File: generator.py

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from __future__ import annotations

import logging
import re
import typing as t
from collections import defaultdict
from functools import reduce, wraps

from sqlglot import exp
from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
from sqlglot.time import format_time
from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType

if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
    from sqlglot._typing import E
    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType

    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]

logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")

ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."


def unsupported_args(
    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
    """
    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
    """
    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
    for arg in args:
        if isinstance(arg, str):
            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
        else:
            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]

    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
        @wraps(func)
        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__

            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
                    )
                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)

            return func(generator, expression)

        return _func

    return decorator


class _Generator(type):
    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)

        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)

        return klass


class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
    """
    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

    Args:
        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
            Default: False.
        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
            True or 'always': Always quote.
            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
            Default: False.
        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
            Default: 2.
        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
            Default: 2.
        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
            False: Disables function name normalization.
        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
            Default: 3
        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
            Default: False
        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
            line length.
            Default: 80
        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
            Default: True
    """

    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
        exp.AnalyzeColumns: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
        exp.AnalyzeWith: lambda self, e: self.expressions(e, prefix="WITH ", sep=" "),
        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
        exp.Ceil: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.ConvertToCharset: lambda self, e: self.func(
            "CONVERT", e.this, e.args["dest"], e.args.get("source")
        ),
        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
        exp.CredentialsProperty: lambda self,
        e: f"CREDENTIALS=({self.expressions(e, 'expressions', sep=' ')})",
        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.EnviromentProperty: lambda self, e: f"ENVIRONMENT ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
        exp.Floor: lambda self, e: self.ceil_floor(e),
        exp.Get: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.PartitionedByBucket: lambda self, e: self.func("BUCKET", e.this, e.expression),
        exp.PartitionByTruncate: lambda self, e: self.func("TRUNCATE", e.this, e.expression),
        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.PositionalColumn: lambda self, e: f"#{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.Put: lambda self, e: self.get_put_sql(e),
        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
        ),
        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.TableColumn: lambda self, e: self.sql(e.this),
        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: lambda self, e: f"USING TEMPLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.UsingData: lambda self, e: f"USING DATA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
        exp.WeekStart: lambda self, e: f"WEEK({self.sql(e, 'this')})",
        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
        exp.ForceProperty: lambda *_: "FORCE",
    }

    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True

    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False

    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False

    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True

    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True

    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True

    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True

    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False

    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True

    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"

    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False

    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True

    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","

    # The string used for creating an index on a table
    INDEX_ON = "ON"

    # Whether join hints should be generated
    JOIN_HINTS = True

    # Whether table hints should be generated
    TABLE_HINTS = True

    # Whether query hints should be generated
    QUERY_HINTS = True

    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "

    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True

    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True

    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False

    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
    RETURNING_END = True

    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True

    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False

    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True

    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")

    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True

    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True

    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True

    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True

    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True

    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True

    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True

    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True

    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True

    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"

    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True

    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"

    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False

    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False

    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
    ENSURE_BOOLS = False

    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True

    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True

    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True

    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True

    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True

    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"

    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"

    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False

    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False

    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True

    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False

    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True

    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False

    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True

    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False

    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()

    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False

    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True

    # Whether EXCLUDE in window specification is supported
    SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE = False

    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True

    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True

    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False

    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True

    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
    TRY_SUPPORTED = True

    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True

    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"

    # The HEX function name
    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"

    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"

    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True

    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False

    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True

    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True

    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False

    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True

    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False

    # Whether to wrap <props> in `AlterSet`, e.g., ALTER ... SET (<props>)
    ALTER_SET_WRAPPED = False

    # Whether to normalize the date parts in EXTRACT(<date_part> FROM <expr>) into a common representation
    # For instance, to extract the day of week in ISO semantics, one can use ISODOW, DAYOFWEEKISO etc depending on the dialect.
    # TODO: The normalization should be done by default once we've tested it across all dialects.
    NORMALIZE_EXTRACT_DATE_PARTS = False

    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"

    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"

    # The syntax to use when altering the type of a column
    ALTER_SET_TYPE = "SET DATA TYPE"

    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None

    # Whether a multi-argument DECODE(...) function is supported. If not, a CASE expression is generated
    SUPPORTS_DECODE_CASE = True

    # Whether SYMMETRIC and ASYMMETRIC flags are supported with BETWEEN expression
    SUPPORTS_BETWEEN_FLAGS = False

    # Whether LIKE and ILIKE support quantifiers such as LIKE ANY/ALL/SOME
    SUPPORTS_LIKE_QUANTIFIERS = True

    TYPE_MAPPING = {
        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
        exp.DataType.Type.BLOB: "VARBINARY",
        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
    }

    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
        "HOURS": "HOUR",
        "DAYS": "DAY",
        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
        "YEARS": "YEAR",
    }

    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
        "windows": lambda self, e: (
            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
            if e.args.get("windows")
            else ""
        ),
        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
    }

    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}

    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")

    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"

    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()

    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.EnviromentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.StorageHandlerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.UsingTemplateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
        exp.ForceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
    }

    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()

    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
        exp.Command,
        exp.Create,
        exp.Describe,
        exp.Delete,
        exp.Drop,
        exp.From,
        exp.Insert,
        exp.Join,
        exp.MultitableInserts,
        exp.Order,
        exp.Group,
        exp.Having,
        exp.Select,
        exp.SetOperation,
        exp.Update,
        exp.Where,
        exp.With,
    )

    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
        exp.Binary,
        exp.SetOperation,
    )

    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
        exp.Column,
        exp.Literal,
        exp.Neg,
        exp.Paren,
    )

    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
    }

    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()

    RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = ()

    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"

    __slots__ = (
        "pretty",
        "identify",
        "normalize",
        "pad",
        "_indent",
        "normalize_functions",
        "unsupported_level",
        "max_unsupported",
        "leading_comma",
        "max_text_width",
        "comments",
        "dialect",
        "unsupported_messages",
        "_escaped_quote_end",
        "_escaped_identifier_end",
        "_next_name",
        "_identifier_start",
        "_identifier_end",
        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
    )

    def __init__(
        self,
        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
        identify: str | bool = False,
        normalize: bool = False,
        pad: int = 2,
        indent: int = 2,
        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
        max_unsupported: int = 3,
        leading_comma: bool = False,
        max_text_width: int = 80,
        comments: bool = True,
        dialect: DialectType = None,
    ):
        import sqlglot
        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect

        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
        self.identify = identify
        self.normalize = normalize
        self.pad = pad
        self._indent = indent
        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
        self.comments = comments
        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)

        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
        self.normalize_functions = (
            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
        )

        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
        )
        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2

        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")

        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END

        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True

    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
        """
        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

        Args:
            expression: The syntax tree.
            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
                it is safer to copy.

        Returns:
            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
        """
        if copy:
            expression = expression.copy()

        expression = self.preprocess(expression)

        self.unsupported_messages = []
        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()

        if self.pretty:
            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")

        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
            return sql

        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
                logger.warning(msg)
        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))

        return sql

    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)

        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools

            expression = ensure_bools(expression)

        return expression

    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
        if (
            not expression.parent
            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
        ):
            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level

            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
        return expression

    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
            raise UnsupportedError(message)
        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)

    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep

    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"

    def sanitize_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment

        if not self.dialect.tokenizer_class.NESTED_COMMENTS:
            # Necessary workaround to avoid syntax errors due to nesting: /* ... */ ... */
            comment = comment.replace("*/", "* /")

        return comment

    def maybe_comment(
        self,
        sql: str,
        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
        separated: bool = False,
    ) -> str:
        comments = (
            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
            if self.comments
            else None
        )

        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
            return sql

        comments_sql = " ".join(
            f"/*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
        )

        if not comments_sql:
            return sql

        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)

        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
            return (
                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
            )

        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"

    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
        this_sql = (
            self.sql(expression)
            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
            else self.sql(expression, "this")
        )
        if not this_sql:
            return "()"

        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
        original = self.identify
        self.identify = False
        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
        self.identify = original
        return result

    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
            return name.upper()
        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
            return name.lower()
        return name

    def indent(
        self,
        sql: str,
        level: int = 0,
        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
        skip_first: bool = False,
        skip_last: bool = False,
    ) -> str:
        if not self.pretty or not sql:
            return sql

        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
        lines = sql.split("\n")

        return "\n".join(
            (
                line
                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
            )
            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
        )

    def sql(
        self,
        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
        comment: bool = True,
    ) -> str:
        if not expression:
            return ""

        if isinstance(expression, str):
            return expression

        if key:
            value = expression.args.get(key)
            if value:
                return self.sql(value)
            return ""

        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)

        if callable(transform):
            sql = transform(self, expression)
        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"

            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
            else:
                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")

        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql

    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"

    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
        options = expression.args.get("options")
        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
        return ".".join(
            self.sql(part)
            for part in (
                expression.args.get("catalog"),
                expression.args.get("db"),
                expression.args.get("table"),
                expression.args.get("this"),
            )
            if part
        )

    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""

        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
            join_mark = ""
            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")

        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"

    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
        return f"{position}{this}"

    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
        position = f" {position}" if position else ""

        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
            kind = ""

        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"

    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql

    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
            persisted = " PERSISTED"
        else:
            persisted = ""

        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"

    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)

    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
        else:
            this = self.sql(expression, "this")

        return f"COMPRESS {this}"

    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
    ) -> str:
        this = ""
        if expression.this is not None:
            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"

        start = expression.args.get("start")
        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
        cycle_sql = ""

        if cycle is not None:
            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql

        sequence_opts = ""
        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"

        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"

        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"

    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
    ) -> str:
        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"

    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
    ) -> str:
        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"

    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
        if desc is not None:
            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
        return f"PRIMARY KEY{options}"

    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}{options}"

    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
        return self.sql(expression, "this")

    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()

        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)

        properties_sql = ""
        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
        ):
            properties_sql = self.sql(
                exp.Properties(
                    expressions=[
                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
                    ]
                )
            )

            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
            elif not self.pretty:
                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"

        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""

        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        if expression_sql:
            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"

            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
                postalias_props_sql = ""
                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
                        exp.Properties(
                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
                        ),
                        wrapped=False,
                    )
                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"

        postindex_props_sql = ""
        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
                wrapped=False,
                prefix=" ",
            )

        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql

        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""

        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
        if clustered is None:
            clustered_sql = ""
        elif clustered:
            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
        else:
            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"

        postcreate_props_sql = ""
        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
                sep=" ",
                prefix=" ",
                wrapped=False,
            )

        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))

        postexpression_props_sql = ""
        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
                exp.Properties(
                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
                ),
                sep=" ",
                prefix=" ",
                wrapped=False,
            )

        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
        no_schema_binding = (
            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
        )

        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""

        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
        else:
            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"

        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)

    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""

        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
        if cache is None:
            cache_str = ""
        elif cache is True:
            cache_str = " CACHE"
        else:
            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"

        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
        options = f" {options}" if options else ""

        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()

    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"

    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
        style = expression.args.get("style")
        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
        format = f" {format}" if format else ""

        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"

    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"

    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
        if with_:
            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
        return sql

    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        recursive = (
            "RECURSIVE "
            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
            else ""
        )
        search = self.sql(expression, "search")
        search = f" {search}" if search else ""

        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}{search}"

    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
        if alias:
            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())

        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")

        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
        if materialized is False:
            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
        elif materialized:
            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "

        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"

    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""

        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
            columns = ""
            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")

        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
            alias = self._next_name()

        return f"{alias}{columns}"

    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
        return f"{int(this, 2)}"

    def hexstring_sql(
        self, expression: exp.HexString, binary_function_repr: t.Optional[str] = None
    ) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        is_integer_type = expression.args.get("is_integer")

        if (is_integer_type and not self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE) or (
            not self.dialect.HEX_START and not binary_function_repr
        ):
            # Integer representation will be returned if:
            # - The read dialect treats the hex value as integer literal but not the write
            # - The transpilation is not supported (write dialect hasn't set HEX_START or the param flag)
            return f"{int(this, 16)}"

        if not is_integer_type:
            # Read dialect treats the hex value as BINARY/BLOB
            if binary_function_repr:
                # The write dialect supports the transpilation to its equivalent BINARY/BLOB
                return self.func(binary_function_repr, exp.Literal.string(this))
            if self.dialect.HEX_STRING_IS_INTEGER_TYPE:
                # The write dialect does not support the transpilation, it'll treat the hex value as INTEGER
                self.unsupported("Unsupported transpilation from BINARY/BLOB hex string")

        return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"

    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
        return this

    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        escape = expression.args.get("escape")

        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
        else:
            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END

        if escape:
            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
        else:
            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
            escape_sql = ""

        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)

        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"

    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
        string = expression.this
        if "\\" in self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES:
            string = string.replace("\\", "\\\\")

        string = self.escape_str(string, escape_backslash=False)
        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
        return f"{this}{specifier}"

    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
        nested = ""
        values = ""
        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)

        type_value = expression.this
        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        else:
            type_sql = (
                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
                else type_value
            )

        if interior:
            if expression.args.get("nested"):
                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
                nested = f" {interior}"
            else:
                nested = f"({interior})"

        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
        ):
            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"

        return type_sql

    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"

    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
        if self.RETURNING_END:
            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
        else:
            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")

    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
        kind = expression.args["kind"]
        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"

    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
        op_type = type(expression)
        op_name = op_type.key.upper()

        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
        if (
            distinct is False
            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
        ):
            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")

        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]

        if distinct is None:
            distinct = default_distinct
            if distinct is None:
                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")

        if distinct is default_distinct:
            distinct_or_all = ""
        else:
            distinct_or_all = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"

        side_kind = " ".join(filter(None, [expression.side, expression.kind]))
        side_kind = f"{side_kind} " if side_kind else ""

        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
        on = self.expressions(expression, key="on", flat=True)
        on = f" ON ({on})" if on else ""

        return f"{side_kind}{op_name}{distinct_or_all}{by_name}{on}"

    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
            order = expression.args.get("order")

            if limit or order:
                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
                )

                if limit:
                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
                if order:
                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
                return self.sql(select)

        sqls: t.List[str] = []
        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]

        while stack:
            node = stack.pop()

            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
                stack.append(node.expression)
                stack.append(
                    self.maybe_comment(
                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
                    )
                )
                stack.append(node.this)
            else:
                sqls.append(self.sql(node))

        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)

    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
        limit_options = f"{limit_options}" if limit_options else " ROWS ONLY"
        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count}{limit_options}"

    def limitoptions_sql(self, expression: exp.LimitOptions) -> str:
        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
        rows = " ROWS" if expression.args.get("rows") else ""
        with_ties = " WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else ""
        if not with_ties and rows:
            with_ties = " ONLY"
        return f"{percent}{rows}{with_ties}"

    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"

        agg = expression.this
        agg_arg = agg.this
        cond = expression.expression.this
        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
        return self.sql(agg)

    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
            return ""

        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"

    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
        if include:
            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""

        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"

    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""

        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""

        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"

    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
        text = expression.name
        lower = text.lower()
        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
        if (
            expression.quoted
            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
        ):
            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
        return text

    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
            text = self.func("LOWER", text)

        return text

    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
        return text

    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))

    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
        return f"{prefix}{string}"

    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
        partition_keyword = "SUBPARTITION" if expression.args.get("subpartition") else "PARTITION"
        return f"{partition_keyword}({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
        root_properties = []
        with_properties = []

        for p in expression.expressions:
            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
                with_properties.append(p)
            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
                root_properties.append(p)

        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))

        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
            with_props = " " + with_props

        return root_props + with_props

    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
        if properties.expressions:
            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
        return ""

    def properties(
        self,
        properties: exp.Properties,
        prefix: str = "",
        sep: str = ", ",
        suffix: str = "",
        wrapped: bool = True,
    ) -> str:
        if properties.expressions:
            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
            if expressions:
                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
        return ""

    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))

    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
        for p in properties.expressions:
            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
            else:
                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")

        return properties_locs

    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
            return self.sql(expression, "this")
        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name

    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
        property_cls = expression.__class__
        if property_cls == exp.Property:
            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
        if not property_name:
            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")

        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
            options = f" {options}" if options else ""

            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
                like = f"({like})"

            return like

        if expression.expressions:
            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")

        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"

    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"

    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
        local = expression.args.get("local")
        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"

    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"

    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
        if expression.args.get("default"):
            property = "DEFAULT"
        elif expression.args.get("on"):
            property = "ON"
        else:
            property = "OFF"
        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"

    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
        if expression.args.get("no"):
            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
        if expression.args.get("default"):
            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"

        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"

    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
        default = expression.args.get("default")
        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
        if default or minimum or maximum:
            if default:
                prop = "DEFAULT"
            elif minimum:
                prop = "MINIMUM"
            else:
                prop = "MAXIMUM"
            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
        units = expression.args.get("units")
        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"

    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
        always = expression.args.get("always")
        default = expression.args.get("default")
        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
        never = expression.args.get("never")

        if autotemp is not None:
            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
        elif always:
            prop = "ALWAYS"
        elif default:
            prop = "DEFAULT"
        elif manual:
            prop = "MANUAL"
        elif never:
            prop = "NEVER"
        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"

    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
        no = expression.args.get("no")
        no = " NO" if no else ""
        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"

    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
        if expression.this:
            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"

        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"

    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")

        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
        else:
            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"

        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"

    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"

    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
        statistics_sql = ""
        if statistics is not None:
            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"

    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
        data_consistency = (
            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
        )
        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
        retention_period = (
            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
        )

        if this:
            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
        else:
            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"

        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"

        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql

    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")

        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
        else:
            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"

        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
        if is_function:
            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")

        if self.RETURNING_END:
            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
        else:
            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"

        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""

        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""

        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"

    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
        return expression.name

    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
        return expression.name

    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"

        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""

        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
        action = self.sql(expression, "action")

        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        if expressions:
            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"

        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"

    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"

    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"

    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
        return ".".join(
            self.sql(part)
            for part in (
                expression.args.get("catalog"),
                expression.args.get("db"),
                expression.args.get("this"),
            )
            if part is not None
        )

    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
        table = self.table_parts(expression)
        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""

        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
            sample_pre_alias = sample
            sample_post_alias = ""
        else:
            sample_pre_alias = ""
            sample_post_alias = sample

        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
        joins = self.indent(
            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
        )
        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")

        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
        if file_format:
            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"

        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
        if ordinality:
            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
            alias = ""

        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
        if when:
            table = f"{table} {when}"

        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""

        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
        if rows_from:
            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"

        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"

    def tablefromrows_sql(self, expression: exp.TableFromRows) -> str:
        table = self.func("TABLE", expression.this)
        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
        joins = self.indent(
            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
        )
        return f"{table}{alias}{pivots}{sample}{joins}"

    def tablesample_sql(
        self,
        expression: exp.TableSample,
        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
    ) -> str:
        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""

        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
            size = f"{size} ROWS"

        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"

        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
            expr = f"({expr})"

        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"

    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"

        group = self.sql(expression, "group")

        if expression.this:
            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
            if not expressions:
                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"

            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"

        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""

        fields = self.expressions(
            expression,
            "fields",
            sep=" ",
            dynamic=True,
            new_line=True,
            skip_first=True,
            skip_last=True,
        )

        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
        if include_nulls is not None:
            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
        else:
            nulls = ""

        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {fields}{default_on_null}{group}){alias}"

    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
        kind = expression.text("kind")
        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"

    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"

    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
        if self.RETURNING_END:
            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
        else:
            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE

        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
            args = self.expressions(expression)
            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
            values = (
                f"({values})"
                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
                else values
            )
            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values

        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns

        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []

        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
            row = tup.expressions

            if i == 0 and column_names:
                row = [
                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
                ]

            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))

        if self.pretty:
            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))

        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
        return f"({unions}){alias}"

    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
        return self.sql(expression, "this")

    @unsupported_args("expressions")
    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"

    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"

    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"

    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
        if group_by_all is True:
            modifier = " ALL"
        elif group_by_all is False:
            modifier = " DISTINCT"
        else:
            modifier = ""

        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)

        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")

        groupings = csv(
            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
        )

        if (
            expression.expressions
            and groupings
            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
        ):
            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"

        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"

    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"

    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
        return start + connect

    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
            side = None
        else:
            side = expression.side

        op_sql = " ".join(
            op
            for op in (
                expression.method,
                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
                side,
                expression.kind,
                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
            )
            if op
        )
        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
        using = expression.args.get("using")

        if not on_sql and using:
            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))

        this = expression.this
        this_sql = self.sql(this)

        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
        if exprs:
            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"

        if on_sql:
            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
            if using:
                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
            else:
                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
        elif not op_sql:
            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
                return f" {this_sql}"

            return f", {this_sql}"

        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"

        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}{pivots}"

    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->", wrap: bool = True) -> str:
        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        args = f"({args})" if wrap and len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")

        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
        if cross_apply is True:
            op = "INNER JOIN "
        elif cross_apply is False:
            op = "LEFT JOIN "
        else:
            op = ""

        return f"{op}LATERAL"

    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")

        if expression.args.get("view"):
            alias = expression.args["alias"]
            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"

        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""

        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
        if ordinality:
            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
            alias = ""

        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}{ordinality}"

    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")

        args = [
            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
            if e
        ]

        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        limit_options = self.sql(expression, "limit_options")
        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""

        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{limit_options}{expressions}"

    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        value = expression.expression
        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"

    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"

    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
        expressions = f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"

    def queryband_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryBand) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        update = " UPDATE" if expression.args.get("update") else ""
        scope = self.sql(expression, "scope")
        scope = f" FOR {scope}" if scope else ""

        return f"QUERY_BAND = {this}{update}{scope}"

    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
            return ""

        update = expression.args["update"]
        key = expression.args.get("key")
        if update:
            lock_type = "FOR NO KEY UPDATE" if key else "FOR UPDATE"
        else:
            lock_type = "FOR KEY SHARE" if key else "FOR SHARE"
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
        wait = expression.args.get("wait")

        if wait is not None:
            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
            else:
                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"

        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"

    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
        text = expression.this or ""
        if expression.is_string:
            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
        return text

    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
            text = "".join(
                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
            )

        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
        )

    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"

    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
        return "NULL"

    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"

    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f"{this} " if this else this
        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore

    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
        interpolated_values = [
            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
            else self.sql(e, "this")
            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
        ]
        interpolate = (
            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
        )
        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"

    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)

    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)

    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)

    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
        asc = not desc

        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
        nulls_last = not nulls_first
        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"

        this = self.sql(expression, "this")

        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
        nulls_sort_change = ""
        if nulls_first and (
            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
        ):
            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
        elif (
            nulls_last
            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
            and not nulls_are_last
        ):
            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"

        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
                self.unsupported(
                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
                )
                nulls_sort_change = ""
            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
            ):
                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)

                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
                    ancestor = ancestor.this
                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
                    self.unsupported(
                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
                    )
                    nulls_sort_change = ""
            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
                if expression.this.is_int:
                    self.unsupported(
                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
                    )
                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
                nulls_sort_change = ""

        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""

        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"

    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""

        this = self.sql(expression, "this")

        return f"{window_frame}{this}"

    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
        definition_sqls = [
            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
        ]
        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
        body = "".join(
            (
                partition,
                order,
                measures,
                rows,
                after,
                pattern,
                define,
            )
        )
        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"

    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
        limit = expression.args.get("limit")

        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))

        return csv(
            *sqls,
            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
            self.sql(expression, "match"),
            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
            self.sql(expression, "where"),
            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
            self.sql(expression, "group"),
            self.sql(expression, "having"),
            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
            self.sql(expression, "order"),
            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
            self.options_modifier(expression),
            self.for_modifiers(expression),
            sep="",
        )

    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
        return f" {options}" if options else ""

    def for_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
        for_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="for")
        return f"{self.sep()}FOR XML{self.seg(for_modifiers)}" if for_modifiers else ""

    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
        self.unsupported("Unsupported query option.")
        return ""

    def offset_limit_modifiers(
        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
    ) -> t.List[str]:
        return [
            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
        ]

    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]

    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
        into = expression.args.get("into")
        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
            into.pop()

        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")

        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
            limit.pop()
        else:
            top = ""

        expressions = self.expressions(expression)

        if kind:
            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
                kind = f" AS {kind}"
            else:
                if kind == "STRUCT":
                    expressions = self.expressions(
                        sqls=[
                            self.sql(
                                exp.Struct(
                                    expressions=[
                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
                                        else e
                                        for e in expression.expressions
                                    ]
                                )
                            )
                        ]
                    )
                kind = ""

        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""

        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
        sql = self.query_modifiers(
            expression,
            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
        )

        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
        if expression.args.get("with"):
            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
            expression.pop_comments()

        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
            if into.args.get("temporary"):
                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
            else:
                table_kind = ""
            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"

        return sql

    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql

    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
        if expression.expressions:
            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
        return ""

    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"

    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"

    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        kind = expression.text("kind")
        if kind:
            kind = f"{kind}."
        return f"@@{kind}{this}"

    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"

    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"

            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
            expression.set("sample", None)

        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)

    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"

    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)

        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
        offset = expression.args.get("offset")

        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
                alias.append("columns", offset)

        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
            columns = alias.columns
            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
        else:
            alias = self.sql(alias)

        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
        else:
            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
            elif offset:
                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
            else:
                suffix = alias

        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"

    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
        return ""

    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"

    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
        order = expression.args.get("order")
        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"

        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"

        first = expression.args.get("first")
        if first is None:
            first = ""
        else:
            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"

        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
            return f"{this} {alias}"

        args = self.format_args(
            *[arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg], sep=" "
        )
        return f"{this} ({args})"

    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""

    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
        end = (
            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
            or "CURRENT ROW"
        )

        window_spec = f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"

        exclude = self.sql(expression, "exclude")
        if exclude:
            if self.SUPPORTS_WINDOW_EXCLUDE:
                window_spec += f" EXCLUDE {exclude}"
            else:
                self.unsupported("EXCLUDE clause is not supported in the WINDOW clause")

        return window_spec

    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"

    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
        symmetric = expression.args.get("symmetric")

        if symmetric and not self.SUPPORTS_BETWEEN_FLAGS:
            return f"({this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high} OR {this} BETWEEN {high} AND {low})"

        flag = (
            " SYMMETRIC"
            if symmetric
            else " ASYMMETRIC"
            if symmetric is False and self.SUPPORTS_BETWEEN_FLAGS
            else ""  # silently drop ASYMMETRIC – semantics identical
        )
        return f"{this} BETWEEN{flag} {low} AND {high}"

    def bracket_offset_expressions(
        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
        return apply_index_offset(
            expression.this,
            expression.expressions,
            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
            dialect=self.dialect,
        )

    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"

    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        if not isinstance(expression.this, (exp.Tuple, exp.Paren)):
            this = self.wrap(this)
        return f"ALL {this}"

    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
                this = self.wrap(this)
            return f"ANY{this}"
        return f"ANY {this}"

    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"

    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]

        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")

        default = self.sql(expression, "default")

        if default:
            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")

        statements.append("END")

        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)

        return " ".join(statements)

    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"

    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
        order = expression.args.get("order")
        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"

    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import map_date_part

        this = (
            map_date_part(expression.this, self.dialect)
            if self.NORMALIZE_EXTRACT_DATE_PARTS
            else expression.this
        )
        this_sql = self.sql(this) if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else this.name
        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")

        return f"EXTRACT({this_sql} FROM {expression_sql})"

    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")

        if trim_type == "LEADING":
            func_name = "LTRIM"
        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
            func_name = "RTRIM"
        else:
            func_name = "TRIM"

        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)

    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
        args = expression.expressions
        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter

        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]

        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]

        return args

    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)

        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
            return self.sql(expressions[0])

        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)

    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
        return self.func(
            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
        )

    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
        return f"CHECK ({this})"

    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}{options}"

    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKey) -> str:
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        include = self.sql(expression, "include")
        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){include}{options}"

    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))

    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"

    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")

        if expression.args.get("escape"):
            path = self.escape_str(path)

        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"

        return path

    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
            if not callable(transform):
                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
                return ""

            return transform(self, expression)

        if isinstance(expression, int):
            return str(expression)

        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
        else:
            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'

        return escaped

    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"

    def formatphrase_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatPhrase) -> str:
        # Output the Teradata column FORMAT override.
        # https://docs.teradata.com/r/Enterprise_IntelliFlex_VMware/SQL-Data-Types-and-Literals/Data-Type-Formats-and-Format-Phrases/FORMAT
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        fmt = self.sql(expression, "format")
        return f"{this} (FORMAT {fmt})"

    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""

        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
        if unique_keys is not None:
            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
        else:
            unique_keys = ""

        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""

        return self.func(
            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
            *expression.expressions,
            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
        )

    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)

    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
        return self.func(
            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
        )

    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
        return self.func(
            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
            this,
            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
        )

    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")

        if nested_schema:
            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"

        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"

    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)

    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
        return self.func(
            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
        )

    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"

    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
        with_ = (
            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
            if expressions
            else ""
        )
        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"

    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
        query = expression.args.get("query")
        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
        field = expression.args.get("field")
        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""

        if query:
            in_sql = self.sql(query)
        elif unnest:
            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
        elif field:
            in_sql = self.sql(field)
        else:
            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"

        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"

    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"

    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""

        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"

        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        if this:
            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"

        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"

    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"

    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
        parent = expression.parent
        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
        return self.func(
            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
        )

    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"

    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"

    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
        alias = expression.args["alias"]

        parent = expression.parent
        pivot = parent and parent.parent

        if isinstance(pivot, exp.Pivot) and pivot.unpivot:
            identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
            literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)

            if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
                alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
            elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
                alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))

        return self.alias_sql(expression)

    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        return f"{this} AT {index}"

    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"

    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"

    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "+")

    def and_sql(
        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    ) -> str:
        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)

    def or_sql(
        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    ) -> str:
        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)

    def xor_sql(
        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
    ) -> str:
        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)

    def connector_sql(
        self,
        expression: exp.Connector,
        op: str,
        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
    ) -> str:
        if stack is not None:
            if expression.expressions:
                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
            else:
                stack.append(expression.right)
                if expression.comments and self.comments:
                    for comment in expression.comments:
                        if comment:
                            op += f" /*{self.sanitize_comment(comment)}*/"
                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
            return op

        stack = [expression]
        sqls: t.List[str] = []
        ops = set()

        while stack:
            node = stack.pop()
            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
            else:
                sql = self.sql(node)
                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
                else:
                    sqls.append(sql)

        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
        return sep.join(sqls)

    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "&")

    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "<<")

    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "|")

    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, ">>")

    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "^")

    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
        default = f" DEFAULT {default} ON CONVERSION ERROR" if default else ""
        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{default}{format_sql}{action})"

    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"

    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")

    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"

    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        kind = expression.args["kind"]
        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"

    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"

    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""

        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"

    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
        return "BEGIN"

    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
        if chain is not None:
            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"

        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"

    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"

    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")

        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
        if dtype:
            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
            alter_set_type = self.ALTER_SET_TYPE + " " if self.ALTER_SET_TYPE else ""
            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {alter_set_type}{dtype}{collate}{using}"

        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
        if default:
            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"

        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
        if comment:
            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"

        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
        if visible:
            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET {visible}"

        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
        drop = expression.args.get("drop")

        if not drop and not allow_null:
            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")

        if allow_null is not None:
            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"

        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"

    def alterindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterIndex) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")

        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
        visible_sql = "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"

        return f"ALTER INDEX {this} {visible_sql}"

    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"

    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"

    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename, include_to: bool = True) -> str:
        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
            # Remove db from tables
            expression = expression.transform(
                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        to_kw = " TO" if include_to else ""
        return f"RENAME{to_kw} {this}"

    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"

    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        if self.ALTER_SET_WRAPPED:
            exprs = f"({exprs})"

        return f"SET {exprs}"

    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
        actions = expression.args["actions"]

        if not self.dialect.ALTER_TABLE_ADD_REQUIRED_FOR_EACH_COLUMN and isinstance(
            actions[0], exp.ColumnDef
        ):
            actions_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
            actions_sql = f"ADD {actions_sql}"
        else:
            actions_list = []
            for action in actions:
                if isinstance(action, (exp.ColumnDef, exp.Schema)):
                    action_sql = self.add_column_sql(action)
                else:
                    action_sql = self.sql(action)
                    if isinstance(action, exp.Query):
                        action_sql = f"AS {action_sql}"

                actions_list.append(action_sql)

            actions_sql = self.format_args(*actions_list).lstrip("\n")

        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""

        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster}{self.sep()}{actions_sql}{not_valid}{options}"

    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
        sql = self.sql(expression)
        if isinstance(expression, exp.Schema):
            column_text = " COLUMNS"
        elif isinstance(expression, exp.ColumnDef) and self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
            column_text = " COLUMN"
        else:
            column_text = ""

        return f"ADD{column_text} {sql}"

    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"

    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, indent=False)}"

    def addpartition_sql(self, expression: exp.AddPartition) -> str:
        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
        location = self.sql(expression, "location")
        location = f" {location}" if location else ""
        return f"ADD {exists}{self.sql(expression.this)}{location}"

    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)

        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
            case = exp.case()
            for arg in expression.expressions:
                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))

        this = f" {this}" if this else ""

        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"

    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")

    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")

    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"

    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
        return self.sql(
            exp.Cast(
                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
            )
        )

    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
            return self.func(
                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
            )
        return self.binary(expression, "||")

    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
        l, r = expression.left, expression.right

        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))

        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))

        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
                return self.sql(
                    exp.cast(
                        l / r,
                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
                    )
                )

        return self.binary(expression, "/")

    def safedivide_sql(self, expression: exp.SafeDivide) -> str:
        n = exp._wrap(expression.this, exp.Binary)
        d = exp._wrap(expression.expression, exp.Binary)
        return self.sql(exp.If(this=d.neq(0), true=n / d, false=exp.Null()))

    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")

    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "<->")

    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "=")

    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, ":=")

    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")

    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")

    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, ">")

    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, ">=")

    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
            return self.sql(
                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
            )
        return self.binary(expression, "IS")

    def _like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like | exp.ILike) -> str:
        this = expression.this
        rhs = expression.expression

        if isinstance(expression, exp.Like):
            exp_class: t.Type[exp.Like | exp.ILike] = exp.Like
            op = "LIKE"
        else:
            exp_class = exp.ILike
            op = "ILIKE"

        if isinstance(rhs, (exp.All, exp.Any)) and not self.SUPPORTS_LIKE_QUANTIFIERS:
            exprs = rhs.this.unnest()

            if isinstance(exprs, exp.Tuple):
                exprs = exprs.expressions

            connective = exp.or_ if isinstance(rhs, exp.Any) else exp.and_

            like_expr: exp.Expression = exp_class(this=this, expression=exprs[0])
            for expr in exprs[1:]:
                like_expr = connective(like_expr, exp_class(this=this, expression=expr))

            return self.sql(like_expr)

        return self.binary(expression, op)

    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
        return self._like_sql(expression)

    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
        return self._like_sql(expression)

    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")

    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "<")

    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "<=")

    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "%")

    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "*")

    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "<>")

    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")

    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")

    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, ":")

    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "-")

    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")

    def jsoncast_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONCast) -> str:
        return self.cast_sql(expression)

    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
            return self.sql(expression, "this")

        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)

    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
        this = expression.this
        expr = expression.expression

        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
            this, expr = expr, this
        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)

            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")

        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)

    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
        this = self.sql(expression, "this") or self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
        return f"USE{kind}{this}"

    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
        sqls: t.List[str] = []
        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
        binary_type = type(expression)

        while stack:
            node = stack.pop()

            if type(node) is binary_type:
                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
                if op_func:
                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"

                stack.append(node.right)
                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
                stack.append(node.left)
            else:
                sqls.append(self.sql(node))

        return "".join(sqls)

    def ceil_floor(self, expression: exp.Ceil | exp.Floor) -> str:
        to_clause = self.sql(expression, "to")
        if to_clause:
            return f"{expression.sql_name()}({self.sql(expression, 'this')} TO {to_clause})"

        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
        args = []

        for key in expression.arg_types:
            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)

            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
                for value in arg_value:
                    args.append(value)
            elif arg_value is not None:
                args.append(arg_value)

        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
        else:
            name = expression.sql_name()

        return self.func(name, *args)

    def func(
        self,
        name: str,
        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
        prefix: str = "(",
        suffix: str = ")",
        normalize: bool = True,
    ) -> str:
        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"

    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
        arg_sqls = tuple(
            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
        )
        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
            return self.indent(
                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
            )
        return sep.join(arg_sqls)

    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width

    def format_time(
        self,
        expression: exp.Expression,
        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
        return format_time(
            self.sql(expression, "format"),
            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
        )

    def expressions(
        self,
        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
        flat: bool = False,
        indent: bool = True,
        skip_first: bool = False,
        skip_last: bool = False,
        sep: str = ", ",
        prefix: str = "",
        dynamic: bool = False,
        new_line: bool = False,
    ) -> str:
        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls

        if not expressions:
            return ""

        if flat:
            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)

        num_sqls = len(expressions)
        result_sqls = []

        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
            if not sql:
                continue

            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""

            if self.pretty:
                if self.leading_comma:
                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
                else:
                    result_sqls.append(
                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
                    )
            else:
                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")

        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
            if new_line:
                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
                result_sqls.append("")
            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
        else:
            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)

        return (
            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
            if indent
            else result_sql
        )

    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
        if flat:
            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"

    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
        if not property_name:
            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"

    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)

    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
        expressions = (
            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
        )
        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this

    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        return f"{this}({expressions})"

    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
        return self.binary(expression, "=>")

    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""

        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
            else:
                then = f"UPDATE SET{self.sep()}{self.expressions(then_expression)}"
        else:
            then = self.sql(then_expression)
        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"

    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)

    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
        table = expression.this
        table_alias = ""

        hints = table.args.get("hints")
        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"

        this = self.sql(table)
        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")

        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
        if returning:
            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"

        sep = self.sep()

        return self.prepend_ctes(
            expression,
            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
        )

    @unsupported_args("format")
    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))

    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))

        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
        if not fmt:
            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))

        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)

    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"

    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"

    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"

    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"

    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"

    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
        return ""

    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"

    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        having = self.sql(expression, "having")

        if having:
            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"

        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)

    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"

    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
        if key_block_size:
            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"

        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
        if using:
            return f"USING {using}"

        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
        if parser:
            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"

        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
        if comment:
            return f"COMMENT {comment}"

        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
        if visible is not None:
            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"

        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
        if engine_attr:
            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"

        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
        if secondary_engine_attr:
            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"

        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
        return ""

    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"

    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"

    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

        case = exp.Case().when(
            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
            expression.args["true"],
            copy=False,
        )
        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
        if else_cond:
            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)

        return self.sql(case)

    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"

    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"

    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"

    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
        model = f"MODEL {model}"
        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)

    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"

    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"

    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
        arg = expression.this
        if not arg.type:
            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types

            arg = annotate_types(arg, dialect=self.dialect)

        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
            return self.sql(arg)

        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))

    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
        this = expression.this
        time_format = self.format_time(expression)

        if time_format:
            return self.sql(
                exp.cast(
                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
                    exp.DataType.Type.TIME,
                )
            )

        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
            return self.sql(this)

        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))

    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
        this = expression.this
        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
            return self.sql(this)

        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))

    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
        this = expression.this
        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
            return self.sql(this)

        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))

    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
        this = expression.this
        time_format = self.format_time(expression)

        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
            return self.sql(
                exp.cast(
                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
                )
            )

        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
            return self.sql(this)

        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))

    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
        return self.sql(
            exp.func(
                "DATEDIFF",
                expression.this,
                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
                "day",
            )
        )

    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

        unit = expression.text("unit")
        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")

        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)

    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str

        return self.func(
            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
        )

    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))

        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect

        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")

        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
        expression.set(
            "expressions",
            [
                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
                else e
                for e in expression.expressions
            ],
        )

        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")

        return f"{low} TO {high}"

    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"

        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""

        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""

        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""

        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
        option = f" {option}" if option else ""

        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""

        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"

    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
        to = expression.this
        value = expression.expression
        style = expression.args.get("style")
        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
        strict = expression.args.get("strict")

        if not to or not value:
            return ""

        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)

        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast

        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL

            style_value = style.name
            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
            if not converted_style:
                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")

            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)

            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)

        if not transformed:
            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)

        return self.sql(transformed)

    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
        this = expression.this
        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
            this = self.json_path_part(this)
            return f".{this}" if this else ""

        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
            return f".{this}"

        this = self.json_path_part(this)
        return (
            f"[{this}]"
            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
            else f".{this}"
        )

    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""

    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify

            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)

        return expression

    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
        this = expression.this
        if isinstance(this, self.RESPECT_IGNORE_NULLS_UNSUPPORTED_EXPRESSIONS):
            self.unsupported(
                f"RESPECT/IGNORE NULLS is not supported for {type(this).key} in {self.dialect.__class__.__name__}"
            )
            return self.sql(this)

        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
            mods = sorted(
                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
                key=lambda x: 0
                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
            )

            if mods:
                mod = mods[0]
                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
                this.meta["inline"] = True
                mod.this.replace(this)
                return self.sql(expression.this)

            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)

            if agg_func:
                agg_func_sql = self.sql(agg_func, comment=False)[:-1] + f" {text})"
                return self.maybe_comment(agg_func_sql, comments=agg_func.comments)

        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"

    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
        if self.pretty:
            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
        return string

    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
        option = self.sql(expression, "this")

        if expression.expressions:
            upper = option.upper()

            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "

            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
            return f"{option}{op}({values})"

        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")

        if not value:
            return option

        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "

        return f"{option}{op}{value}"

    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
        else:
            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""

        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""

        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""

        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""

        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""

        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"

    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"

        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)

        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
        params = self.expressions(
            expression,
            key="params",
            sep=sep,
            new_line=True,
            skip_last=True,
            skip_first=True,
            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
        )

        if params:
            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
                params = f" WITH ({params})"
            elif not self.pretty:
                params = f" {params}"

        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"

    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
        return ""

    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None

        if filter_col or retention_period:
            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)

        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"

    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
    ) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"

    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f"TABLE {this}"
        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])

    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)

    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expr = expression.expression

        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
        else:
            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")

        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)

    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
            return self.sql(expression.this)

        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)

    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")

        if lower and upper:
            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)

    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""

        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"

    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"

        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
            fill_pattern = "' '"

        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)

    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"

    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)

        parent = expression.parent
        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
            parent = parent.parent

        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))

        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")

        return self.sql(generate_series)

    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
        exprs = expression.expressions
        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
        else:
            rhs = self.expressions(expression)

        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)

    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")

        if source_tz and timestamp:
            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
            )

        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)

        return self.sql(expr)

    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f" {this}" if this else ""

        _with = expression.args.get("with")

        if _with is None:
            with_sql = ""
        elif not _with:
            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
        else:
            with_sql = " WITH"

        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""

        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"

    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"

        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""

        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""

        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")

    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
        return f"{condition}{insert}"

    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
        return res

    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
        empty = (
            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
        )

        error = expression.args.get("error")
        error = (
            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
            else self.sql(expression, "error")
        )

        if error and empty:
            error = (
                f"{empty} {error}"
                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
                else f"{error} {empty}"
            )
            empty = ""

        null = self.sql(expression, "null")

        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"

    def jsonextractquote_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExtractQuote) -> str:
        scalar = " ON SCALAR STRING" if expression.args.get("scalar") else ""
        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'option')} QUOTES{scalar}"

    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        path = self.sql(expression, "path")

        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""

        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""

        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"

        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)

    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
            parent = expression.parent
            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
            else:
                this = expression.this
                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
                if this.find(exp.Column):
                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
                    this_sql = (
                        self.expressions(this)
                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
                    )

                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"

        return array_agg

    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")

        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"

    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)

        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""

        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""

        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)

        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""

        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"

    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""

        return f"{this}{columns}"

    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")

        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""

        return f"{kind}{this}"

    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
            func = f"*{func}"

        return func

    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""

        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"

    @unsupported_args("format")
    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))

    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
        this = expression.this
        zone = expression.args.get("zone")

        if zone:
            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
            )

        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))

    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
            return self.sql(
                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
            )

        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"

    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)

        start_ts = exp.cast(
            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
        )

        return self.sql(
            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
        )

    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
        dim = expression.expression

        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
            dim = None

        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)

        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)

    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""

        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"

    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        # the DATABASE keyword is required if IF EXISTS is set
        # without it, DuckDB throws an error: Parser Error: syntax error at or near "exists" (Line Number: 1)
        # ref: https://duckdb.org/docs/stable/sql/statements/attach.html#detach-syntax
        exists_sql = " DATABASE IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""

        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"

    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
        return f"{this}{value}"

    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"

        return self.func(
            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
            this_sql,
            expression.args.get("time"),
            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
        )

    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
        return (
            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
        )

    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"

        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
        if properties:
            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"

        return encode

    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"

        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
        if column_def:
            include = f"{include} {column_def}"

        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
        if alias:
            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"

        return include

    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)

    def xmlkeyvalueoption_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLKeyValueOption) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else ""
        return f"{this}{expr}"

    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"

    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
    ) -> str:
        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
        end = self.sql(expression, "end")

        every = expression.args["every"]
        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))

        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"

    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)

        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"

    def analyzesample_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeSample) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
        return f"SAMPLE {sample} {kind}"

    def analyzestatistics_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeStatistics) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
        columns = self.expressions(expression)
        columns = f" {columns}" if columns else ""
        return f"{kind}{option} STATISTICS{this}{columns}"

    def analyzehistogram_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeHistogram) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        columns = self.expressions(expression)
        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
        update_options = self.sql(expression, "update_options")
        update_options = f" {update_options} UPDATE" if update_options else ""
        return f"{this} HISTOGRAM ON {columns}{inner_expression}{update_options}"

    def analyzedelete_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeDelete) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
        return f"DELETE{kind} STATISTICS"

    def analyzelistchainedrows_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeListChainedRows) -> str:
        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        return f"LIST CHAINED ROWS{inner_expression}"

    def analyzevalidate_sql(self, expression: exp.AnalyzeValidate) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        return f"VALIDATE {kind}{this}{inner_expression}"

    def analyze_sql(self, expression: exp.Analyze) -> str:
        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
        mode = self.sql(expression, "mode")
        mode = f" {mode}" if mode else ""
        properties = self.sql(expression, "properties")
        properties = f" {properties}" if properties else ""
        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
        inner_expression = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        inner_expression = f" {inner_expression}" if inner_expression else ""
        return f"ANALYZE{options}{kind}{this}{partition}{mode}{inner_expression}{properties}"

    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        namespaces = self.expressions(expression, key="namespaces")
        namespaces = f"XMLNAMESPACES({namespaces}), " if namespaces else ""
        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(namespaces + this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

    def xmlnamespace_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLNamespace) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        return this if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Alias) else f"DEFAULT {this}"

    def export_sql(self, expression: exp.Export) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        connection = self.sql(expression, "connection")
        connection = f"WITH CONNECTION {connection} " if connection else ""
        options = self.sql(expression, "options")
        return f"EXPORT DATA {connection}{options} AS {this}"

    def declare_sql(self, expression: exp.Declare) -> str:
        return f"DECLARE {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"

    def declareitem_sql(self, expression: exp.DeclareItem) -> str:
        variable = self.sql(expression, "this")
        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
        default = f" = {default}" if default else ""

        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        if isinstance(expression.args.get("kind"), exp.Schema):
            kind = f"TABLE {kind}"

        return f"{variable} AS {kind}{default}"

    def recursivewithsearch_sql(self, expression: exp.RecursiveWithSearch) -> str:
        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        set = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""

        kind_sql = kind if kind == "CYCLE" else f"SEARCH {kind} FIRST BY"

        return f"{kind_sql} {this} SET {set}{using}"

    def parameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ParameterizedAgg) -> str:
        params = self.expressions(expression, key="params", flat=True)
        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions) + f"({params})"

    def anonymousaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.AnonymousAggFunc) -> str:
        return self.func(expression.name, *expression.expressions)

    def combinedaggfunc_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedAggFunc) -> str:
        return self.anonymousaggfunc_sql(expression)

    def combinedparameterizedagg_sql(self, expression: exp.CombinedParameterizedAgg) -> str:
        return self.parameterizedagg_sql(expression)

    def show_sql(self, expression: exp.Show) -> str:
        self.unsupported("Unsupported SHOW statement")
        return ""

    def get_put_sql(self, expression: exp.Put | exp.Get) -> str:
        # Snowflake GET/PUT statements:
        #   PUT <file> <internalStage> <properties>
        #   GET <internalStage> <file> <properties>
        props = expression.args.get("properties")
        props_sql = self.properties(props, prefix=" ", sep=" ", wrapped=False) if props else ""
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        target = self.sql(expression, "target")

        if isinstance(expression, exp.Put):
            return f"PUT {this} {target}{props_sql}"
        else:
            return f"GET {target} {this}{props_sql}"

    def translatecharacters_sql(self, expression: exp.TranslateCharacters):
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
        with_error = " WITH ERROR" if expression.args.get("with_error") else ""
        return f"TRANSLATE({this} USING {expr}{with_error})"

    def decodecase_sql(self, expression: exp.DecodeCase) -> str:
        if self.SUPPORTS_DECODE_CASE:
            return self.func("DECODE", *expression.expressions)

        expression, *expressions = expression.expressions

        ifs = []
        for search, result in zip(expressions[::2], expressions[1::2]):
            if isinstance(search, exp.Literal):
                ifs.append(exp.If(this=expression.eq(search), true=result))
            elif isinstance(search, exp.Null):
                ifs.append(exp.If(this=expression.is_(exp.Null()), true=result))
            else:
                if isinstance(search, exp.Binary):
                    search = exp.paren(search)

                cond = exp.or_(
                    expression.eq(search),
                    exp.and_(expression.is_(exp.Null()), search.is_(exp.Null()), copy=False),
                    copy=False,
                )
                ifs.append(exp.If(this=cond, true=result))

        case = exp.Case(ifs=ifs, default=expressions[-1] if len(expressions) % 2 == 1 else None)
        return self.sql(case)

    def semanticview_sql(self, expression: exp.SemanticView) -> str:
        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
        this = self.seg(this, sep="")
        dimensions = self.expressions(
            expression, "dimensions", dynamic=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True
        )
        dimensions = self.seg(f"DIMENSIONS {dimensions}") if dimensions else ""
        metrics = self.expressions(
            expression, "metrics", dynamic=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True
        )
        metrics = self.seg(f"METRICS {metrics}") if metrics else ""
        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
        where = self.seg(f"WHERE {where}") if where else ""
        return f"SEMANTIC_VIEW({self.indent(this + metrics + dimensions + where)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

    def getextract_sql(self, expression: exp.GetExtract) -> str:
        this = expression.this
        expr = expression.expression

        if not this.type or not expression.type:
            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types

            this = annotate_types(this, dialect=self.dialect)

        if this.is_type(*(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY, exp.DataType.Type.MAP)):
            return self.sql(exp.Bracket(this=this, expressions=[expr]))

        return self.sql(exp.JSONExtract(this=this, expression=self.dialect.to_json_path(expr)))

    def datefromunixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.DateFromUnixDate) -> str:
        return self.sql(
            exp.DateAdd(
                this=exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
                expression=expression.this,
                unit=exp.var("DAY"),
            )
        )