1){2}}
  \put(4.5,2.5){\framebox{Trapezoidal Rule}}
\end{picture}
</pre></div>



<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cput" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cput-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\put</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cput" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\put(<var>xcoord</var>,<var>ycoord</var>){<var>content</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Place <var>content</var> at the coordinate (<var>xcoord</var>,<var>ycoord</var>).  See
the discussion of coordinates and <code>\unitlength</code> in <a href="#picture">picture</a>.
The <var>content</var> is processed in LR mode (see <a href="latex2e_17.html#Modes">Modes</a>) so it cannot
contain line breaks.
</p>
<p>This includes the text into the <code>picture</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\put(4.5,2.5){Apply the \textit{unpoke} move}
</pre></div>

<p>The reference point, the location (4.5,2.5), is the lower left of the
text, at the bottom left of the &lsquo;<samp>A</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cmultiput" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cmultiput-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\multiput</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cmultiput" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\multiput(<var>x</var>,<var>y</var>)(<var>delta_x</var>,<var>delta_y</var>){<var>num-copies</var>}{<var>obj</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Copy <var>obj</var> a total of <var>num-copies</var> times, with an increment of
<var>delta_x,delta_y</var>.  The <var>obj</var> first appears at position
<em>(x,y)</em>, then at <em>(x+\delta_x,y+\delta_y)</em>, and so on.
</p>
<p>This draws a simple grid with every fifth line in bold (see also
<a href="#g_t_005cgraphpaper">\graphpaper</a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{picture}(10,10)
  \linethickness{0.05mm}
  \multiput(0,0)(1,0){10}{\line(0,1){10}} 
  \multiput(0,0)(0,1){10}{\line(1,0){10}}
  \linethickness{0.5mm}
  \multiput(0,0)(5,0){3}{\line(0,1){10}}
  \multiput(0,0)(0,5){3}{\line(1,0){10}}
\end{picture}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cqbezier" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cqbezier-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\qbezier</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cqbezier" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\qbezier(<var>x1</var>,<var>y1</var>)(<var>x2</var>,<var>y2</var>)(<var>x3</var>,<var>y3</var>)
\qbezier[<var>num</var>](<var>x1</var>,<var>y1</var>)(<var>x2</var>,<var>y2</var>)(<var>x3</var>,<var>y3</var>)
</pre></div>

<p>Draw a quadratic Bezier curve whose control points are given by the
three required arguments <code>(<var>x1</var>,<var>y1</var>)</code>,
<code>(<var>x2</var>,<var>y2</var>)</code>, and <code>(<var>x3</var>,<var>y3</var>)</code>.  That is,
the curve runs from <var>(x1,y1)</var> to <var>(x3,y3)</var>, is quadratic, and is
such that the tangent line at <var>(x1,y1)</var> passes through
<var>(x2,y2)</var>, as does the tangent line at <var>(x3,y3)</var>.
</p>
<p>This draws a curve from the coordinate (1,1) to (1,0).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\qbezier(1,1)(1.25,0.75)(1,0)  
</pre></div>

<p>The curve&rsquo;s tangent line at (1,1) contains (1.25,0.75), as does the
curve&rsquo;s tangent line at (1,0).
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var>num</var> gives the number of calculated
intermediate points.  The default is to draw a smooth curve whose
maximum number of points is <code>\qbeziermax</code> (change this value with
<code>\renewcommand</code>).
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cgraphpaper" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cgraphpaper-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\graphpaper</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cgraphpaper" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\graphpaper(<var>x_init</var>,<var>y_init</var>)(<var>x_dimen</var>,<var>y_dimen</var>)
\graphpaper[<var>spacing</var>](<var>x_init</var>,<var>y_init</var>)(<var>x_dimen</var>,<var>y_dimen</var>)
</pre></div>

<p>Draw a coordinate grid.  Requires the <code>graphpap</code> package.
The grid&rsquo;s origin is <code>(<var>x_init</var>,<var>y_init</var>)</code>.
Grid lines come every <var>spacing</var> units (the default is 10).
The grid extends <var>x_dimen</var> units to the right and <var>y_dimen</var> units up.
All arguments must be positive integers.
</p>
<p>This make a grid with seven vertical lines and eleven horizontal lines.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\usepackage{graphpap}    % in preamble
  ...
\begin{picture}(6,20)    % in document body
  \graphpaper[2](0,0)(12,20)
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>The lines are numbered every ten units.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cline" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cline-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\line</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cline" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\line(<var>x_run</var>,<var>y_rise</var>){<var>travel</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Draw a line.  It slopes such that it vertically rises <var>y_rise</var> for
every horizontal <var>x_run</var>.  The <var>travel</var> is the total horizontal
change&nbsp;&mdash; it is not the length of the vector, it is the change in
<em>x</em>.  In the special case of vertical lines, where
(<var>x_run</var>,<var>y_rise</var>)=(0,1), the <var>travel</var> gives the change in
<em>y</em>.
</p>
<p>This draws a line starting at coordinates (1,3).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\put(1,3){\line(2,5){4}}
</pre></div>

<p>For every over 2, this line will go up 5.  Because <var>travel</var>
specifies that this goes over 4, it must go up&nbsp;10.  Thus its
endpoint is <em>(1,3)+(4,10)=(5,13)</em>.  In particular, note that
<em><var>travel</var>=4</em> is not the length of the line, it is the change in
<em>x</em>.
</p>
<p>The arguments <var>x_run</var> and <var>y_rise</var> are integers that can be
positive, negative, or zero. (If both are 0 then LaTeX treats the
second as 1.)  With
<code>\put(<var>x_init</var>,<var>y_init</var>){\line(<var>x_run</var>,<var>y_rise</var>){<var>travel</var>}}</code>,
if <var>x_run</var> is negative then the line&rsquo;s ending point has a first
coordinate that is less than <var>x_init</var>.  If <var>y_rise</var> is negative
then the line&rsquo;s ending point has a second coordinate that is less than
<var>y_init</var>.
</p>
<p>If <var>travel</var> is negative then you get <code>LaTeX Error: Bad \line or
\vector argument.</code>
</p>
<a name="index-pict2e-package" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-graphics-packages" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-package_002c-pict2e" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-pict2e-package-1" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-package_002c-TikZ" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-TikZ-package" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-package_002c-PSTricks" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-PSTricks-package" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-package_002c-MetaPost" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-MetaPost-package" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-package_002c-Asymptote" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-Asymptote-package" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with a limited range of slopes
because these lines are made by putting together line segments from
pre-made fonts.  The two numbers <var>x_run</var> and <var>y_rise</var> must have
integer values from -6 through&nbsp;6.  Also, they must be
relatively prime, so that <var>(x_run,y_rise)</var> can be (2,1) but not
(4,2) (if you choose the latter then instead of lines you get sequences
of arrowheads; the solution is to switch to the former).  To get lines
of arbitrary slope and plenty of other shapes in a system like
<code>picture</code>, see the package <samp>pict2e</samp> on CTAN.  Another solution
is to use a full-featured graphics system such as <samp>TikZ</samp>, or
<samp>PSTricks</samp>, or <samp>MetaPost</samp>, or <samp>Asymptote</samp>
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005clinethickness" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005clinethickness-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\linethickness</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005clinethickness" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\linethickness{<var>dim</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Declares the thickness of subsequent horizontal and vertical lines in a
picture to be <var>dim</var>, which must be a positive length
(see <a href="latex2e_14.html#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  It differs from <code>\thinlines</code> and
<code>\thicklines</code> in that it does not affect the thickness of slanted
lines, circles, or ovals.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cthinlines" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cthinlines-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\thinlines</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cthinlines" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals
in a picture environment to be 0.4pt.  This is the default
thickness, so this command is unnecessary unless the thickness has been
changed with either <a href="#g_t_005clinethickness">\linethickness</a> or <a href="#g_t_005cthicklines">\thicklines</a>.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cthicklines" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cthicklines-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\thicklines</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cthicklines" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals
in a picture environment to be 0.8pt.  See also
<a href="#g_t_005clinethickness">\linethickness</a> and <a href="#g_t_005cthinlines">\thinlines</a>.  This command is illustrated
in the Trapezoidal Rule example of <a href="#picture">picture</a>.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005ccircle" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005ccircle-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\circle</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005ccircle" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\circle{<var>diameter</var>}
\circle*{<var>diameter</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Produces a circle with a diameter as close as possible to the specified
one.  The <code>*</code>&nbsp;form produces a filled-in circle.
</p>
<p>This draws a circle of radius 6, centered at <code>(5,7)</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\put(5,7){\circle{6}}
</pre></div>

<p>The available radii for <code>circle</code> are, in points, the even
numbers from 2 to 20, inclusive.  For <code>circle*</code> they are all the
integers from 1 to 15.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005coval" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005coval-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\oval</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005coval" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\oval(<var>width</var>,<var>height</var>)
\oval(<var>width</var>,<var>height</var>)[<var>portion</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a rectangle with rounded corners.  The optional argument
<var>portion</var> allows you to produce only half or a quarter of the oval.
For half an oval take <var>portion</var> to be one of these.
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>t</code></dt>
<dd><p>top half
</p></dd>
<dt><code>b</code></dt>
<dd><p>bottom half
</p></dd>
<dt><code>r</code></dt>
<dd><p>right half
</p></dd>
<dt><code>l</code></dt>
<dd><p>left half
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>Produce only one quarter of the oval by setting <var>portion</var> to
<code>tr</code>, <code>br</code>, <code>bl</code>, or <code>tl</code>.
</p>
<p>This draws the top half of an oval that is 3 wide and 7 tall.  
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\put(5,7){\oval(3,7)[t]}
</pre></div>

<p>The (5,7) is the center of the entire oval, not just the center of the
top half.
</p>
<p>These shapes are not ellipses.  They are rectangles whose corners are
made with quarter circles.  These circles have a maximum radius of
20pt (see <a href="#g_t_005ccircle">\circle</a> for the sizes).  Thus large ovals are just
boxes with a small amount of corner rounding.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cshortstack" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cshortstack-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\shortstack</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cshortstack" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\shortstack[<var>position</var>]{<var>line 1</var> \\ ... }
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a vertical stack of objects.
</p>
<p>This labels the <em>y</em> axis.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\put(0,0){\vector(1,0){4}}   % x axis
\put(0,0){\vector(0,1){2}}   % y
\put(-0.25,2){\makebox[0][r]{\shortstack[r]{$y$\\ axis}}}
</pre></div>

<p>For a short stack, the reference point is the lower left of the stack.
In the above example the <a href="latex2e_20.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a> puts the stack flush
right in a zero width box so in total the short stack sits slightly to
the left of the <em>y</em>&nbsp;axis.
</p>
<p>The valid positions are:
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>r</code></dt>
<dd><p>Make objects flush right
</p></dd>
<dt><code>l</code></dt>
<dd><p>Make objects flush left
</p></dd>
<dt><code>c</code></dt>
<dd><p>Center objects (default)
</p></dd>
</dl>

<a name="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-_005cshortstack-objects_0029" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Separate objects into lines with <code>\\</code>.  These stacks are short in
that, unlike in a <code>tabular</code> or <code>array</code> environment, here the
rows are not spaced out to be of even heights.  Thus, in
<code>\shortstack{X\\o\\o\\X}</code> the first and last rows are taller than
the middle two.  You can adjust row heights either by putting in the
usual interline spacing with <code>\shortstack{X\\ \strut o\\o\\X}</code>,
or by hand, via an explicit zero-width box <code>\shortstack{X \\
\rule{0pt}{12pt} o\\o\\X}</code> or by using <code>\\</code>&rsquo;s optional
argument <code>\shortstack{X\\[2pt] o\\o\\X}</code>.
</p>
<p>The <code>\shortstack</code> command is also available outside the
<code>picture</code> environment.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cvector" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cvector-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\vector</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cvector" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\vector(<var>x_run</var>,<var>y_rise</var>){<var>travel</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Draw a line ending in an arrow.  The slope of that line is: it
vertically rises <var>y_rise</var> for every horizontal <var>x_run</var>.  The
<var>travel</var> is the total horizontal change&nbsp;&mdash; it is not the
length of the vector, it is the change in <em>x</em>.  In the special case
of vertical vectors, if (<var>x_run</var>,<var>y_rise</var>)=(0,1), then
<var>travel</var> gives the change in <em>y</em>.
</p>
<p>For an example see <a href="#picture">picture</a>.
</p>
<p>For elaboration on <var>x_run</var> and <var>y_rise</var> see <a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a>.  As
there, the values of <var>x_run</var> and <var>y_rise</var> are limited.  For
<code>\vector</code> you must chooses integers between -4 and 4,
inclusive.  Also, the two you choose must be relatively prime.  Thus,
<code>\vector(2,1){4}</code> is acceptable but <code>\vector(4,2){4}</code> is
not (if you use the latter then you get a sequence of arrowheads).
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\makebox</code> (picture)</h4>

<a name="index-_005cmakebox-_0028for-picture_0029" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\makebox(<var>rec-width</var>,<var>rec-height</var>){<var>text</var>}
\makebox(<var>rec-width</var>,<var>rec-height</var>)[<var>position</var>]{<var>text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Make a box to hold <var>text</var>.  This command fits with the
<code>picture</code> environment, although you can use it outside of there,
because <var>rec-width</var> and <var>rec-height</var> are numbers specifying
distances in terms of the <code>\unitlength</code> (see <a href="#picture">picture</a>).  This
command is similar to the normal <code>\makebox</code> command (see <a href="latex2e_20.html#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a>) except here that you must specify the width and height.  This
command is fragile (see <a href="latex2e_12.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
</p>
<p>This makes a box of length 3.5 times <code>\unitlength</code> and height 4
times <code>\unitlength</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\put(1,2){\makebox(3.5,4){...}}
</pre></div>

<p>The optional argument <code><var>position</var></code> specifies where in the box
the <var>text</var> appears.  The default is to center it, both horizontally
and vertically.  To place it somewhere else, use a string with one or
two of these letters.
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>t</code></dt>
<dd><p>Puts <var>text</var> the top of the box.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>b</code></dt>
<dd><p>Put <var>text</var> at the bottom.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>l</code></dt>
<dd><p>Put <var>text</var> on the left.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>r</code></dt>
<dd><p>Put <var>text</var> on the right.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\framebox</code> (picture)</h4>

<a name="index-_005cframebox" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\framebox(<var>rec-width</var>,<var>rec-height</var>){<var>text</var>}
\framebox(<var>rec-width</var>,<var>rec-height</var>)[<var>position</var>]{<var>text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>This is the same as <a href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029">\makebox (picture)</a> except that it puts a frame
around the outside of the box that it creates.  The reference point is
the bottom left corner of the frame.  This command fits with the
<code>picture</code> environment, although you can use it outside of there,
because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the
<code>\unitlength</code> (see <a href="#picture">picture</a>).  This command is fragile
(see <a href="latex2e_12.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
</p>
<p>This example creates a frame 2.5&nbsp;inches by 3&nbsp;inches and puts
the text in the center.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\setlength{\unitlength}{1in}
\framebox(2.5,3){test text}
</pre></div>

<p>The required arguments are that the rectangle has overall width
<var>rect-width</var> units and height <var>rect-height</var> units.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var>position</var> specifies the position of
<var>text</var>; see <a href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029">\makebox (picture)</a> for the values that it can
take.
</p>
<a name="index-_005cfboxrule-1" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cfboxsep-1" class="anchor"></a>
<p>The rule has thickness <code>\fboxrule</code> and there is a blank space
<code>\fboxsep</code> between the frame and the contents of the box.
</p>
<p>For this command, you must specify the <var>width</var> and <var>height</var>.  If
you want to just put a frame around some contents whose dimension is
determined in some other way then either use <code>\fbox</code> (see <a href="latex2e_20.html#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox &amp; \framebox</a>) or <code>\frame</code> (see <a href="#g_t_005cframe">\frame</a>).
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cframe" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cframe-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\frame</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cframe" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\frame{<var>contents</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Puts a rectangular frame around <var>contents</var>.  The reference point is
the bottom left corner of the frame.  In contrast to <code>\framebox</code>
(see <a href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029">\framebox (picture)</a>), this command puts no extra space is put
between the frame and the object.  It is fragile (see <a href="latex2e_12.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cdashbox" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cdashbox-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\dashbox</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cdashbox" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\dashbox{<var>dash-len</var>}(<var>rect-width</var>,<var>rect-height</var>){<var>text</var>}
\dashbox{<var>dash-len</var>}(<var>rect-width</var>,<var>rect-height</var>)[<var>position</var>]{<var>text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a dashed rectangle around <var>text</var>.  This command fits with the
<code>picture</code> environment, although you can use it outside of there,
because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the
<code>\unitlength</code> (see <a href="#picture">picture</a>).
</p>
<p>The required arguments are: dashes are <var>dash-len</var> units long, with
the same length gap, and the rectangle has overall width
<var>rect-width</var> units and height <var>rect-height</var> units.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var>position</var> specifies the position of
<var>text</var>; see <a href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029">\makebox (picture)</a> for the values that it can
take.
</p>
<p>This shows that you can use non-integer value for <var>dash-len</var>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\put(0,0){\dashbox{0.1}(5,0.5){My hovercraft is full of eels.}}
</pre></div>

<p>Each dash will be <code>0.1\unitlength</code> long, the box&rsquo;s width is
<code>5\unitlength</code> and its height is <code>0.5\unitlength</code>.
</p>
<p>As in that example, a dashed box looks best when <var>rect-width</var> and
<var>rect-height</var> are multiples of the <var>dash-len</var>.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="quotation-_0026-quote" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="quotation-_0026-quote-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>quotation</code> &amp; <code>quote</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-quotation" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-quotation-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-quoted-text-with-paragraph-indentation_002c-displaying" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-displaying-quoted-text-with-paragraph-indentation" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-paragraph-indentations-in-quoted-text" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-environment_002c-quote" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-quote-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-quoted-text-without-paragraph-indentation_002c-displaying" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-displaying-quoted-text-without-paragraph-indentation" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-paragraph-indentations-in-quoted-text_002c-omitting" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{quotation}
  <var>text</var>
\end{quotation}
</pre></div>

<p>or 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{quote}
  <var>text</var>
\end{quote}
</pre></div>

<p>Include a quotation. Both environments indent margins on both sides by
<code>\leftmargin</code> and the text is right-justified.
</p>
<p>They differ in how they treat paragraphs. In the <code>quotation</code>
environment, paragraphs are indented by 1.5em and the space
between paragraphs is small, <code>0pt plus 1pt</code>.  In the <code>quote</code>
environment, paragraphs are not indented and there is vertical space
between paragraphs (it is the rubber length <code>\parsep</code>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{quotation} \small\it
  Four score and seven years ago
  ... shall not perish from the earth.
  \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln
\end{quotation}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="tabbing" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="tabbing-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>tabbing</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-tabbing" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-tabbing-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-tab-stops_002c-using" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-lining-text-up-using-tab-stops" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-alignment-via-tabbing" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabbing}
<var>row1col1</var> \= <var>row1col2</var> ...  \\
<var>row2col1</var> \&gt; <var>row2col2</var> ...  \\
...
\end{tabbing}
</pre></div>

<p>Align text in columns, by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as
was done on a typewriter.  This is less often used than the environments
<code>tabular</code> (see <a href="#tabular">tabular</a>) or <code>array</code> (see <a href="#array">array</a>) because
in those the width of each column need not be constant and need not be
known in advance.
</p>
<p>This example has a first line where the tab stops are set to explicit
widths, ended by a <code>\kill</code> command (which is described below):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabbing}
\hspace{0.75in}     \= \hspace{0.40in}  \= \hspace{0.40in}    \kill
Ship                \&gt; Guns             \&gt; Year    \\ 
\textit{Sophie}     \&gt; 14               \&gt; 1800    \\
\textit{Polychrest} \&gt; 24               \&gt; 1803    \\
\textit{Lively}     \&gt; 38               \&gt; 1804    \\
\textit{Surprise}   \&gt; 28               \&gt; 1805    \\
\end{tabbing}
</pre></div>

<p>Both the <code>tabbing</code> environment and the more widely-used
<code>tabular</code> environment put text in columns.  The most important
distinction is that in <code>tabular</code> the width of columns is
determined automatically by LaTeX, while in <code>tabbing</code> the user
sets the tab stops.  Another distinction is that <code>tabular</code>
generates a box, but <code>tabbing</code> can be broken across pages.
Finally, while <code>tabular</code> can be used in any mode, <code>tabbing</code>
can be used only in paragraph mode and it starts a new paragraph.
</p>
<p>A <code>tabbing</code> environment always starts a new paragraph, without
indentation. Moreover, as shown in the example above, there is no need
to use the starred form of the <code>\hspace</code> command at the beginning
of a tabbed row.  The right margin of the <code>tabbing</code> environment is
the end of line, so that the width of the environment is
<code>\linewidth</code>.
</p>
<a name="index-row_002c-tabbing" class="anchor"></a>
<p>The <code>tabbing</code> environment contains a sequence of <em>tabbed
rows</em>.  The first tabbed row begins immediately after
<code>\begin{tabbing}</code> and each row ends with <code>\\</code> or
<code>\kill</code>. The last row may omit the <code>\\</code> and end with just
<code>\end{tabbing}</code>.
</p>
<p>At any point the <code>tabbing</code> environment has a current tab stop
pattern, a sequence of <em><var>n</var> &gt; 0</em> tab stops, numbered 0, 1,
etc.  These create <var>n</var> corresponding columns.  Tab stop&nbsp;0 is
always the left margin, defined by the enclosing environment.  Tab
stop number&nbsp;<var>i</var> is set if it is assigned a horizontal
position on the page.  Tab stop number&nbsp;<var>i</var> can only be set if
all the stops 0, &hellip;, <em>i-1</em> have already been set; normally
later stops are to the right of earlier ones.
</p>
<p>By default any text typeset in a <code>tabbing</code> environment is typeset
ragged right and left-aligned on the current tab stop. Typesetting is
done in LR mode (see <a href="latex2e_17.html#Modes">Modes</a>).
</p>
<p>The following commands can be used inside a <code>tabbing</code> environment.
They are all fragile (see <a href="latex2e_12.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>\\ <span class="roman">(tabbing)</span></code>
<a name="index-_005c_005c-_0028tabbing_0029" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>End a tabbed line and typeset it.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\= <span class="roman">(tabbing)</span></code>
<a name="index-_005c_003d-_0028tabbing_0029" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Sets a tab stop at the current position.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\&gt; <span class="roman">(tabbing)</span></code>
<a name="index-_005c_003e-_0028tabbing_0029" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="index-_005c_003e" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Advances to the next tab stop.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\&lt;</code>
<a name="index-_005c_003c" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing
the margin).  Can only be used at the start of the line.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\+</code>
<a name="index-_005c_002b" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Moves the left margin of the next and all the
following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if
necessary.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\-</code>
<a name="index-_005c_002d" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Moves the left margin of the next and all the
following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if
necessary.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\' <span class="roman">(tabbing)</span></code>
<a name="index-_005c_0027-_0028tabbing_0029" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e.,
everything from the most recent <code>\&gt;</code>, <code>\&lt;</code>, <code>\'</code>,
<code>\\</code>, or <code>\kill</code> command, to the previous column and aligned
to the right, flush against the current column&rsquo;s tab stop.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\` <span class="roman">(tabbing)</span></code>
<a name="index-_005c_0060-_0028tabbing_0029" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab
stop&nbsp;0.  However, it can&rsquo;t move text to the right of the last
column because there&rsquo;s no tab stop there.  The <code>\`</code> command moves
all the text that follows it, up to the <code>\\</code> or
<code>\end{tabbing}</code> command that ends the line, to the right margin
of the <code>tabbing</code> environment.  There must be no <code>\&gt;</code> or
<code>\'</code> command between the <code>\`</code> and the <code>\\</code> or
<code>\end{tabbing}</code> command that ends the line.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\a <span class="roman">(tabbing)</span></code>
<a name="index-_005ca-_0028tabbing_0029" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="index-_005ca_0027-_0028acute-accent-in-tabbing_0029" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005ca_0060-_0028grave-accent-in-tabbing_0029" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005ca_003d-_0028macron-accent-in-tabbing_0029" class="anchor"></a>
<p>In a <code>tabbing</code> environment, the commands <code>\=</code>, <code>\'</code> and
<code>\`</code> do not produce accents as usual (see <a href="latex2e_23.html#Accents">Accents</a>).  Instead,
use the commands <code>\a=</code>, <code>\a'</code> and <code>\a`</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\kill</code>
<a name="index-_005ckill" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Sets tab stops without producing text.  Works just like <code>\\</code> except
that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it.
Any <code>\=</code>, <code>\+</code> or <code>\-</code> commands in that line remain in
effect.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\poptabs</code>
<a name="index-_005cpoptabs" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="index-_005cpoptabs-1" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last <code>\pushtabs</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\pushtabs</code>
<a name="index-_005cpushtabs" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing
tab stop positions in the middle of a <code>tabbing</code> environment.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\tabbingsep</code>
<a name="index-_005ctabbingsep" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><p>Distance of the text moved by <code>\'</code> to left of current tab stop.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>This example typesets a Pascal function:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabbing}
function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
         \&gt; begin \= \+ \\
               \&gt; if \= n &gt; 1 then \+ \\
                        fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
                  else \+ \\
                        fact := 1; \-\- \\
            end;\\
\end{tabbing}
</pre></div>

<p>The output looks like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">function fact(n : integer) : integer;
         begin
               if n &gt; 1 then
                  fact := n * fact(n-1);
               else
                  fact := 1;
         end;
</pre></div>

<a name="index-package_002c-algorithm2e" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-algorithm2e-package" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-package_002c-listings" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-listings-package" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-package_002c-minted" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-minted-package" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-package_002c-fancyvrb" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-fancyvrb-package" class="anchor"></a>

<p>This example is just for illustration of the environment.  To actually
typeset computer code in typewriter like this, a verbatim environment
(see <a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a>) would normally be best.  For pretty-printed code,
there are quite a few packages, including <code>algorithm2e</code>,
<code>fancyvrb</code>, <code>listings</code>, and <code>minted</code>.
</p>
        
<hr>
<a name="table" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="table-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>table</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-table" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-table-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-tables_002c-creating" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-creating-tables" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{table}[<var>placement</var>]
  <var>table body</var>
  \caption[<var>loftitle</var>]{<var>title</var>}  % optional
  \label{<var>label}</var>              % also optional
\end{table}
</pre></div>

<p>A class of floats (see <a href="latex2e_5.html#Floats">Floats</a>).  They cannot be split across pages
and so they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead
are floated to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page.
</p>
<p>This example <code>table</code> environment contains a <code>tabular</code>
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{table}
  \centering\small
  \begin{tabular}{ll}
    \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Author}}
      &amp;\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Piece}}  \\ \hline
    Bach            &amp;Cello Suite Number 1  \\
    Beethoven       &amp;Cello Sonata Number 3 \\
    Brahms          &amp;Cello Sonata Number 1
  \end{tabular}
  \caption{Top cello pieces}
  \label{tab:cello}
\end{table}
</pre></div>

<p>but you can put many different kinds of content in a <code>table</code>,
including text, LaTeX commands, etc.
</p>
<p>For the possible values of <var>placement</var> and their effect on the 
float placement algorithm, see <a href="latex2e_5.html#Floats">Floats</a>.
</p>
<p>The table body is typeset in a <code>parbox</code> of width <code>\textwidth</code>.
It can contain text, commands, graphics, etc.
</p>
<p>The label is optional; it is used for cross references (see <a href="latex2e_7.html#Cross-references">Cross references</a>).  
<a name="index-_005ccaption-1" class="anchor"></a>
The <code>\caption</code> command is also optional.  It specifies caption text
for the table.  By default it is numbered.  If its optional
<var>lottitle</var> is present then that text is used in the list of tables
instead of <var>title</var> (see <a href="latex2e_25.html#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a>).
</p>
<p>In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a page,
unless it is pushed to a float page at the end.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{table}[b]
  \centering
  \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline
    One &amp;The loneliest number \\
    Two &amp;Can be as sad as one.
         It's the loneliest number since the number one.
  \end{tabular}
  \caption{Cardinal virtues}
  \label{tab:CardinalVirtues}
\end{table}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="tabular" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="tabular-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>tabular</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-tabular" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-tabular-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-lines-in-tables" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-lining-text-up-in-tables" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular}[<var>pos</var>]{<var>cols</var>}
  <var>column 1 entry</var>  &amp;<var>column 2 entry</var>  ...  &amp;<var>column n entry</var> \\
  ...
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular*}{<var>width</var>}[<var>pos</var>]{<var>cols</var>}
  <var>column 1 entry</var>  &amp;<var>column 2 entry</var>  ...  &amp;<var>column n entry</var> \\
  ...
\end{tabular*}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of horizontal rows.
Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically in columns.  This
illustrates many of the features.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular}{l|l}
  \textit{Player name}  &amp;\textit{Career home runs}  \\ 
  \hline
  Hank Aaron  &amp;755 \\
  Babe Ruth   &amp;714
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>The output will have two left-aligned columns with a vertical bar
between them.  This is specified in <code>tabular</code>&rsquo;s argument
<code>{l|l}</code>.
<a name="index-_0026" class="anchor"></a>
Put the entries into different columns by separating them with an
ampersand, <code>&amp;</code>.  The end of each row is marked with a double
backslash, <code>\\</code>.  Put a horizontal rule below a row, after a double
backslash, with <code>\hline</code>.
<a name="index-_005c_005c-for-tabular" class="anchor"></a>
After the last row the <code>\\</code> is optional, unless an <code>\hline</code>
command follows to put a rule below the table.
</p>
<p>The required and optional arguments to <code>tabular</code> consist of:
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><var>pos</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional.  Specifies the table&rsquo;s vertical position.  The default is to
align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of the
surrounding text.  There are two other possible alignments: <code>t</code>
aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the surrounding
text, and <code>b</code> aligns on the bottom row.
</p>
<p>This only has an effect if there is other text.  In the common case of a
<code>tabular</code> alone in a <code>center</code> environment this option makes
no difference.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var>cols</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required.  Specifies the formatting of columns.  It consists of a
sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of
column and intercolumn material.
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>l</code></dt>
<dd><p>A column of left-aligned items.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>r</code></dt>
<dd><p>A column of right-aligned items.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>c</code></dt>
<dd><p>A column of centered items.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>|</code></dt>
<dd><p>A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>@{<var>text or space</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><p>Insert <var>text or space</var> at this location in every row.  The <var>text
or space</var> material is typeset in LR mode.  This text is fragile
(see <a href="latex2e_12.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>).
</p>
<p>If between two columns there is no @-expression then LaTeX&rsquo;s
<code>book</code>, <code>article</code>, and <code>report</code> classes will put on
either side of each column a space of length <code>\tabcolsep</code>, which by
default is 6pt.  That is, by default adjacent columns are
separated by 12pt (so <code>\tabcolsep</code> is misleadingly named
since it is only half of the separation between tabular columns).  In
addition, a space of 6pt also comes before the first column and
after the final column, unless you put a <code>@{...}</code> or <code>|</code>
there.
</p>
<p>If you override the default and use an @-expression then LaTeX does
not insert <code>\tabcolsep</code> so you must insert any desired space
yourself, as in <code>@{\hspace{1em}}</code>.
</p>
<p>An empty expression <code>@{}</code> will eliminate the space. In
particular, sometimes you want to eliminate the space before the first
column or after the last one, as in the example below where the
tabular lines need to lie on the left margin.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{flushleft}
  \begin{tabular}{@{}l}
    ...
  \end{tabular}
\end{flushleft}
</pre></div>

<p>The next example shows text, a decimal point between the columns,
arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on it.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l}
  $3$ &amp;$14$  \\
  $9$ &amp;$80665$
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<a name="index-_005cextracolsep" class="anchor"></a>
<p>An <code>\extracolsep{<var>wd</var>}</code> command in an @-expression causes an
extra space of width <var>wd</var> to appear to the left of all subsequent
columns, until countermanded by another <code>\extracolsep</code>.  Unlike
ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an
@-expression.  An <code>\extracolsep</code> command can be used only in an
@-expression in the <code>cols</code> argument.  Below, LaTeX inserts the
right amount of intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches
wide.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\extracolsep{\fill}}l}
  Seven times down, eight times up \ldots 
  &amp;such is life!
\end{tabular*}
</pre></div>

<p>To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given
column, load the <code>array</code> package and use the <code>&gt;{...}</code>
specifier.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>p{<var>wd</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><p>Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width <var>wd</var>, as if
it were the argument of a <code>\parbox[t]{wd}{...}</code> command.
</p>
<p>A line break double backslash <code>\\</code> may not appear in the item,
except inside an environment like <code>minipage</code>, <code>array</code>, or
<code>tabular</code>, or inside an explicit <code>\parbox</code>, or in the scope of
a <code>\centering</code>, <code>\raggedright</code>, or <code>\raggedleft</code>
declaration (when used in a <code>p</code>-column element these declarations
must appear inside braces, as with <code>{\centering .. \\
..}</code>). Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double backslash as
ending the row.  Instead, to get a line break in there use
<code>\newline</code> (see <a href="latex2e_9.html#g_t_005cnewline">\newline</a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>*{<var>num</var>}{<var>cols</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><p>Equivalent to <var>num</var> copies of <var>cols</var>, where <var>num</var> is a
positive integer and <var>cols</var> is a list of specifiers.  Thus the
specifier <code>\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}</code> is equivalent to
the specifier <code>\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}</code>.  Note that
<var>cols</var> may contain another <code>*</code>-expression.
</p> 
</dd>
</dl>

</dd>
<dt><var>width</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required for <code>tabular*</code>, not allowed for <code>tabular</code>. Specifies
the width of the <code>tabular*</code> environment.  The space between columns
should be rubber, as with <code>@{\extracolsep{\fill}}</code>, to allow
the table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you
are likely to get the <code>Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment
...</code> warning.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Parameters that control formatting:
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>\arrayrulewidth</code>
<a name="index-_005carrayrulewidth" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="tabular-arrayrulewidth" class="anchor"></a><p>A length that is the thickness of the rule created by <code>|</code>,
<code>\hline</code>, and <code>\vline</code> in the <code>tabular</code> and <code>array</code>
environments.  The default is &lsquo;<samp>.4pt</samp>&rsquo;. Change it as in
<code>\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\arraystretch</code>
<a name="index-_005carraystretch" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="tabular-arraystrech" class="anchor"></a><p>A factor by which the spacing between rows in the <code>tabular</code> and
<code>array</code> environments is multiplied.  The default is &lsquo;<samp>1</samp>&rsquo;, for
no scaling.  Change it as <code>\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\doublerulesep</code>
<a name="index-_005cdoublerulesep" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="tabular-doublerulesep" class="anchor"></a><p>A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced by the
<code>||</code> specifier.  The default is &lsquo;<samp>2pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code>\tabcolsep</code>
<a name="index-_005ctabcolsep" class="anchor"></a>
</dt>
<dd><a name="tabular-tabcolsep" class="anchor"></a><p>A length that is half of the space between columns. The default is
&lsquo;<samp>6pt</samp>&rsquo;.  Change it with <code>\setlength</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>The following commands can be used inside the body of a <code>tabular</code>
environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between
lines:
</p>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cmulticolumn" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cmulticolumn-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\multicolumn</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cmulticolumn" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\multicolumn{<var>numcols</var>}{<var>cols</var>}{<var>text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Make an <code>array</code> or <code>tabular</code> entry that spans several columns.
The first argument <var>numcols</var> gives the number of columns to span.
The second argument <var>cols</var> specifies the formatting of the entry,
with <code>c</code> for centered, <code>l</code> for flush left, or <code>r</code> for
flush right.  The third argument <var>text</var> gives the contents of that
entry.
</p>
<p>In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are
spanned by the single heading &lsquo;<samp>Name</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular}{lccl} 
  \textit{ID}       &amp;\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &amp;\textit{Age} \\
  \hline  
  978-0-393-03701-2 &amp;O'Brian &amp;Patrick                  &amp;55           \\
    ...
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>What counts as a column is:&nbsp;the column format specifier for the
<code>array</code> or <code>tabular</code> environment is broken into parts, where
each part (except the first) begins with <code>l</code>, <code>c</code>, <code>r</code>,
or&nbsp;<code>p</code>.  So from <code>\begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}</code>
the parts are <code>|r|</code>, <code>c</code>, <code>c</code>,
and&nbsp;<code>p{1.5in}|</code>.
</p>
<p>The <var>cols</var> argument overrides the <code>array</code> or <code>tabular</code>
environment&rsquo;s intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn
entry. To affect that area, this argument can contain vertical bars
<code>|</code> indicating the placement of vertical rules, and <code>@{...}</code>
expressions.  Thus if <var>cols</var> is &lsquo;<samp>|c|</samp>&rsquo; then this multicolumn
entry will be centered and a vertical rule will come in the intercolumn
area before it and after it.  This table details the exact behavior.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|}
  \multicolumn{1}{r}{w}       % entry one
    &amp;\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x}  % entry two 
    &amp;\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y}   % entry three
    &amp;z                        % entry four
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule because
the <code>\multicolumn</code> has the <var>cols</var> specifier &lsquo;<samp>r</samp>&rsquo; with no
initial vertical bar.  Between entry one and entry two there will be a
vertical rule; although the first <var>cols</var> does not have an ending
vertical bar, the second <var>cols</var> does have a starting one.  Between
entry two and entry three there is a single vertical rule; despite that
the <var>cols</var> in both of the surrounding <code>multicolumn</code>&rsquo;s call for
a vertical rule, you only get one rule.  Between entry three and entry
four there is no vertical rule; the default calls for one but the
<var>cols</var> in the entry three <code>\multicolumn</code> leaves it out, and
that takes precedence.  Finally, following entry four there is a
vertical rule because of the default.
</p>
<p>The number of spanned columns <var>numcols</var> can be 1.  Besides giving
the ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to
override for one row the <code>tabular</code> definition&rsquo;s default intercolumn
area specification, including the placement of vertical rules.
</p>
<p>In the example below, in the <code>tabular</code> definition the first column
is specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry
is centered with <code>\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}</code>.
Also in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by a
single entry with <code>\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}</code>,
overriding the specification to center those two columns on the page
range en-dash.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l} 
  \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}  
    &amp;multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline
  Baroque          &amp;1600           &amp;1760         \\
  Classical        &amp;1730           &amp;1820         \\
  Romantic         &amp;1780           &amp;1910         \\
  Impressionistic  &amp;1875           &amp;1925
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>Although the <code>tabular</code> specification by default puts a vertical
rule between the first and second columns, no such vertical rule appears
in the first row here.  That&rsquo;s because there is no vertical bar in the
<var>cols</var> part of the first row&rsquo;s first <code>\multicolumn</code> command.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cvline" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cvline-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\vline</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cvline" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Draw a vertical line in a <code>tabular</code> or <code>array</code> environment
extending the full height and depth of an entry&rsquo;s row.  Can also be
used in an @-expression, although its synonym vertical
bar&nbsp;<code>|</code> is more common.  This command is rarely used in the
body of a table; typically a table&rsquo;s vertical lines are specified in
<code>tabular</code>&rsquo;s <var>cols</var> argument and overridden as needed with
<code>\multicolumn</code> (see <a href="#tabular">tabular</a>).
</p>
<p>The example below illustrates some pitfalls.  In the first row&rsquo;s second
entry the <code>\hfill</code> moves the <code>\vline</code> to the left edge of the
cell.  But that is different than putting it halfway between the two
columns, so between the first and second columns there are two vertical
rules, with the one from the <code>{c|cc}</code> specifier coming before the
one produced by the <code>\vline\hfill</code>.  In contrast, the first row&rsquo;s
third entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar between two
columns.  In the second row, the <code>ghi</code> is the widest entry in its
column so in the <code>\vline\hfill</code> the <code>\hfill</code> has no effect and
the vertical line in that entry appears immediately next to the
<code>g</code>, with no whitespace.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular}{c|cc}
  x   &amp;\vline\hfill y   &amp;\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\ % row 1  
  abc &amp;def &amp;\vline\hfill ghi                       % row 2  
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005ccline" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005ccline-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\cline</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005ccline" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\cline{<var>i</var>-<var>j</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>In an <code>array</code> or <code>tabular</code> environment, draw a horizontal rule
beginning in column&nbsp;<var>i</var> and ending in column&nbsp;<var>j</var>. The
dash, <code>-</code>, must appear in the mandatory argument. To span a single
column use the number twice, as with <code>\cline{2-2}</code>.
</p>
<p>This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second
rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the
third and fourth columns.  The two lines are side-by-side, at the same
height.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular}{llrr} 
  a &amp;b &amp;c &amp;d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4} 
  e &amp;f &amp;g &amp;h 
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005chline" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005chline-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\hline</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005chline" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Draw a horizontal line the width of the enclosing <code>tabular</code> or
<code>array</code> environment.  It&rsquo;s most commonly used to draw a line at the
top, bottom, and between the rows of a table.
</p>
<p>In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one above
the other, that span both columns.  The bottom of the table has a single
rule spanning both columns.  Because of the <code>\hline</code>, the
<code>tabular</code> second row&rsquo;s line ending double backslash&nbsp;<code>\\</code>
is required.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline
  Baseball   &amp;Red Sox  \\
  Basketball &amp;Celtics  \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>


<hr>
<a name="thebibliography" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="thebibliography-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>thebibliography</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-thebibliography" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-thebibliography-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-bibliography_002c-creating-_0028manually_0029" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{thebibliography}{<var>widest-label</var>}
  \bibitem[<var>label</var>]{<var>cite_key}</var>
  ...
\end{thebibliography}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a bibliography or reference list.  There are two ways to produce
bibliographic lists.  This environment is suitable when you have only a
few references and can maintain the list by hand.  See <a href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a>
for a more sophisticated approach.
</p>
<p>This shows the environment with two entries.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">This work is based on \cite{latexdps}.
Together they are \cite{latexdps, texbook}.
  ...
\begin{thebibliography}{9}
\bibitem{latexdps} 
  Leslie Lamport. 
  \textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}. 
  Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993.
\bibitem{texbook} 
  Donald Ervin Knuth. 
  \textit{The \TeX book}. 
  Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
\end{thebibliography}
</pre></div>

<p>This styles the first reference as &lsquo;<samp>[1] Leslie ...</samp>&rsquo;, and so that
<code>\cite{latexdps}</code> produces the matching &lsquo;<samp>... based on [1]</samp>&rsquo;.
The second <code>\cite</code> produces &lsquo;<samp>[1, 2]</samp>&rsquo;.  You must compile the
document twice to resolve these references.
</p>
<p>The mandatory argument <var>widest-label</var> is text that, when typeset, is
as wide as the widest item label produced by the <code>\bibitem</code>
commands.  The tradition is to use <code>9</code> for bibliographies with less
than 10 references, <code>99</code> for ones with less than 100, etc.
</p>
<p>The bibliographic list is headed by a title such as &lsquo;<samp>Bibliography</samp>&rsquo;.
To change it there are two cases.  In the <samp>book</samp> and <samp>report</samp>
classes, where the top level sectioning is <code>\chapter</code> and the
default title is &lsquo;<samp>Bibliography</samp>&rsquo;, that title is in the macro
<code>\bibname</code>.  For <samp>article</samp>, where the class&rsquo;s top level
sectioning is <code>\section</code> and the default is &lsquo;<samp>References</samp>&rsquo;, the
title is in macro <code>\refname</code>.  Change it by redefining the command,
as with <code>\renewcommand{\refname}{Cited references}</code> after
<code>\begin{document}</code>.
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-babel-1" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-babel-package-1" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Language support packages such as <samp>babel</samp> will automatically
redefine <code>\refname</code> or <code>\bibname</code> to fit the selected
language.
</p>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cbibitem" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cbibitem-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\bibitem</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cbibitem" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\bibitem{<var>cite_key</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\bibitem[<var>label</var>]{<var>cite_key</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Generate an entry labeled by <var>label</var>.  The default is for LaTeX to
generates a number using the <code>enumi</code> counter.  The <em>citation key</em> 
<a name="index-citation-key" class="anchor"></a>
<var>cite_key</var> is a string of
letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols (but not comma).
</p>
<p>See <a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a> for an example.
</p>
<p>The optional <var>label</var> changes the default label from an integer to the
given string.  With this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{thebibliography}
\bibitem[Lamport 1993]{latexdps} 
  Leslie Lamport. 
  \textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}. 
  Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993.
\bibitem{texbook} 
  Donald Ervin Knuth. 
  \textit{The \TeX book}. 
  Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
\end{thebibliography}
</pre></div>

<p>the first entry will be styled as &lsquo;<samp>[Lamport 1993] Leslie ...</samp>&rsquo;  (The
amount of horizontal space that LaTeX leaves for the label depends on
the <var>widest-label</var> argument of the <code>thebibliography</code>
environment; see <a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a>.)  Similarly, <code>... based on
\cite{latexdps}</code> will produce &lsquo;<samp>... based on [Lamport 1994]</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>If you mix <code>\bibitem</code> entries having a <var>label</var> with those that
do not then LaTeX will number the unlabelled ones sequentially.  In
the example above the <code>texbook</code> entry will appear as &lsquo;<samp>[1]
Donald ...</samp>&rsquo;, despite that it is the second entry.
</p>
<p>If you use the same <var>cite_key</var> twice then you get &lsquo;<samp>LaTeX
Warning: There were multiply-defined labels</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>Under the hood, LaTeX remembers the <var>cite_key</var> and <var>label</var>
information because <code>\bibitem</code> writes it to the auxiliary file
<samp><var>filename</var>.aux</samp>.  For instance, the above example causes
<code>\bibcite{latexdps}{Lamport, 1993}</code> and
<code>\bibcite{texbook}{1}</code> to appear in that file.  The <samp>.aux</samp>
file is read by the <code>\begin{document}</code> command and then the
information is available for <code>\cite</code> commands.  This explains why
you need to run LaTeX twice to resolve references: once to write it
out and once to read it in.
</p>
<p>Because of this two-pass algorithm, when you add a <code>\bibitem</code> or
change its <var>cite_key</var> you may get &lsquo;<samp>LaTeX Warning: Label(s) may
have changed. Rerun to get cross-references right</samp>&rsquo;.  Fix it by
recompiling.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005ccite" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005ccite-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\cite</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005ccite" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\cite{<var>keys</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\cite[<var>subcite</var>]{<var>keys</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Generate as output a citation to the references associated with
<var>keys</var>.  The mandatory <var>keys</var> is a citation key, or a
comma-separated list of citation keys (see <a href="#g_t_005cbibitem">\bibitem</a>).
</p>
<p>This 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">The ultimate source is \cite{texbook}.
  ...
\begin{thebibliography}
\bibitem{texbook} 
  Donald Ervin Knuth. 
  \textit{The \TeX book}. 
  Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
\end{thebibliography}
</pre></div>

<p>produces output like &lsquo;<samp>... source is [1]</samp>&rsquo;.  (You can change the
appearance of the citation with bibliography styles.  More is in
<a href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a>.)
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var>subcite</var> is appended to the citation.  For
example, <code>See 14.3 in \cite[p.~314]{texbook}</code> might produce
&lsquo;<samp>See 14.3 in [1, p.&nbsp;314]</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>In addition to what appears in the output, <code>\cite</code> writes
information to the auxiliary file <samp><var>filename</var>.aux</samp>.  For
instance, <code>\cite{latexdps}</code> writes &lsquo;<samp>\citation{latexdps}</samp>&rsquo;
to that file.  This information is used by BibTeX to include in your
reference list only those works that you have actually cited; see
<a href="#g_t_005cnocite">\nocite</a> also.
</p>
<p>If <var>keys</var> is not in your bibliography information then you get
&lsquo;<samp>LaTeX Warning: There were undefined references</samp>&rsquo;, and in the output
the citation shows as a boldface question mark between square brackets.
There are two possible causes.  If you have mistyped something, as in
<code>\cite{texbok}</code> then you need to correct the spelling.  On the
other hand, if you have just added or modified the bibliographic
information and so changed the <samp>.aux</samp> file (see <a href="#g_t_005cbibitem">\bibitem</a>) then
the fix may be to run LaTeX again.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cnocite" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cnocite-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\nocite</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cnocite" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example"><code>\nocite{<var>keys</var>}</code>
</pre></div>

<p>Produces no output but writes <var>keys</var> to the auxiliary file
<samp><var>doc-filename</var>.aux</samp>.
</p>
<p>The mandatory argument <var>keys</var> is a comma-separated list of one or
more citation keys (see <a href="#g_t_005cbibitem">\bibitem</a>).  This information is used by
BibTeX to include these works in your reference list even though you
have not cited them (see <a href="#g_t_005ccite">\cite</a>).
</p>

<hr>
<a name="Using-BibTeX" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="Using-BibTeX-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection">Using BibTeX</h4>

<a name="index-using-BibTeX" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-bibTeX_002c-using" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-bibliography_002c-creating-_0028automatically_0029" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cbibliographystyle" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-_005cbibliography" class="anchor"></a>

<p>As described in <code>thebibliography</code> (see <a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a>), a
sophisticated approach to managing bibliographies is provided by the
BibTeX program.  This is only an introduction; see the full
documentation on CTAN.
</p>
<p>With BibTeX, you don&rsquo;t use <code>thebibliography</code>
(see <a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a>). Instead, include these lines.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\bibliographystyle{<var>bibstyle</var>}
\bibliography{<var>bibfile1</var>, <var>bibfile2</var>, ...}
</pre></div>

<p>The <var>bibstyle</var> refers to a file <samp><var>bibstyle</var>.bst</samp>, which
defines how your citations will look.  The standard <var>bibstyle</var>&rsquo;s
distributed with BibTeX are:
</p>
<dl compact="compact">
<dt><code>alpha</code></dt>
<dd><p>Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication.
The bibliographic items are sorted alphabetically.
</p></dd>
<dt><code>plain</code></dt>
<dd><p>Labels are integers.
Sort the  bibliographic items alphabetically.
</p></dd>
<dt><code>unsrt</code></dt>
<dd><p>Like <code>plain</code>, but entries are in order of citation.
</p></dd>
<dt><code>abbrv</code></dt>
<dd><p>Like <code>plain</code>, but more compact labels.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>Many, many other BibTeX style files exist,
tailored to the demands of various publications.  See CTAN&rsquo;s listing
<a class="external" href="http://mirror.ctan.org/biblio/bibtex/contrib">http://mirror.ctan.org/biblio/bibtex/contrib</a>.
</p>
<p>The <code>\bibliography</code> command is what actually produces the
bibliography.  Its argument is a comma-separated list, referring to
files named <samp><var>bibfile1</var>.bib</samp>, <samp><var>bibfile2</var>.bib</samp>,
&hellip; These contain your database in BibTeX format.  This shows a
typical couple of entries in that format.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">@book{texbook,
  title     = {The {{\TeX}}book},
  author    = {D.E. Knuth},
  isbn      = {0201134489},
  series    = {Computers \&amp; typesetting},
  year      = {1983},
  publisher = {Addison-Wesley}
}
@book{sexbook,
    author    = {W.H. Masters and V.E. Johnson},
    title     = {Human Sexual Response},
    year      = {1966},
    publisher = {Bantam Books}
}
</pre></div>

<p>Only the bibliographic entries referred to via <code>\cite</code> and
<code>\nocite</code> will be listed in the document&rsquo;s bibliography.  Thus you
can keep all your sources together in one file, or a small number of
files, and rely on BibTeX to include in this document only those that
you used.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="theorem" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="theorem-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>theorem</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-theorem" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-theorem-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-theorems_002c-typesetting" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{theorem}
  <var>theorem body</var>
\end{theorem}
</pre></div>

<p>Produces &lsquo;<samp>Theorem <var>n</var></samp>&rsquo; in boldface followed by <var>theorem
body</var> in italics.  The numbering possibilities for <var>n</var> are described under
<code>\newtheorem</code> (see <a href="latex2e_12.html#g_t_005cnewtheorem">\newtheorem</a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\newtheorem{lem}{Lemma}      % in preamble
\newtheorem{thm}{Theorem}    
  ...
\begin{lem}                  % in  document body
  text of lemma
\end{lem}

The next result follows immediately.
\begin{thm}[Gauss]   %  put `Gauss' in parens after theorem head
  text of theorem
\end{thm}
</pre></div>

<a name="index-package_002c-amsmath-4" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-amsmath-package-4" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-package_002c-amsthm" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-amsthm-package" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Most new documents use the packages <code>amsthm</code> and <code>amsmath</code>
from the American Mathematical Society.  Among other things these
packages include a large number of options for theorem environments,
such as styling options.
</p>

<hr>
<a name="titlepage" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="titlepage-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>titlepage</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-titlepage" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-titlepage-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-making-a-title-page" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-title-pages_002c-creating" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{titlepage}
  ... text and spacing ...
\end{titlepage}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a title page, a page with no printed page number or heading and
with succeeding pages numbered starting with page one.
</p>
<p>In this example all formatting, including vertical spacing, is left to
the author.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{titlepage}
\vspace*{\stretch{1}}
\begin{center}
  {\huge\bfseries Thesis \\[1ex] 
                  title}                  \\[6.5ex]
  {\large\bfseries Author name}           \\
  \vspace{4ex}
  Thesis  submitted to                    \\[5pt]
  \textit{University name}                \\[2cm]
  in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of \\[2cm]
  \textsc{\Large Doctor of Philosophy}    \\[2ex]
  \textsc{\large Mathematics}             \\[12ex]
  \vfill
  Department of Mathematics               \\
  Address                                 \\
  \vfill
  \today
\end{center}
\vspace{\stretch{2}}
\end{titlepage}
</pre></div>

<p>To instead produce a standard title page without a <code>titlepage</code>
environment, use <code>\maketitle</code> (see <a href="latex2e_18.html#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a>).
</p>

<hr>
<a name="verbatim" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="verbatim-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>verbatim</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-verbatim" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-verbatim-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-verbatim-text" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-simulating-typed-text" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-typed-text_002c-simulating" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-code_002c-typesetting" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-computer-programs_002c-typesetting" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{verbatim}
<var>literal-text</var>
\end{verbatim}
</pre></div>

<p>A paragraph-making environment in which LaTeX produces as output
exactly what you type as input.  For instance inside <var>literal-text</var>
the backslash&nbsp;<code>\</code> character does not start commands, it
produces a printed &lsquo;<samp>\</samp>&rsquo;, and carriage returns and blanks are taken
literally.  The output appears in a monospaced typewriter-like font
(<code>\tt</code>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{verbatim}
Symbol swearing: %&amp;$#?!.
\end{verbatim}
</pre></div>

<p>The only restriction on <code>literal-text</code> is that it cannot include
the string <code>\end{verbatim}</code>.
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-cprotect" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-cprotect-package" class="anchor"></a>

<p>You cannot use the verbatim environment in the argument to macros, for
instance in the argument to a <code>\section</code>.  This is not the same as
commands being fragile (see <a href="latex2e_12.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>), instead it just cannot appear
there. (But the <code>cprotect</code> package can help with this.)
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-listings-1" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-listings-package-1" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-package_002c-minted-1" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-minted-package-1" class="anchor"></a>

<p>One common use of verbatim input is to typeset computer code.  There are
packages that are an improvement the <code>verbatim</code> environment.  For
instance, one improvement is to allow the verbatim inclusion of external
files, or parts of those files.  Such packages include <code>listings</code>,
and <code>minted</code>.
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-fancyvrb-1" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-fancyvrb-package-1" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-package_002c-verbatimbox" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-verbatimbox-package" class="anchor"></a>

<p>A package that provides many more options for verbatim environments is
<code>fancyvrb</code>.  Another is <code>verbatimbox</code>.
</p>
<p>For a list of all the relevant packages, see CTAN.
</p>


<hr>
<a name="g_t_005cverb" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="g_t_005cverb-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h4 class="subsection"><code>\verb</code></h4>

<a name="index-_005cverb" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-verbatim-text_002c-inline" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\verb <var>char</var> <var>literal-text</var> <var>char</var>
\verb* <var>char</var> <var>literal-text</var> <var>char</var>
</pre></div>

<p>Typeset <var>literal-text</var> as it is input, including special characters
and spaces, using the typewriter (<code>\tt</code>) font.
</p>
<p>This example shows two different invocations of <code>\verb</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">This is \verb!literally! the biggest pumpkin ever.
And this is the best squash, \verb+literally!+
</pre></div>

<p>The first <code>\verb</code> has its <var>literal-text</var> surrounded with
exclamation point, <code>!</code>.  The second instead uses plus, <code>+</code>,
because the exclamation point is part of <code>literal-text</code>.
</p>
<p>The single-character delimiter <var>char</var> surrounds
<var>literal-text</var>&nbsp;&mdash; it must be the same character before and
after.  No spaces come between <code>\verb</code> or <code>\verb*</code> and
<var>char</var>, or between <var>char</var> and <var>literal-text</var>, or between
<var>literal-text</var> and the second occurrence of <var>char</var> (the synopsis
shows a space only to distinguish one component from the other).  The
delimiter must not appear in <var>literal-text</var>. The <var>literal-text</var>
cannot include a line break.
</p>
<a name="index-visible-space" class="anchor"></a>
<p>The <code>*</code>-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a visible
space character.
</p>
<p>The output from this will include a character showing the spaces.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">The commands's first argument is \verb*!filename with extension! and ...
</pre></div>

<a name="index-package_002c-url" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-url-package" class="anchor"></a>

<p>For typesetting Internet addresses, urls, the package <code>url</code>
provides an option that is better than the <code>\verb</code> command, since
it allows line breaks.
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-listings-2" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-listings-package-2" class="anchor"></a>

<a name="index-package_002c-minted-2" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-minted-package-2" class="anchor"></a>

<p>For computer code there are many packages with advantages over
<code>\verb</code>.  One is <samp>listings</samp>, another is <samp>minted</samp>.
</p>
<a name="index-package_002c-cprotect-1" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-cprotect-package-1" class="anchor"></a>

<p>You cannot use <code>\verb</code> in the argument to a macro, for instance in
the argument to a <code>\section</code>.  It is not a question of <code>\verb</code>
being fragile (see <a href="latex2e_12.html#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a>), instead it just cannot appear there.
(But the <code>cprotect</code> package can help with this.)
</p>

<hr>
<a name="verse" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="verse-1" class="anchor"></a>
<h3 class="section"><code>verse</code></h3>

<a name="index-environment_002c-verse" class="anchor"></a>
<a name="index-verse-environment" class="anchor"></a>
        
<a name="index-poetry_002c-an-environment-for" class="anchor"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{verse}
  <var>line1</var> \\
  <var>line2</var> \\
  ...
\end{verse}
</pre></div>

<p>An environment for poetry.
</p>
<p>Here are two lines from Shakespeare&rsquo;s Romeo and Juliet.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">Then plainly know my heart's dear love is set \\
On the fair daughter of rich Capulet.
</pre></div>

<a name="index-_005c_005c-for-verse" class="anchor"></a>
<p>Separate the lines of each stanza with <code>\\</code>, and use one or more
blank lines to separate the stanzas.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example">\begin{verse}
\makebox[\linewidth][c]{\textit{Shut Not Your Doors} ---Walt Whitman}
  \\[1\baselineskip]
Shut not your doors to me proud libraries,                  \\
For that which was lacking on all your well-fill'd shelves, \\
\qquad yet needed most, I bring,                             \\
Forth from the war emerging, a book I have made,            \\
The words of my book nothing, the drift of it every thing,  \\
A book separate, not link'd with the rest nor felt by the intellect, \\
But you ye untold latencies will thrill to every page.
\end{verse}
</pre></div>

<p>The output has margins indented on the left and the right, paragraphs
are not indented, and the text is not right-justified.
</p>




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