1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478
|
<h1>Babylonian — Seleucid</h1>
<p>The Seleucid Era in Babylonian history is the era of the successors of Alexander the Great who conquered Babylon in 331 BCE. In these days MUL.APIN (already thousand years old) was still copied and, thus, appears to have developed to be an old-fashioned but not outdated standard. Moreover, there is no alternative compendium like MUL.APIN from the Late Babylonian epoch.</p>
<p>This <em>Seleucid</em> or <em>Late Babylonian sky culture</em> is supposed to show the (estimated) state of Babylonian constellations contemporary to the Greek culture. There is no description of the full sky. Changes with regard to the MUL.APIN version have certainly applied in the zodiac since several centuries. This can be stated for sure because in this time, there is a blossoming zodiacal astrology. Since there had been no zodiac in MUL.APIN and the zodiac developed around the middle of the -1st millennium, in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BCE, there had been different versions of the constellations around the ecliptic.
</p>
<p>
However, we do not know much about the rest of the sky. Hence, for the constellations far away from the zodiac, again the constellations of MUL.APIN can be taken as state of the art. Please see MUL.APIN sky culture for more information and use the MUL.APIN constellations for an impression of the Old Babylonian (or Middle Babylonian) sky culture.
</p>
<h3>Single Stars</h3>
<p>
In contrast to constellations, there are much more lists of single stars preserved from the later epochs. We use this Late Babylonian or Seleucid sky culture to focus on the single star names. There are plenty of <i>ziqpu</i> lists (lists of culminating stars) and for measurements in the zodiac, "normal stars" have been introduced. Normal stars (from Latin "norma" = the measure) are a frame of reference for mathematical astrometry of the Late Babylonian epoch. While for most of the other stars the margin of error concerning their identification with a celestial counterpart is sometimes huge, the normal stars are identified properly because their coordinates can be derived from the planets standing next to them (Jones, 2004).
</p>
<h3>Source(s)</h3>
<p>The lists of ziqpu stars and normal stars are mostly compiled from the modern compendium Hunger and Pingree: Astral Science in Mesopotamia, 1999 and some of the other papers given in "Further Reading". The book by Hoffmann, 2017 already contains several computations with these stars and more literature (e.g. Wayne Horowitz has worked on <i>ziqpu</i> stars for many years but is not mentioned here with a special paper although his translations contributed a lot for this study). A likely version of the Late Babylonian stick figures will be added in a later release of Stellarium.
</p>
<p>
<h3> MUL.APIN constellations partially re-worked</h3>
<table cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1" style="background: transparent">
<tbody>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e6e6e6; font-weight: bold">
<td width="5ex">constellation number</td>
<td>asterism </td>
<td>our commentary</td>
<td>position in the sky</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6;">
<td>1</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>EPINNU</i>(Plough)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Cas</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6;">
<td>2</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>BARBARU</i> (Wolf): seeder of <sup>STAR</sup><i>EPINNU</i></td>
<td> "wolf" here does not mean the animal but a part of the plough.</td>
<td>γ Cas (+?)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>3</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ŠĪBU</i>(Old Man)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Per</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>4</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>GAMLU</i>(Throwing-stick)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>in Aur</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>5</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>TŪ'AMŪ·RABÛTU</i>(Great Twins)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Gem</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
<tbody>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>6</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>TŪ'AMŪ·ṢEḪRŪTU</i>(Little Twins)</td>
<td> do not exist anymore (merged with Great Twins) </td>
<td>Gem</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>7</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ALLUTTU</i>(Crab)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Cnc</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>8</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>URGULÛ</i>(Lion)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Leo</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>9</td>
<td>STAR opposite <sup>STAR</sup><i>URGULÛ</i>: STAR (of the) King</td>
<td></td>
<td>Regulus</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>10</td>
<td>twinkling STARs in the tail of <sup>STAR</sup><i>URGULÛ</i>: "date-palm spadix" (jewellery?) (of) <sup>GOD</sup>Erua</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Com</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>11</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup>ŠU.PA(The Bright?) = <sup>GOD</sup>Enlil</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Boo</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>12</td>
<td>STAR in front of it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>ḪENGALLĀYU</i> (Abundant)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>α Boo or α CVn </td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>13</td>
<td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>BĀŠTUM</i> (Dignity)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>CrB</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>14</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>EREQQU</i> (Wagon)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>UMa</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>15</td>
<td>STAR by the pole of <sup>STAR</sup><i>EREQQU</i>: <sup>STAR</sup><i>ŠĒLEBU</i>(Fox)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Alcor (80 UMa)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>16</td>
<td>STAR on the forehead of <sup>STAR</sup><i>EREQQU</i>: <sup>STAR</sup><i>LAḪRU</i>(Ewe)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>α UMa(+)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>17</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup>MU.BU.KÉŠ.DA (Hitched yoke?)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>UMi</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>18</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup>MAR.GÍD.DA.AN.NA (Wagon of heaven)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>somewhere betw UMi and Vega?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>19</td>
<td>STAR in its bond: <sup>STAR</sup><i>APIL-EMAḪ</i> (Heir of the Emaḫ-temple)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>α UMi (?)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>20</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ENZU</i>(She-Goat)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Lyr</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>21</td>
<td>STAR in front of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ENZU</i>: <sup>STAR</sup><i>KALBU</i>(Dog) [of Goddess Gula]</td>
<td> </td>
<td>in Her</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>22</td>
<td>bright STAR of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ENZU</i></td>
<td> </td>
<td>α Lyr</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>23</td>
<td>2 STAR<sup>s</sup> behind it: <sup>GOD</sup>Nin-SAR and <sup>GOD</sup>Errakal</td>
<td> </td>
<td>η, θ Lyr ?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>24</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>nimru</i> (Panther)</td>
<td>In Late Babylonian language ("dictionaries") a new reading of this constellation name appears: it should be interpreted as Akkadian word "nimru" translating to "the Panther"; the old demon at this place seems to have been replaced.</td>
<td>Cyg</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>25</td>
<td>STAR to the right of it: <sup>STAR</sup>Š<i>AḪÛ</i> (Pig)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>26</td>
<td>STAR to the left of it: <sup>STARS</sup><i>SISÛ</i> (Horse)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>27</td>
<td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>LULIMMU</i> (Stag)</td>
<td> We shifted the Stag to display another suggestion and because the Panther occupies different areas than the UKADUA demon. It is still uncertain but in this version the breast of the Stag includes M31 which could be the "Field Mouse". </td>
<td>?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>28</td>
<td>twinkling STAR<sup>s</sup> opposite <sup>STAR</sup><i>LULIMMU</i>(Stag): <sup>GOD</sup>Ḫarriru (Field Mouse)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>M31?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #c6c6c6; color: #ff0000">
<td></td>
<td colspan="3">Path of <sup>GOD</sup>Enlil finished.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1">
<tbody>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e6e6e6; font-weight: bold">
<td width="5ex">constellation number</td>
<td>asterism </td>
<td>our commentary</td>
<td>position in the sky</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>32</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup>ONE·"FIELD"(area measure)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Peg</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>33</td>
<td>STAR opposite <sup>STAR</sup>ONE·'FIELD': <sup>STAR</sup><i>ŠINŪNUTU</i>(Swallow)</td>
<td>the southern one of the two ellipses of fish; in comparison to the earlier version a small constellation which shifted northwestwards</td>
<td>Psc</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>33 (a)</td>
<td> <sup>STAR</sup><i>ZIBATI</i>(Tails)</td>
<td>Since the Old Babylonian 'Great Swallow' turned into a small swallow and was shifted to another place, the V-shaped tails of the Great Swallow remained without any meaning. Still, they are used as constellation (Tails - but nobody knows of whom). Later, the V-shape was interpreted as a band connecting the little swallow with a little fish below the constellation of Anunitu.</td>
<td>Psc</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>34</td>
<td>STAR behind <sup>STAR</sup>ONE·'FIELD': <sup>STAR</sup><i>ANUNNĪTU</i></td>
<td>Our stick figure is prepared to transform to the Greek Andromeda: Anunitu is another name for the Babylonian goddess of sexual love Ishtar who was equalized with Greek Aphrodite whose myth in Syria was connected to fish.</td>
<td>And</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>35</td>
<td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>AGRU</i>(Hired Worker)</td>
<td>Over centuries of abbreviation of the names of constellations, the Babylonian LU.HUN.GA transformed to HUN which is a sign similar to UDU (sheep). Therefore, the working man transformed to a sheep. This was likely a Babylonian wordplay only and therefore the constellation figure is not supposed to really look like a sheep.</td>
<td>Ari</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>36</td>
<td>STAR.STAR(<i>ZAPPU</i>, Bristle): <sup>GOD</sup>Sebettu</td>
<td>Old Babylonian termed only "the Star Cluster", Middle Babylonian insists to equalize this with Sebettu (the Seven Gods, warriors) - reason unknown. Late Babylonian more often uses the term "the Bristle" on the neck of the Bull. This interpretation is equal to the Greek one.</td>
<td>Pleiades</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>37</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup>BULL·OF·HEAVEN(<i>ALÛ</i>) and <sup>GOD</sup><i>Is-lê</i> (Jaw of the Wild Bull)</td>
<td>The Bull of Heaven is a mythological figure from the epos of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh fights him and divides him in halves (which explains its depiction in the sky). The "Jaw" are the Hyades.</td>
<td>Tau and Hyades</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>38</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup>TRUE·SHEPHERD·OF·HEAVEN (<i>ŠITADDALLU</i>, Orion)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Ori</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>39</td>
<td>Twin STARs opposite <sup>STAR</sup><i>ŠITADDALLU</i></td>
<td> </td>
<td>π<sub>3</sub>,π<sub>4</sub> Ori ?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>40</td>
<td>STAR behind it: <sup>STAR</sup><i>TARLUGALLU</i> (Cock)</td>
<td>Normally, the Cock is identified with modern Lepus but this does not make any sense to me: "behind" Orion, i.e. rising after him is Prokyon, a very bright star without any known Babylonian name. The Greeks named him "pro kyon" (rising before the dog) because in some of the conquered cultures Prokyon was an indicator for the soon rising of Sirius (the dog star for them). Sirius was not a dog star in Babylonian sky culture but, however, important for the calendar. That is why, I suggest to take Prokyon for a crowing rooster, somehow announcing the brighter Sirius.</td>
<td>Lep (or α CMi??)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>41</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup>GAG.SI.SÁ (Arrow)</td>
<td>The depicted version is a suggestion. Sure is only Sirius, for the rest, there are multiple options.</td>
<td>Sirius + </td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>42</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>QAŠTU</i> (Bow)</td>
<td>I suppose, this is the mostly accepted version (out of several existing options).</td>
<td>in CMa?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>43</td>
<td>STAR (of) <sup>GOD</sup>NIRAḪ (Snake-god)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Hya</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>44</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ĀRIBU</i> (Raven)</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Crv</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>45</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i><sup>GOD</sup>Šala</i>, ear of grain</td>
<td>The old constellation of the Furrow vanished and left the Maiden (goddess Šala) instead. The stable element is the 'ear of grain' as name for the brightest star (Greek Stachys, Latin Spica).</td>
<td>Vir</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>46</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ZIBĀNĪTU</i>(Scales)</td>
<td>Since MUL.APIN identifies the Scales with a part (horns) of the Scorpion this constellation vanished in early Greek astronomy and re-appeared only in early Roman times (Almagest and thereafter). We think, that the earlier versions of the Scales should have been a separate constellation and not part of the Scorpion. That's why, we turned it around 180° because in the Babylonian sky culture Virgo (as Furrow as well as the Maiden Šala) does not need so much space.</td>
<td>circa Lib</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>47</td>
<td>STAR (of) <sup>GOD</sup>Zababa</td>
<td> Normally identified with the area of Ophiuchus. </td>
<td>Oph </td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>48,49</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ERÛ</i> (Eagle) and <sup>STAR</sup><i>PAGRU</i> (Corpse)</td>
<td>The Eagle (Aql) is connected with a Corpse which reminds on the Almagest figure of the Eagle carrying dead Antinuos. It appears likely that the Eagle, in former times, had been a vulture because vultures are associated with dead bodies and eagles not and in Babylonian mythology an eagle carries preferably a living (not dead) man. Additionally, many early languages do not distinguish eagles and vultures. </td>
<td>Aql+</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #c6c6c6; color: #ff0000">
<td></td>
<td colspan="3">Path of Anum completed.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table cellpadding="7" cellspacing="1">
<tbody>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e6e6e6; font-weight: bold">
<td width="5ex">constellation number</td>
<td>asterism</td>
<td>our commentary</td>
<td>position in the sky</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>54</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>NŪNU</i>(Fish)</td>
<td> Greek "the Great Fish" </td>
<td>PsA</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>55</td>
<td>GREAT·STAR: <sup>GOD</sup>Ea</td>
<td>The god of wisdom and witchcraft, Ea, is usually depicted with streams of water springing from his shoulders. For Babylonians this was a clear image of the springs of Euphrates and Tigris. Since this was not cler to the Greek, they named this figure simply "the Man with the Water" or "Water-Carrier".</td>
<td>Aqr</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>56</td>
<td>STAR of (the city of) Eridu</td>
<td> </td>
<td>Canopus (α Car)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>57</td>
<td>STAR to its right: STAR (of) <sup><GOD></sup>Ninmaḫ</td>
<td>Since Canopus is almost opposite Aquarius in the sky, it is unclear where this asterism is to be located.</td>
<td>?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>58</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ḪAB(B)AṢṢĒRĀNU</i></td>
<td> still unclear </td>
<td>?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>59</td>
<td>STAR to its right: <sup>STAR</sup><i>MAŠKAKĀTU</i>(Harrow), in the centre of which the Apsû is visible</td>
<td> still unclear - but maybe the Apsû is the southernmost part of the Milky Way. </td>
<td>in Vela (Apsû~MW?)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>60</td>
<td>2 STAR<sup>s</sup> behind it: <sup>GOD</sup>Šullat and <sup>GOD</sup>Ḫaniš</td>
<td> no hints, no clue</td>
<td>?</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>61</td>
<td>STAR behind it which lights up like <sup>GOD</sup>Ea (and) sets like Ea: STAR (of) <sup>GOD</sup>Numušda</td>
<td> should be an male anthropomorphous figure (a god)</td>
<td>Cen</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>62</td>
<td>STAR to the left of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ZUQAQĪPU</i> (Scorpion): <sup>STAR</sup><i>URIDIMMU</i></td>
<td> </td>
<td>Lup</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>63</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>ZUQAQĪPU</i></td>
<td> </td>
<td>Sco</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>64</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>IRAT·ZUQAQĪPI<br/></i> (Breast of the Scorpion): <sup>GOD</sup>Lisin</td>
<td> single star name </td>
<td>Antares<br/>(α Sco)</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>65</td>
<td>2 STAR<sup>s</sup> on the sting (<i>ZIQTU</i>) of <sup>STAR</sup><i>ZUQAQĪPU</i>: <sup>GOD</sup>Šarur and <sup>GOD</sup>Šargaz</td>
<td>Since Šargaz is an old term for the sting, this is almost clear and re-applied as official modern star name by the IAU 2016.</td>
<td>λ, ν Sco</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #dee6ef">
<td>66</td>
<td>STAR behind them: <sup>GOD</sup>Pabilsaĝ</td>
<td>The depiction of god Pabilsaĝ is iconographically clear. It can easily be transformed to a Greek centaur (see Boll, 1903). </td>
<td>Sgr</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #e7e6e6">
<td>67,68</td>
<td><sup>STAR</sup><i>MAKURRU</i> (Bark) (and?) <sup>STAR</sup><i>SUḪURMĀŠU</i> (Goat-fish) </td>
<td> Either the Bark was identified with the Goat-Fish implying that both terms designate the same constellation (esp. likely for Old Babylonian epochs before MUL.APIN, hypotheses published by Craig Crossen in Sky&Telescope). Alternatively (and esp. likely for later epochs) the Bark was shifted to the west, under the feet of Pabilsaĝ (Sagittarius). That explains Eratosthenes's long debate on the illogial image of a centaur standing on a ship. In case The Bark was a standalone constellation, it should be identified with Ptolemy's Southern Crown (Corona Australis).</td>
<td>(CrA &) Cap</td>
</tr>
<tr valign="top" style="background: #c6c6c6;; color: #ff0000">
<td></td>
<td colspan="3">Path of <sup>GOD</sup>Ea completed.</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</p>
<h3>Further Reading</h3>
<ul>
<li lang="fr" dir="ltr">Franz Boll (1903), Sphaera. Teubner, Leipzig.</li>
<li lang="fr" dir="ltr">Craig Crossen (2015), Sky and Telescope, March 2015, p.36-40. </li>
<li lang="fr" dir="ltr">Hermann Hunger and David Pingree (1999), Astral Science in Mesopotamia, Brill, Leiden. </li>
<li lang="fr" dir="ltr">Hermann Hunger and John Steele (2018), The Babylonian astronomical compendium MUL.APIN, Routledge, London/ New York. </li>
<li>Susanne M. Hoffmann (2017), <a href="https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783658186821">Hipparchs Himmelsglobus</a>, Springer, Wiesbaden, New York.</li>
<li>Susanne M. Hoffmann (2017), <em>History of Constellations as popularization of uranometry</em> in: Wolfschmidt, Gudrun [ed.]: <a href="https://tredition.de/autoren/gudrun-wolfschmidt-1029/popularisierung-der-astronomie-proceedings-der-tagung-des-arbeitskreises-astronomiegeschichte-in-der-astronomischen-gesellschaft-in-bochum-2016-hardcover-91756/">Popularisierung der Astronomie</a>, Nuncius Hamburgensis, Bd. 41, Hamburg.</li>
<li>Alexander Jones (2004), “A Study of Babylonian Observations of Planets Near Normal Stars”, Archive for History of Exact Sciences. </li>
<li lang="fr" dir="ltr">Jordi Pàmias and Klaus Geus (2007), Eratosthenes: Sternsagen (Catasterismi), Utopica, Oberhaid. </li>
<li>many publications on <i>ziqpu</i> star lists by Wayne Horowitz, John M. Steele, E. Weidner, J. Koch, and others are compiled or/and discussed in the above books, especially the one by Hunger and Pingree (1999) which is why we do not list them in detail here. </li>
</ul>
<h3>Fair Use</h3>
<p>
This sky culture is provided under CC BY-ND 4.0 (international) licence (noncommercial use only, share-alike, do not change it without consulting the contributors, and please cite the contributors). Thank you!
</p>
<h3>Thanks to</h3>
<p>Thanks to some very enthusiastic planetarium managers for their request and development time in their domes.
<ul>
<li>Dr. Björn Voss (Manager of LWL Planetarium Münster and head of Society of German-speaking Planetariums)</li>
<li>Stefan Harnisch (Manager of Planetarium Jena)</li>
</ul>
</p>
<h3>Author</h3>
<p>The Babylonian star names were compiled and added to Stellarium and</p>
<p>the Babylonian constellation lines and images were prepared by:</p>
<p><em>Susanne M Hoffmann: service@uhura-uraniae.com </em></p>
|