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CREATE TABLE
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Table Of Contents
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<div id="toc_sub"><div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#syntax">1. Syntax</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#the_create_table_command">2. The CREATE TABLE command</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#create_table_as_select_statements">2.1. CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT Statements</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#column_definitions">3. Column Definitions</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#column_data_types">3.1. Column Data Types</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_default_clause">3.2. The DEFAULT clause</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_collate_clause">3.3. The COLLATE clause</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_generated_always_as_clause">3.4. The GENERATED ALWAYS AS clause</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#the_primary_key">3.5. The PRIMARY KEY</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#unique_constraints">3.6. UNIQUE constraints</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#check_constraints">3.7. CHECK constraints</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#not_null_constraints">3.8. NOT NULL constraints</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#constraint_enforcement">4. Constraint enforcement</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc2"><a href="#response_to_constraint_violations">4.1. Response to constraint violations</a></div>
<div class="fancy-toc1"><a href="#rowids_and_the_integer_primary_key">5. ROWIDs and the INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a></div>
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<h1 id="syntax"><span>1. </span>Syntax</h1>
<p><b><a href="syntax/create-table-stmt.html">create-table-stmt:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/column-def.html">column-def:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/column-constraint.html">column-constraint:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/conflict-clause.html">conflict-clause:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
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<div id='x98e2675d' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
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<div id='xe61bb557' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='xb14cddaa' onclick='hideorshow("xb14cddaa","x2c595708")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x2c595708' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x6716c3bd' onclick='hideorshow("x6716c3bd","x6b151803")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x6b151803' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<path d="M767,470 L 775,470 Q 782,470 782,478 L 782,485" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M582,372L591,372A15 15 0 0 0 606 357A15 15 0 0 0 591 342L582,342A15 15 0 0 0 567 357A15 15 0 0 0 582 372Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='xdd90de6f' onclick='hideorshow("xdd90de6f","xdf0e8c3a")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xdf0e8c3a' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:798px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 798.451 99.576">
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<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L81,32L81,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M244,59L349,59A15 15 0 0 0 364 44L364,44A15 15 0 0 0 349 29L244,29A15 15 0 0 0 228 44L228,44A15 15 0 0 0 244 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M243,17L394,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M606,59L648,59A15 15 0 0 0 663 44L663,44A15 15 0 0 0 648 29L606,29A15 15 0 0 0 591 44L591,44A15 15 0 0 0 606 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M701,59L735,59A15 15 0 0 0 750 44L750,44A15 15 0 0 0 735 29L701,29A15 15 0 0 0 686 44L686,44A15 15 0 0 0 701 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M701,97L727,97A15 15 0 0 0 742 82A15 15 0 0 0 727 67L701,67A15 15 0 0 0 686 82A15 15 0 0 0 701 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M742,82 L 754,82 Q 765,82 765,67 L 765,44 L 765,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M670,17L780,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='xc5ea6392' onclick='hideorshow("xc5ea6392","xf5ebdca6")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xf5ebdca6' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:627px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 627.302 147.96">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M47,32L82,32A15 15 0 0 0 97 17A15 15 0 0 0 82 2L47,2A15 15 0 0 0 32 17A15 15 0 0 0 47 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="65" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">RAISE</text>
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<path d="M97,17L114,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M135,32L135,32A15 15 0 0 0 150 17A15 15 0 0 0 135 2L135,2A15 15 0 0 0 120 17A15 15 0 0 0 135 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<text x="246" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ROLLBACK</text>
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<path d="M351,70A15 15 0 0 0 366 55L366,55A15 15 0 0 0 351 39A15 15 0 0 0 336 55L336,55A15 15 0 0 0 351 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<text x="456" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">error-message</text>
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<path d="M456,17L553,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<p><b><a href="syntax/foreign-key-clause.html">foreign-key-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x37ac215d' onclick='hideorshow("x37ac215d","x328d817e")'>show</button></p>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
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<path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M66,97A15 15 0 0 0 81 82L81,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 67A15 15 0 0 0 50 82L50,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
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<div id='xc231b3d7' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
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<path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/select-stmt.html">select-stmt:</a></b>
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<div id='xc6e5b5de' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:669px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 669.677 1162.3">
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<text x="76" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">WITH</text>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/common-table-expression.html">common-table-expression:</a></b>
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<div id='xe946ca12' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/compound-operator.html">compound-operator:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
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<div id='xb37f6983' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
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</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='xf26b9902' onclick='hideorshow("xf26b9902","xd6cc9dfa")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xd6cc9dfa' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:627px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 627.302 147.96">
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<path d="M300,92 L 307,92 Q 315,92 315,77 L 315,70 Q 315,55 322,55 L 330,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x437459f9' onclick='hideorshow("x437459f9","xab54c7de")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xab54c7de' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:661px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 661.008 110.16">
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<path d="M9,17L39,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M60,32L87,32A15 15 0 0 0 102 17A15 15 0 0 0 87 2L60,2A15 15 0 0 0 45 17A15 15 0 0 0 60 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="74" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">name</text>
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<text x="180" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<path d="M212,108L350,108L350,77L212,77Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="281" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">signed-number</text>
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<path d="M600,55 L 608,55 Q 615,55 615,47 L 615,40" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="74,47 85,43 85,51" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M102,17 L 110,17 Q 117,17 117,32 L 117,32 Q 117,47 102,47 L 94,47 L 79,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M74,47 L 33,47 Q 18,47 18,32 L 18,32 Q 18,17 26,17 L 33,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M102,17L377,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M382,17L630,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='xf0fc731e' onclick='hideorshow("xf0fc731e","x7b44ee26")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x7b44ee26' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:292px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 292.013 99.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,44 39,48 39,40" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,30 Q 24,44 34,44 L 45,44" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="44" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">+</text>
<polygon points="122,17 111,21 111,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M81,44 L 88,44 Q 96,44 96,30 Q 96,17 106,17 L 116,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M137,32L244,32A15 15 0 0 0 259 17A15 15 0 0 0 244 2L137,2A15 15 0 0 0 122 17A15 15 0 0 0 137 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="191" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">numeric-literal</text>
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<path d="M259,17L276,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="286" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,82 39,86 39,77" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,67 Q 24,82 34,82 L 45,82" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,97A15 15 0 0 0 81 82L81,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 67A15 15 0 0 0 50 82L50,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="82" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">-</text>
<path d="M81,82 L 88,82 Q 96,82 96,67 L 96,44 L 96,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="66,17 54,21 54,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L60,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,17L111,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-clause.html">join-clause:</a></b>
<button id='xdb77d2ec' onclick='hideorshow("xdb77d2ec","xe45c9644")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xe45c9644' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:793px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 793.282 84.24">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M32,32L193,32L193,2L32,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="112" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
<polygon points="259,47 247,51 247,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M193,17 L 200,17 Q 208,17 208,32 L 208,32 Q 208,47 223,47 L 238,47 L 253,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M259,62L380,62L380,32L259,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="319" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-operator</text>
<polygon points="403,47 391,51 391,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M380,47L397,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M403,62L564,62L564,32L403,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="483" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">table-or-subquery</text>
<polygon points="587,47 575,51 575,43" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M564,47L581,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M587,62L721,62L721,32L587,32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="654" y="47" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">join-constraint</text>
<polygon points="783,17 772,21 772,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M721,47 L 742,47 Q 757,47 757,32 L 757,32 Q 757,17 767,17 L 778,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="787" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="483,17 472,21 472,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M193,17L478,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M483,17L776,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="483,77 495,73 495,82" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M721,47 L 728,47 Q 736,47 736,62 L 736,62 Q 736,77 721,77 L 504,77 L 489,77" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M483,77 L 247,77 Q 232,77 232,62 L 232,62 Q 232,47 246,47 L 259,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-constraint.html">join-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='xc23016ad' onclick='hideorshow("xc23016ad","xc90253b8")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xc90253b8' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:483px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 483.336 126.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,55 39,59 39,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,40 Q 24,55 34,55 L 45,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,70L104,70A15 15 0 0 0 120 55L120,55A15 15 0 0 0 104 39L66,39A15 15 0 0 0 50 55L50,55A15 15 0 0 0 66 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="85" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">USING</text>
<polygon points="143,55 131,59 131,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M120,55L137,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M158,70A15 15 0 0 0 173 55L173,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 39A15 15 0 0 0 143 55L143,55A15 15 0 0 0 158 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="158" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
<polygon points="209,55 197,59 197,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M173,55L203,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M224,70L318,70A15 15 0 0 0 333 55L333,55A15 15 0 0 0 318 39L224,39A15 15 0 0 0 209 55L209,55A15 15 0 0 0 224 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="271" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">column-name</text>
<polygon points="369,55 358,59 358,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M333,55L363,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M384,70A15 15 0 0 0 399 55L399,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 39A15 15 0 0 0 369 55L369,55A15 15 0 0 0 384 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="384" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
<polygon points="422,55 411,59 411,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M399,55L417,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="473,17 462,21 462,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M422,55 L 430,55 Q 437,55 437,40 L 437,32 Q 437,17 452,17 L 453,17 L 468,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="477" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M271,108A15 15 0 0 0 286 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 77A15 15 0 0 0 256 92A15 15 0 0 0 271 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="271" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
<polygon points="286,92 298,88 298,97" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M333,55 L 341,55 Q 348,55 348,70 L 348,77 Q 348,92 333,92 L 307,92 L 292,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M256,92 L 197,92 Q 182,92 182,77 L 182,70 Q 182,55 190,55 L 197,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,17 39,21 39,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L45,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,32L74,32A15 15 0 0 0 90 17A15 15 0 0 0 74 2L66,2A15 15 0 0 0 50 17A15 15 0 0 0 66 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="70" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ON</text>
<polygon points="113,17 101,21 101,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M90,17L107,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M113,32L162,32L162,2L113,2Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="137" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">expr</text>
<polygon points="422,17 411,21 411,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M162,17L417,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M422,17L462,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="209,120 197,124 197,115" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,105 Q 24,120 39,120 L 188,120 L 203,120" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M209,120 L 422,120 Q 437,120 437,105 L 437,54 L 437,39" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/join-operator.html">join-operator:</a></b>
<button id='x81b9e9ad' onclick='hideorshow("x81b9e9ad","x2dba1f32")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x2dba1f32' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:620px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 620.333 255.312">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,71 39,76 39,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,56 Q 24,71 34,71 L 45,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,86L133,86A15 15 0 0 0 148 71A15 15 0 0 0 133 56L66,56A15 15 0 0 0 50 71A15 15 0 0 0 66 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="99" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">NATURAL</text>
<polygon points="189,41 178,45 178,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M148,71 L 155,71 Q 163,71 163,56 L 163,56 Q 163,41 173,41 L 184,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="231,71 219,76 219,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M189,41 L 197,41 Q 204,41 204,56 L 204,56 Q 204,71 215,71 L 225,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M246,86L273,86A15 15 0 0 0 288 71A15 15 0 0 0 273 56L246,56A15 15 0 0 0 231 71A15 15 0 0 0 246 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="259" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">LEFT</text>
<polygon points="378,71 366,76 366,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M288,71L372,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M393,86L437,86A15 15 0 0 0 452 71A15 15 0 0 0 437 56L393,56A15 15 0 0 0 378 71A15 15 0 0 0 393 86Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="415" y="71" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">OUTER</text>
<polygon points="475,71 463,76 463,67" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M452,71L469,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="516,41 505,45 505,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M475,71 L 482,71 Q 490,71 490,56 L 490,56 Q 490,41 500,41 L 511,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M532,56L554,56A15 15 0 0 0 569 41A15 15 0 0 0 554 26L532,26A15 15 0 0 0 516 41A15 15 0 0 0 532 56Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="543" y="41" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">JOIN</text>
<polygon points="610,17 599,21 599,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M569,41 L 576,41 Q 584,41 584,29 Q 584,17 594,17 L 605,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="614" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M310,32A15 15 0 0 0 325 17A15 15 0 0 0 310 2A15 15 0 0 0 295 17A15 15 0 0 0 310 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="310" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
<polygon points="295,17 283,21 283,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L289,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M325,17L599,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="99,41 88,45 88,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,29 Q 24,41 39,41 L 78,41 L 93,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M99,41L178,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M189,41L505,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="378,41 366,45 366,37" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M336,71 L 344,71 Q 351,71 351,56 L 351,56 Q 351,41 362,41 L 372,41" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M189,41 L 197,41 Q 204,41 204,56 L 204,94 Q 204,109 215,109 L 225,109" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M246,124L284,124A15 15 0 0 0 299 109A15 15 0 0 0 284 94L246,94A15 15 0 0 0 231 109A15 15 0 0 0 246 124Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="265" y="109" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">RIGHT</text>
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<path d="M299,109 L 307,109 Q 314,109 314,94 L 314,86 Q 314,71 324,71 L 335,71" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M189,41 L 197,41 Q 204,41 204,56 L 204,132 Q 204,147 215,147 L 225,147" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M246,162L274,162A15 15 0 0 0 289 147A15 15 0 0 0 274 132L246,132A15 15 0 0 0 231 147A15 15 0 0 0 246 162Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="260" y="147" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">FULL</text>
<path d="M289,147 L 302,147 Q 314,147 314,132 L 314,109 L 314,94" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M189,41 L 197,41 Q 204,41 204,56 L 204,177 Q 204,192 215,192 L 225,192" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M246,207L287,207A15 15 0 0 0 302 192A15 15 0 0 0 287 177L246,177A15 15 0 0 0 231 192A15 15 0 0 0 246 207Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="267" y="192" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">INNER</text>
<polygon points="475,192 463,196 463,188" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M302,192L469,192" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M475,192 L 482,192 Q 490,192 490,185 L 490,177" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,223 Q 24,238 39,238 L 210,238 L 225,238" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M246,253L287,253A15 15 0 0 0 303 238A15 15 0 0 0 287 222L246,222A15 15 0 0 0 231 238A15 15 0 0 0 246 253Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="267" y="238" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">CROSS</text>
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<path d="M303,238L469,238" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M475,238 L 482,238 Q 490,238 490,223 L 490,71 L 490,56" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
<button id='x64173814' onclick='hideorshow("x64173814","x3ca462f0")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x3ca462f0' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:798px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 798.451 99.576">
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<p><b><a href="syntax/result-column.html">result-column:</a></b>
<button id='xf46c639c' onclick='hideorshow("xf46c639c","xe80aefbb")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xe80aefbb' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/table-or-subquery.html">table-or-subquery:</a></b>
<button id='x2195b311' onclick='hideorshow("x2195b311","x196792a4")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x196792a4' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/window-defn.html">window-defn:</a></b>
<button id='x076dffe3' onclick='hideorshow("x076dffe3","xb464c1a3")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xb464c1a3' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
<button id='xff4e28d5' onclick='hideorshow("xff4e28d5","xdbc1cbfa")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xdbc1cbfa' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-constraint.html">table-constraint:</a></b>
<button id='xe9533bcd' onclick='hideorshow("xe9533bcd","x7c6f0198")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x7c6f0198' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/conflict-clause.html">conflict-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x83866d23' onclick='hideorshow("x83866d23","xa5e1382c")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xa5e1382c' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/expr.html">expr:</a></b>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/filter-clause.html">filter-clause:</a></b>
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<div id='x686a8c4f' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/function-arguments.html">function-arguments:</a></b>
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<div id='xbbc85407' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/literal-value.html">literal-value:</a></b>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/over-clause.html">over-clause:</a></b>
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<div id='x73c1d952' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/frame-spec.html">frame-spec:</a></b>
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<div id='x6543a272' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<p><b><a href="syntax/ordering-term.html">ordering-term:</a></b>
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<path d="M701,97L727,97A15 15 0 0 0 742 82A15 15 0 0 0 727 67L701,67A15 15 0 0 0 686 82A15 15 0 0 0 701 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="714" y="82" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">LAST</text>
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<path d="M564,29 L 564,67 Q 564,82 574,82 L 585,82" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M742,82 L 754,82 Q 765,82 765,67 L 765,44 L 765,29" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M549,17L665,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M670,17L780,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/raise-function.html">raise-function:</a></b>
<button id='x52ce1359' onclick='hideorshow("x52ce1359","xea69a5a6")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xea69a5a6' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:627px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 627.302 147.96">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="32,17 20,21 20,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L26,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M47,32L82,32A15 15 0 0 0 97 17A15 15 0 0 0 82 2L47,2A15 15 0 0 0 32 17A15 15 0 0 0 47 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="65" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">RAISE</text>
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<path d="M97,17L114,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M135,32L135,32A15 15 0 0 0 150 17A15 15 0 0 0 135 2L135,2A15 15 0 0 0 120 17A15 15 0 0 0 135 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="135" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<path d="M150,17 L 158,17 Q 165,17 165,32 L 165,40 Q 165,55 176,55 L 186,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M207,70L285,70A15 15 0 0 0 300 55L300,55A15 15 0 0 0 285 39L207,39A15 15 0 0 0 192 55L192,55A15 15 0 0 0 207 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="246" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ROLLBACK</text>
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<path d="M300,55L330,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M351,70A15 15 0 0 0 366 55L366,55A15 15 0 0 0 351 39A15 15 0 0 0 336 55L336,55A15 15 0 0 0 351 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="351" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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<path d="M366,55L383,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M404,70L508,70A15 15 0 0 0 523 55L523,55A15 15 0 0 0 508 39L404,39A15 15 0 0 0 389 55L389,55A15 15 0 0 0 404 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="456" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">error-message</text>
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<path d="M523,55 L 530,55 Q 538,55 538,40 L 538,32 Q 538,17 548,17 L 558,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M579,32A15 15 0 0 0 594 17A15 15 0 0 0 579 2A15 15 0 0 0 564 17A15 15 0 0 0 579 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="579" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
<polygon points="617,17 606,21 606,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M594,17L612,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="621" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="192,17 180,21 180,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M150,17L186,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M207,32L259,32A15 15 0 0 0 274 17A15 15 0 0 0 259 2L207,2A15 15 0 0 0 192 17A15 15 0 0 0 207 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="233" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">IGNORE</text>
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<path d="M274,17L450,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M456,17L553,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M207,108L249,108A15 15 0 0 0 264 92A15 15 0 0 0 249 77L207,77A15 15 0 0 0 192 92A15 15 0 0 0 207 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="228" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ABORT</text>
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<path d="M264,92L294,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M300,92 L 307,92 Q 315,92 315,77 L 315,70 Q 315,55 322,55 L 330,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M207,145L229,145A15 15 0 0 0 244 130A15 15 0 0 0 229 115L207,115A15 15 0 0 0 192 130A15 15 0 0 0 207 145Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="218" y="130" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">FAIL</text>
<polygon points="300,130 288,135 288,126" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M244,130L294,130" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M300,130 L 307,130 Q 315,130 315,115 L 315,92 L 315,77" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="192,130 180,135 180,126" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M165,39 L 165,115 Q 165,130 176,130 L 186,130" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<path d="M165,77 L 165,85 Q 165,92 176,92 L 186,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/type-name.html">type-name:</a></b>
<button id='x87b99df1' onclick='hideorshow("x87b99df1","xa4def969")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xa4def969' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:661px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 661.008 110.16">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="45,17 33,21 33,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17L39,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M60,32L87,32A15 15 0 0 0 102 17A15 15 0 0 0 87 2L60,2A15 15 0 0 0 45 17A15 15 0 0 0 60 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="74" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">name</text>
<polygon points="165,92 153,97 153,88" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M102,17 L 123,17 Q 138,17 138,32 L 138,77 Q 138,92 149,92 L 159,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M180,108A15 15 0 0 0 195 92A15 15 0 0 0 180 77A15 15 0 0 0 165 92A15 15 0 0 0 180 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="180" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
<polygon points="212,92 201,97 201,88" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M195,92L207,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M212,108L350,108L350,77L212,77Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="281" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">signed-number</text>
<polygon points="367,92 356,97 356,88" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M350,92L362,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M382,108A15 15 0 0 0 398 92A15 15 0 0 0 382 77A15 15 0 0 0 367 92A15 15 0 0 0 382 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="382" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
<polygon points="415,92 403,97 403,88" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M398,92L409,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M415,108L553,108L553,77L415,77Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="484" y="92" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">signed-number</text>
<polygon points="570,92 558,97 558,88" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M553,92L564,92" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M585,108A15 15 0 0 0 600 92A15 15 0 0 0 585 77A15 15 0 0 0 570 92A15 15 0 0 0 585 108Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="585" y="92" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
<polygon points="651,17 640,21 640,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M600,92 L 608,92 Q 615,92 615,77 L 615,32 Q 615,17 630,17 L 630,17 L 645,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="655" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="165,55 153,59 153,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M102,17 L 123,17 Q 138,17 138,32 L 138,40 Q 138,55 149,55 L 159,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M180,70A15 15 0 0 0 195 55L195,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 39A15 15 0 0 0 165 55L165,55A15 15 0 0 0 180 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="180" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<path d="M195,55L207,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M212,70L350,70L350,39L212,39Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="281" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">signed-number</text>
<polygon points="367,55 356,59 356,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M350,55L362,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M382,70A15 15 0 0 0 398 55L398,55A15 15 0 0 0 382 39A15 15 0 0 0 367 55L367,55A15 15 0 0 0 382 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="382" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
<polygon points="600,55 589,59 589,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M398,55L594,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M600,55 L 608,55 Q 615,55 615,47 L 615,40" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="74,47 85,43 85,51" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M102,17 L 110,17 Q 117,17 117,32 L 117,32 Q 117,47 102,47 L 94,47 L 79,47" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M74,47 L 33,47 Q 18,47 18,32 L 18,32 Q 18,17 26,17 L 33,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="382,17 371,21 371,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M102,17L377,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M382,17L630,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/signed-number.html">signed-number:</a></b>
<button id='xe156761e' onclick='hideorshow("xe156761e","xca26ad41")'>show</button></p>
<div id='xca26ad41' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:292px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 292.013 99.576">
<circle cx="5" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,44 39,48 39,40" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,30 Q 24,44 34,44 L 45,44" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,59A15 15 0 0 0 81 44L81,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 29A15 15 0 0 0 50 44L50,44A15 15 0 0 0 66 59Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="44" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">+</text>
<polygon points="122,17 111,21 111,12" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M81,44 L 88,44 Q 96,44 96,30 Q 96,17 106,17 L 116,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M137,32L244,32A15 15 0 0 0 259 17A15 15 0 0 0 244 2L137,2A15 15 0 0 0 122 17A15 15 0 0 0 137 32Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="191" y="17" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">numeric-literal</text>
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<path d="M259,17L276,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<circle cx="286" cy="17" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="50,82 39,86 39,77" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,17 L 16,17 Q 24,17 24,32 L 24,67 Q 24,82 34,82 L 45,82" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M66,97A15 15 0 0 0 81 82L81,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 67A15 15 0 0 0 50 82L50,82A15 15 0 0 0 66 97Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="66" y="82" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">-</text>
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<path d="M66,17L111,17" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
</svg>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/foreign-key-clause.html">foreign-key-clause:</a></b>
<button id='x1587960c' onclick='hideorshow("x1587960c","x300c7cea")'>show</button></p>
<div id='x300c7cea' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
<div style="max-width:648px"><svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' class="pikchr" viewBox="0 0 648.158 492.48">
<circle cx="5" cy="55" r="3.6" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<polygon points="45,55 33,59 33,50" style="fill:rgb(0,0,0)"/>
<path d="M9,55L39,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M60,70L164,70A15 15 0 0 0 179 55A15 15 0 0 0 164 39L60,39A15 15 0 0 0 45 55A15 15 0 0 0 60 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="112" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">REFERENCES</text>
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<path d="M179,55L196,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M217,70L306,70A15 15 0 0 0 322 55A15 15 0 0 0 306 39L217,39A15 15 0 0 0 202 55A15 15 0 0 0 217 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="262" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">foreign-table</text>
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<path d="M322,55L352,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M373,70A15 15 0 0 0 388 55A15 15 0 0 0 373 39A15 15 0 0 0 358 55A15 15 0 0 0 373 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="373" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">(</text>
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<path d="M439,70L533,70A15 15 0 0 0 548 55A15 15 0 0 0 533 39L439,39A15 15 0 0 0 424 55A15 15 0 0 0 439 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="486" y="55" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">column-name</text>
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<path d="M548,55L578,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<path d="M599,70A15 15 0 0 0 614 55A15 15 0 0 0 599 39A15 15 0 0 0 584 55A15 15 0 0 0 599 70Z" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
<text x="599" y="55" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">)</text>
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<text x="486" y="17" text-anchor="middle" font-weight="bold" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">,</text>
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<path d="M471,17 L 416,17 Q 401,17 401,32 L 401,40 Q 401,55 412,55 L 424,55" style="fill:none;stroke-width:2.16;stroke:rgb(0,0,0);" />
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<text x="64" y="160" text-anchor="middle" fill="rgb(0,0,0)" dominant-baseline="central">ON</text>
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</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/indexed-column.html">indexed-column:</a></b>
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<div id='xeb425880' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><b><a href="syntax/table-options.html">table-options:</a></b>
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<div id='xdbc0b96a' style='display:none;' class='imgcontainer'>
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<h1 id="the_create_table_command"><span>2. </span>The CREATE TABLE command</h1>
<p>The "CREATE TABLE" command is used to create a new table in an SQLite
database. A CREATE TABLE command specifies the following attributes of the
new table:
</p><ul>
<li><p>The name of the new table.
</p></li><li><p> The database in which the new table is created. Tables may be
created in the main database, the temp database, or in any attached
database.
</p></li><li><p> The name of each column in the table.
</p></li><li><p> The declared type of each column in the table.
</p></li><li><p> A default value or expression for each column in the table.
</p></li><li><p> A default collation sequence to use with each column.
</p></li><li><p> Optionally, a PRIMARY KEY for the table. Both single column and
composite (multiple column) primary keys are supported.
</p></li><li><p> A set of SQL constraints for each table. SQLite supports UNIQUE, NOT
NULL, CHECK and FOREIGN KEY constraints.
</p></li><li><p> Optionally, a <a href="gencol.html">generated column</a> constraint.
</p></li><li><p> Whether the table is a <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> table.
</p></li><li><p> Whether the table is subject to <a href="stricttables.html">strict type checking</a>.
</p></li></ul>
<p>Every CREATE TABLE statement must specify a name for the new table.
Table names that begin with "sqlite_" are reserved for internal use. It
is an error to attempt to create a table with a name that starts with
"sqlite_".
</p><p> If a <span class='yyterm'>schema-name</span> is specified, it must be either "main",
"temp", or the name of an <a href="lang_attach.html">attached database</a>. In this case
the new table is created in the named database. If the "TEMP" or "TEMPORARY"
keyword occurs between the "CREATE" and "TABLE" then the new table is
created in the temp database. It is an error to specify both a
<span class='yyterm'>schema-name</span> and the TEMP or TEMPORARY keyword, unless the
<span class='yyterm'>schema-name</span> is "temp".
If no schema name is specified and the
TEMP keyword is not present then the table is created in the main
database.
</p><p>
It is usually an error to attempt to create a new table in a database that
already contains a table, index or view of the same name. However, if the
"IF NOT EXISTS" clause is specified as part of the CREATE TABLE statement and
a table or view of the same name already exists, the CREATE TABLE command
simply has no effect (and no error message is returned). An error is still
returned if the table cannot be created because of an existing index, even
if the "IF NOT EXISTS" clause is specified.
</p><p>It is not an error to create a table that has the same name as an
existing <a href="lang_createtrigger.html">trigger</a>.
</p><p>Tables are removed using the <a href="lang_droptable.html">DROP TABLE</a> statement. </p>
<a name="createtabas"></a>
<h2 id="create_table_as_select_statements"><span>2.1. </span>CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT Statements</h2>
<p>A "CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT" statement creates and populates a database
table based on the results of a SELECT statement. The table has the same
number of columns as the SELECT statement returns. The name of
each column is the same as the name of the corresponding column in the result
set of the SELECT statement. The declared type of each column is determined
by the <a href="datatype3.html#expraff">expression affinity</a> of the corresponding expression in the result set
of the SELECT statement, as follows:
</p>
<center><table border="1">
<tr><th>Expression Affinity </th><th>Column Declared Type
</th></tr><tr><td>TEXT </td><td>"TEXT"
</td></tr><tr><td>NUMERIC </td><td>"NUM"
</td></tr><tr><td>INTEGER </td><td>"INT"
</td></tr><tr><td>REAL </td><td>"REAL"
</td></tr><tr><td>BLOB (a.k.a "NONE") </td><td>"" (empty string)
</td></tr></table></center>
<p>A table created using CREATE TABLE AS has no PRIMARY KEY and no
constraints of any kind. The default value of each column is NULL. The default
collation sequence for each column of the new table is BINARY.
</p><p>Tables created using CREATE TABLE AS are initially populated with the
rows of data returned by the SELECT statement. Rows are assigned contiguously
ascending <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">rowid</a> values, starting with 1, in the <a href="lang_select.html#orderby">order</a> that they
are returned by the SELECT statement.
<a name="tablecoldef"></a>
</p><h1 id="column_definitions"><span>3. </span>Column Definitions</h1>
<p>Unless it is a CREATE TABLE ... AS SELECT statement, a CREATE TABLE includes
one or more <a href="syntax/column-def.html">column definitions</a>, optionally followed by a list of
<a href="syntax/table-constraint.html">table constraints</a>. Each column definition consists of the
name of the column, optionally followed by the declared type of the column,
then one or more optional <a href="syntax/column-constraint.html">column constraints</a>. Included in
the definition of "column constraints" for the purposes of the previous
statement are the COLLATE and DEFAULT clauses, even though these are not really
constraints in the sense that they do not restrict the data that the table may
contain. The other constraints - NOT NULL, CHECK, UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY and
FOREIGN KEY constraints - impose restrictions on the table data.
</p><p>The number of columns in a table is limited by the <a href="limits.html#max_column">SQLITE_MAX_COLUMN</a>
compile-time parameter. A single row of a table cannot store more than
<a href="limits.html#max_length">SQLITE_MAX_LENGTH</a> bytes of data. Both of these limits can be lowered at
runtime using the <a href="c3ref/limit.html">sqlite3_limit()</a> C/C++ interface.</p>
<h2 id="column_data_types"><span>3.1. </span>Column Data Types</h2>
<p>Unlike most SQL databases, SQLite does not restrict the type of data that
may be inserted into a column based on the columns declared type. Instead,
SQLite uses <a href="datatype3.html">dynamic typing</a>. The declared type of a column is used to
determine the <a href="datatype3.html#affinity">affinity</a> of the column only.
<a name="dfltval"></a>
</p><h2 id="the_default_clause"><span>3.2. </span>The DEFAULT clause</h2>
<p>The DEFAULT clause specifies a default value to use for the column if no
value is explicitly provided by the user when doing an <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a>. If there
is no explicit DEFAULT clause attached to a column definition, then the
default value of the column is NULL. An explicit DEFAULT clause may specify
that the default value is NULL, a string constant, a blob constant, a
signed-number, or any constant expression enclosed in parentheses. A
default value may also be one of the special case-independent keywords
CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE or CURRENT_TIMESTAMP. For the purposes of the
DEFAULT clause, an expression is considered constant if it
contains no sub-queries, column or table references, <a href="lang_expr.html#varparam">bound parameters</a>,
or string literals enclosed in double-quotes instead of single-quotes.
</p><p>Each time a row is inserted into the table by an INSERT statement that
does not provide explicit values for all table columns the values stored in
the new row are determined by their default values, as follows:
</p><ul>
<li><p>If the default value of the column is a constant NULL, text, blob or
signed-number value, then that value is used directly in the new row.
</p></li><li><p>If the default value of a column is an expression in parentheses, then
the expression is evaluated once for each row inserted and the results
used in the new row.
</p></li><li><p>If the default value of a column is CURRENT_TIME, CURRENT_DATE or
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, then the value used in the new row is a text
representation of the current UTC date and/or time. For CURRENT_TIME, the
format of the value is "HH:MM:SS". For CURRENT_DATE, "YYYY-MM-DD". The
format for CURRENT_TIMESTAMP is "YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS".
</p></li></ul>
<a name="collateclause"></a>
<h2 id="the_collate_clause"><span>3.3. </span>The COLLATE clause</h2>
<p>The COLLATE clause specifies the name of a <a href="datatype3.html#collation">collating sequence</a> to use as
the default collation sequence for the column. If no COLLATE clause is
specified, the default collation sequence is <a href="datatype3.html#collation">BINARY</a>.
</p><h2 id="the_generated_always_as_clause"><span>3.4. </span>The GENERATED ALWAYS AS clause</h2>
<p>A column that includes a GENERATED ALWAYS AS clause is a <a href="gencol.html">generated column</a>.
Generated columns are supported beginning with SQLite version 3.31.0 (2020-01-22).
See the <a href="gencol.html">separate documentation</a> for details on the capabilities and
limitations of generated columns.
<a name="primkeyconst"></a>
</p><h2 id="the_primary_key"><span>3.5. </span>The PRIMARY KEY</h2>
<p>Each table in SQLite may have at most one PRIMARY KEY. If the
keywords PRIMARY KEY are added to a column definition, then the primary key
for the table consists of that single column. Or, if a PRIMARY KEY clause
is specified as a <a href="syntax/table-constraint.html">table-constraint</a>, then the primary key of the table
consists of the list of columns specified as part of the PRIMARY KEY clause.
The PRIMARY KEY clause must contain only column names — the use of
expressions in an <a href="syntax/indexed-column.html">indexed-column</a> of a PRIMARY KEY is not supported.
An error is raised if more than one PRIMARY KEY clause appears in a
CREATE TABLE statement. The PRIMARY KEY is optional for ordinary tables
but is required for <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables.
</p><p>If a table has a single column primary key and the declared type of that
column is "INTEGER" and the table is not a <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> table,
then the column is known as an <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a>.
See <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">below</a> for a description of the special properties and behaviors
associated with an <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a>.
</p><p>Each row in a table with a primary key must have a unique combination
of values in its primary key columns. For the purposes of determining
the uniqueness of primary key values, NULL values are considered distinct from
all other values, including other NULLs. If an <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> or <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a>
statement attempts to modify the table content so that two or more rows
have identical primary key values, that is a constraint violation.
</p><p> According to the SQL standard, PRIMARY KEY should always imply NOT NULL.
Unfortunately, due to a bug in some early versions, this is not the
case in SQLite. Unless the column is an <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a> or
the table is a <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> table or a <a href="stricttables.html">STRICT</a> table
or the column is declared NOT NULL,
SQLite allows NULL values in a PRIMARY KEY column. SQLite could be fixed to
conform to the standard, but doing so might break legacy applications.
Hence, it has been decided to merely document the fact that SQLite
allows NULLs in most PRIMARY KEY columns.
<a name="uniqueconst"></a>
</p><h2 id="unique_constraints"><span>3.6. </span>UNIQUE constraints</h2>
<p>A UNIQUE constraint is similar to a PRIMARY KEY constraint, except
that a single table may have any number of UNIQUE constraints. For each
UNIQUE constraint on the table, each row must contain a unique combination
of values in the columns identified by the UNIQUE constraint.
For the purposes of UNIQUE constraints, NULL values
are considered distinct from all other values, including other NULLs.
As with PRIMARY KEYs, a UNIQUE <a href="syntax/table-constraint.html">table-constraint</a> clause must contain
only column names — the use of
expressions in an <a href="syntax/indexed-column.html">indexed-column</a> of a UNIQUE <a href="syntax/table-constraint.html">table-constraint</a>
is not supported.
</p><p>In most cases, UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY
constraints are implemented by creating a unique index in the database.
(The exceptions are <a href="lang_createtable.html#rowid">INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</a> and PRIMARY KEYs on
<a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables.)
Hence, the following schemas are logically equivalent:
</p><ol>
<li><p>CREATE TABLE t1(a, b UNIQUE);
</p></li><li><p>CREATE TABLE t1(a, b PRIMARY KEY);
</p></li><li><p>CREATE TABLE t1(a, b);<br>
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX t1b ON t1(b);
</p></li></ol>
<a name="ckconst"></a>
<h2 id="check_constraints"><span>3.7. </span>CHECK constraints</h2>
<p>A CHECK constraint may be attached to a column definition or
specified as a table constraint. In practice it makes no difference. Each
time a new row is inserted into the table or an existing row is updated,
the expression associated with each CHECK constraint is evaluated and
cast to a NUMERIC value in the same way as a <a href="lang_expr.html#castexpr">CAST expression</a>. If the
result is zero (integer value 0 or real value 0.0), then a constraint
violation has occurred. If the CHECK expression evaluates to NULL, or
any other non-zero value, it is not a constraint violation.
The expression of a CHECK constraint may not contain a subquery.
</p><p>CHECK constraints are only verified when the table is written, not when
it is read. Furthermore, verification of CHECK constraints can be
temporarily disabled using the "<a href="pragma.html#pragma_ignore_check_constraints">PRAGMA ignore_check_constraints=ON;</a>"
statement. Hence, it is possible that a query might produce results that
violate the CHECK constraints.
<a name="notnullconst"></a>
</p><h2 id="not_null_constraints"><span>3.8. </span>NOT NULL constraints</h2>
<p>A NOT NULL constraint may only be attached to a column definition,
not specified as a table constraint. Not surprisingly, a NOT NULL
constraint dictates that the associated column may not contain a NULL value.
Attempting to set the column value to NULL when inserting a new row or
updating an existing one causes a constraint violation. NOT NULL
constraints are not verified during queries, so a query of a column might
produce a NULL value even though the column is marked as NOT NULL, if the
database file is corrupt.
</p><h1 id="constraint_enforcement"><span>4. </span>Constraint enforcement</h1>
<p>Constraints are checked during <a href="lang_insert.html">INSERT</a> and <a href="lang_update.html">UPDATE</a> and by
<a href="pragma.html#pragma_integrity_check">PRAGMA integrity_check</a> and <a href="pragma.html#pragma_quick_check">PRAGMA quick_check</a> and sometimes
by <a href="lang_altertable.html">ALTER TABLE</a>. Queries and <a href="lang_delete.html">DELETE</a>
statements do not normally verify constraints.
Hence, if a database file has been corrupted (perhaps by an external
program making direct changes to the database file without going through
the SQLite library) a query might return data that violates a constraint.
For example:
</p><div class="codeblock"><pre>CREATE TABLE t1(x INT CHECK( x>3 ));
/* Insert a row with X less than 3 by directly writing into the
** database file using an external program */
PRAGMA integrity_check; -- Reports row with x less than 3 as corrupt
INSERT INTO t1(x) VALUES(2); -- Fails with SQLITE_CORRUPT
SELECT x FROM t1; -- Returns an integer less than 3 in spite of the CHECK constraint
</pre></div>
<p>Enforcement of CHECK constraints can be temporarily disabled using
the <a href="pragma.html#pragma_ignore_check_constraints">PRAGMA ignore_check_constraints=ON;</a> statement.
</p><h2 id="response_to_constraint_violations"><span>4.1. </span>Response to constraint violations</h2>
<p>The response to a constraint violation is determined by the
<a href="lang_conflict.html">constraint conflict resolution algorithm</a>. Each
PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE, NOT NULL and CHECK constraint has a default conflict
resolution algorithm. PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE and NOT NULL constraints may be
explicitly assigned another default conflict resolution algorithm by
including a <a href="syntax/conflict-clause.html">conflict-clause</a> in their definitions.
Or, if a constraint definition does not include a <a href="syntax/conflict-clause.html">conflict-clause</a>,
the default conflict resolution algorithm is ABORT.
The conflict resolution algorithm for CHECK constraints is always ABORT.
(For historical compatibility only, table CHECK constraints are allowed
to have a conflict resolution clause, but that has no effect.)
Different constraints within the
same table may have different default conflict resolution algorithms. See
the section titled <a href="lang_conflict.html">ON CONFLICT</a> for additional information.
<a name="rowid"></a>
</p><h1 id="rowids_and_the_integer_primary_key"><span>5. </span>ROWIDs and the INTEGER PRIMARY KEY</h1>
<p>Except for <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables, all rows within SQLite tables
have a 64-bit signed integer key that uniquely identifies the row within its table.
This integer is usually
called the "rowid". The rowid value can be accessed using one of the special
case-independent names "rowid", "oid", or "_rowid_" in place of a column name.
If a table contains a user defined column named "rowid", "oid" or "_rowid_",
then that name always refers the explicitly declared column and cannot be used
to retrieve the integer rowid value.
</p><p>The rowid (and "oid" and "_rowid_") is omitted in <a href="withoutrowid.html">WITHOUT ROWID</a> tables.
WITHOUT ROWID tables are only available in SQLite <a href="releaselog/3_8_2.html">version 3.8.2</a>
(2013-12-06) and later.
A table that lacks the WITHOUT ROWID clause is called a "rowid table".
</p><p>The data for rowid tables is stored as a B-Tree structure containing
one entry for each table row, using the rowid value as the key. This means that
retrieving or sorting records by rowid is fast. Searching for a record with a
specific rowid, or for all records with rowids within a specified range is
around twice as fast as a similar search made by specifying any other PRIMARY
KEY or indexed value.
</p><p> With one exception noted below, if a rowid table has a primary key that consists
of a single column and the declared type of that column is "INTEGER" in any mixture of
upper and lower case, then the column becomes an alias for the rowid. Such a
column is usually referred to as an "integer primary key". A PRIMARY KEY column
only becomes an integer primary key if the declared type name is exactly
"INTEGER". Other integer type names like "INT" or "BIGINT" or "SHORT INTEGER"
or "UNSIGNED INTEGER" causes the primary key column to behave as an ordinary
table column with integer <a href="datatype3.html#affinity">affinity</a> and a unique index, not as an alias for
the rowid.
</p><p> The exception mentioned above is that if the declaration of a column with
declared type "INTEGER" includes an "PRIMARY KEY DESC" clause, it does not
become an alias for the rowid and is not classified as an integer primary key.
This quirk is not by design. It is due to a bug in early versions of SQLite.
But fixing the bug could result in backwards incompatibilities.
Hence, the original behavior has been retained (and documented) because odd
behavior in a corner case is far better than a compatibility break. This means
that the following three table declarations all cause the column "x" to be an
alias for the rowid (an integer primary key):
</p><ul>
<li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER PRIMARY KEY ASC, y, z);</tt>
</li><li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER, y, z, PRIMARY KEY(x ASC));</tt>
</li><li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER, y, z, PRIMARY KEY(x DESC));</tt>
</li></ul>
<p>But the following declaration does not result in "x" being an alias for
the rowid:
</p><ul>
<li><tt>CREATE TABLE t(x INTEGER PRIMARY KEY DESC, y, z);</tt>
</li></ul>
<p>Rowid values may be modified using an UPDATE statement in the same
way as any other column value can, either using one of the built-in aliases
("rowid", "oid" or "_rowid_") or by using an alias created by an integer
primary key. Similarly, an INSERT statement may provide a value to use as the
rowid for each row inserted. Unlike normal SQLite columns, an integer primary
key or rowid column must contain integer values. Integer primary key or rowid
columns are not able to hold floating point values, strings, BLOBs, or NULLs.
</p><p>If an UPDATE statement attempts to set an integer primary key or rowid column
to a NULL or blob value, or to a string or real value that cannot be losslessly
converted to an integer, a "datatype mismatch" error occurs and the statement
is aborted. If an INSERT statement attempts to insert a blob value, or a string
or real value that cannot be losslessly converted to an integer into an
integer primary key or rowid column, a "datatype mismatch" error occurs and the
statement is aborted.
</p><p>If an INSERT statement attempts to insert a NULL value into a rowid or
integer primary key column, the system chooses an integer value to use as the
rowid automatically. A detailed description of how this is done is provided
<a href="autoinc.html">separately</a>.</p>
<p>The <a href="foreignkeys.html#parentchild">parent key</a> of a <a href="foreignkeys.html">foreign key constraint</a> is not allowed to
use the rowid. The parent key must used named columns only.</p>
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