# How Swift imports C APIs

When Swift imports a module, or parses a bridging header from a C-based language
(C, Objective-C), the APIs are mapped into Swift APIs and can be used directly
from Swift code. This provides the basis for Swift's Foreign Function Interface
(FFI), providing interoperability with existing libraries written in C-based
languages.

This document describes how APIs from C-based languages are mapped into Swift
APIs. It is written for a broad audience, including Swift and C users who
might not be language experts. Therefore, it explains some advanced concepts
where necessary.

* [Names, identifiers and keywords](#names-identifiers-and-keywords)
  * [Unicode](#unicode)
  * [Names that are keywords in Swift](#names-that-are-keywords-in-swift)
  * [Name translation](#name-translation)
  * [Name customization](#name-customization)
* [Size, stride, and alignment of types](#size-stride-and-alignment-of-types)
* [Fundamental types](#fundamental-types)
* [Free functions](#free-functions)
  * [Argument labels](#argument-labels)
  * [Variadic arguments](#variadic-arguments)
  * [Inline functions](#inline-functions)
* [Global variables](#global-variables)
* [Pointers to data](#pointers-to-data)
* [Nullable and non-nullable pointers](#nullable-and-non-nullable-pointers)
* [Incomplete types and pointers to them](#incomplete-types-and-pointers-to-them)
* [Function pointers](#function-pointers)
* [Fixed-size arrays](#fixed-size-arrays)
* [Structs](#structs)
* [Unions](#unions)
* [Enums](#enums)
* [Typedefs](#typedefs)
* [Macros](#macros)

## Names, identifiers and keywords

### Unicode

C (and C++) permit non-ASCII Unicode code points in identifiers. While Swift
does not permit arbitrary Unicode code points in identifiers (so compatibility
might not be perfect), it tries to allow reasonable ones. However, C,
Objective-C, and C++ code in practice does not tend to use non-ASCII code points
in identifiers, so mapping them to Swift is not an important concern.

### Names that are keywords in Swift

Some C and C++ identifiers are keywords in Swift. Despite that, such names are
imported as-is into Swift, because Swift permits escaping keywords to use them
as identifiers:

```c
// C header.

// The name of this function is a keyword in Swift.
void func();
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

// The name of the function is still `func`, but it is escaped to make the
// keyword into an identifier.
func `func`()
```

```swift
// Swift user.

func test() {
  // Call the C function declared above.
  `func`()
}
```

### Name translation

Names of some C declarations appear in Swift differently. In particular, names
of enumerators (enum constants) go through a translation process that is
hardcoded into the compiler. For more details, see [Name Translation from C to
Swift](CToSwiftNameTranslation.md).

### Name customization

As a general principle of Swift/C interoperability, the C API vendor has broad
control over how their APIs appear in Swift. In particular, the vendor can use
the `swift_name` Clang attribute to customize the names of their C APIs in order
to be more idiomatic in Swift. For more details, see [Name Translation from C to
Swift](CToSwiftNameTranslation.md).

## Size, stride, and alignment of types

In C, every type has a size (computed with the `sizeof` operator), and an
alignment (computed with `alignof`).

In Swift, types have size, stride, and alignment.

The concept of alignment in C and Swift is exactly the same.

Size and stride is more complicated.  In Swift, stride is the distance between
two elements in an array. The size of a type in Swift is the stride minus the
tail padding. For example:

```swift
struct SwiftStructWithPadding {
  var x: Int16
  var y: Int8
}

print(MemoryLayout<SwiftStructWithPadding>.size) // 3
print(MemoryLayout<SwiftStructWithPadding>.stride) // 4
```

C's concept of size corresponds to Swift's stride (not size!) C does not have an
equivalent of Swift's size.

Swift tracks the exact size of the data stored in a type so that it can pack
additional data into bytes that otherwise would be wasted as padding. Swift also
tracks possible and impossible bit patterns for each type, and reuses impossible
bit patterns to encode more information, similarly to `llvm::PointerIntPair` and
`llvm::PointerUnion`. The language does this automatically, and transparently
for users. For example:

```swift
// This enum takes 1 byte in memory, which has 256 possible bit patterns.
// However, only 2 bit patterns are used.
enum Foo {
  case A
  case B
}

print(MemoryLayout<Foo>.size) // 1
print(MemoryLayout<Foo?>.size) // also 1: `nil` is represented as one of the 254 bit patterns that are not used by `Foo.A` or `Foo.B`.
```

Nevertheless, for types imported from C, the size and the stride are equal.

```c
// C header.

struct CStructWithPadding {
  int16_t x;
  int8_t y;
};
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

struct CStructWithPadding {
  var x: Int16
  var y: Int8
}
```

```
print(MemoryLayout<CStructWithPadding>.size) // 4
print(MemoryLayout<CStructWithPadding>.stride) // 4
```

## Fundamental types

In C, certain types (`char`, `int`, `float` etc.) are built into the language
and into the compiler. These builtin types have behaviors that are not possible
to imitate in user-defined types (e.g., usual arithmetic conversions).

C and C++ standard libraries provide headers that define character and integer
types that are typedefs to one of the underlying builtin types, for example,
`int16_t`, `size_t`, and `ptrdiff_t`.

Swift does not have such builtin types. Swift's equivalents to C's fundamental
types are defined in the Swift standard library as ordinary structs. They are
implemented using compiler intrinsics, but the API surface is defined in
ordinary Swift code:

```swift
// From the Swift standard library:

struct Int32 {
  internal var _value: Builtin.Int32

  // Note: `Builtin.Xyz` types are only accessible to the standard library.
}

func +(lhs: Int32, rhs: Int32) -> Int32 {
  return Int32(_value: Builtin.add_Int32(lhs._value, rhs._value))
}
```

Memory layout of these "fundamental" Swift types does not have any surprises,
hidden vtable pointers, metadata, or reference counting; it is exactly what you
expect from a corresponding C type: just the data, stored inline. For example,
Swift's `Int32` is a contiguous chunk of four bytes, all of which store the
number.

Fundamental types in C, with a few exceptions, have an implementation-defined
size, alignment, and stride (distance between two array elements).

Swift's integer and floating point types have fixed size, alignment and stride
across platforms, with two exceptions: `Int` and `UInt`. The sizes of `Int` and
`UInt` match the size of the pointer on the platform, similarly to how `size_t`,
`ptrdiff_t`, `intptr_t`, and `uintptr_t` have the same size as a pointer in most
C implementations. `Int` and `UInt` are distinct types, they are not typealiases
to explicitly-sized types. An explicit conversion is required to convert between
`Int`, `UInt`, and any other integer type, even if sizes happen to match on the
current platform.

The table below summarizes mapping between fundamental types of C and C++ and
Swift types.  This table is based on
[`swift.git/include/swift/ClangImporter/BuiltinMappedTypes.def`](../include/swift/ClangImporter/BuiltinMappedTypes.def).

| C and C++ types                      | Swift types |
| ------------------------------------ | ----------- |
| C `_Bool`, C++ `bool`                | `typealias CBool = Bool` |
| `char`, regardless if the target defines it as signed or unsigned | `typealias CChar = Int8` |
| `signed char`, explicitly signed     | `typealias CSignedChar = Int8` |
| `unsigned char`, explicitly unsigned | `typealias CUnsignedChar = UInt8` |
| `short`, `signed short`              | `typealias CShort = Int16` |
| `unsigned short`                     | `typealias CUnsignedShort = UInt16` |
| `int`, `signed int`                  | `typealias CInt = Int32` |
| `unsigned int`                       | `typealias CUnsignedInt = UInt32` |
| `long`, `signed long`                | Windows x86\_64: `typealias CLong = Int32`<br>Everywhere else: `typealias CLong = Int` |
| `unsigned long`                      | Windows x86\_64: `typealias CUnsignedLong = UInt32`<br>Everywhere else: `typealias CUnsignedLong = UInt` |
| `long long`, `signed long long`      | `typealias CLongLong = Int64` |
| `unsigned long long`                 | `typealias CUnsignedLongLong = UInt64` |
| `wchar_t`, regardless if the target defines it as signed or unsigned | `typealias CWideChar = Unicode.Scalar`<br>`Unicode.Scalar` is a wrapper around `UInt32` |
| `char8_t` (proposed for C++20) | Not mapped |
| `char16_t`                           | `typealias CChar16 = UInt16` |
| `char32_t`                           | `typealias CChar32 = Unicode.Scalar` |
| `float`                              | `typealias CFloat = Float` |
| `double`                             | `typealias CDouble = Double` |
| `long double`                        | `CLongDouble`, which is a typealias to `Float80` or `Double`, depending on the platform.<br>There is no support for 128-bit floating point. |

First of all, notice that C types are mapped to Swift typealiases, not directly
to the underlying Swift types. The names of the typealiases are based on the
original C types. These typealiases allow developers to easily write Swift code
and APIs that work with APIs and data imported from C without a lot of `#if`
conditions.

This table is generally unsurprising: C types are mapped to corresponding
explicitly-sized Swift types, except for the C `long`, which is mapped to `Int`
on 32-bit and 64-bit LP64 platforms. This was done to enhance portability
between 32-bit and 64-bit code.

The difficulty with the C `long` type is that it can be 32-bit or 64-bit
depending on the platform. If C `long` was mapped to an explicitly-sized Swift
type, it would map to different Swift types on different platforms, making it
more difficult to write portable Swift code (the user would have to compile
Swift code for both platforms to see all errors; fixing compilation errors on
one platform can break another platform.) By mapping `long` a distinct type,
`Int`, the language forces the user to think about both cases when compiling for
either platform.

Nevertheless, mapping C `long` to `Int` does not work universally.
Specifically, it does not work on LLP64 platforms (for example, Windows
x86\_64), where C `long` is 32-bit and Swift's `Int` is 64-bit. On LLP64
platforms, C `long` is mapped to Swift's explicitly-sized `Int32`.

Typedefs for integer types in the C standard library are mapped like this (from
[`swift.git/swift/lib/ClangImporter/MappedTypes.def`](../lib/ClangImporter/MappedTypes.def):

| C and C++ types  | Swift types |
| ---------------- | ----------- |
| `uint8_t`        | `UInt8`     |
| `uint16_t`       | `UInt16`    |
| `uint32_t`       | `UInt32`    |
| `uint64_t`       | `UInt64`    |
| `int8_t`         | `Int8`      |
| `int16_t`        | `Int16`     |
| `int32_t`        | `Int32`     |
| `int64_t`        | `Int64`     |
| `intptr_t`       | `Int`       |
| `uintptr_t`      | `UInt`      |
| `ptrdiff_t`      | `Int`       |
| `size_t`         | `Int`       |
| `rsize_t`        | `Int`       |
| `ssize_t`        | `Int`       |

```c
// C header.

double Add(int x, long y);
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

func Add(_ x: CInt, _ y: CLong) -> CDouble
```

## Free functions

C functions are imported as free functions in Swift. Each type in the signature
of the C function is mapped to the corresponding Swift type.

### Argument labels

Imported C functions don't have argument labels in Swift by default.  Argument
labels can be added by API owners through annotations in the C header.

```c
// C header.

#define SWIFT_NAME(X) __attribute__((swift_name(#X)))

// No argument labels by default.
void drawString(const char *, int xPos, int yPos);

// The attribute specifies the argument labels.
void drawStringRenamed(const char *, int xPos, int yPos)
    SWIFT_NAME(drawStringRenamed(_:x:y:));
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

func drawString(_: UnsafePointer<CChar>!, _ xPos: CInt, _ yPos: CInt)
func drawStringRenamed(_: UnsafePointer<CChar>!, x: CInt, y: CInt)

drawString("hello", 10, 20)
drawStringRenamed("hello", x: 10, y: 20)
```

### Variadic arguments

C functions with variadic arguments are not imported into Swift, however, there
are no technical reasons why they can't be imported.

Note that functions with `va_list` arguments are imported into Swift. `va_list`
corresponds to `CVaListPointer` in Swift.

C APIs don't define a lot of variadic functions, so this limitation has not
caused a big problem so far.

Often, for each variadic function there is a corresponding function that takes a
`va_list` which can be called from Swift. A motivated developer can write an
overlay that exposes a Swift variadic function that looks just like the C
variadic function, and implement it in terms of the `va_list`-based C API. You
can find examples of such overlays and wrappers by searching for usages of the
`withVaList` function in the [`swift.git/stdlib`](../stdlib) directory.

See also Apple's documentation about this topic: [Use a CVaListPointer to Call
Variadic
Functions](https://developer.apple.com/documentation/swift/imported_c_and_objective-c_apis/using_imported_c_functions_in_swift#2992073).

### Inline functions

Inline C functions that are defined in headers are imported as regular Swift
functions. However, unlike free functions, inline functions require the caller
to emit a definition of the function, because no other translation unit is
guaranteed to provide a definition.

Therefore, the Swift compiler uses Clang's CodeGen library to emit LLVM IR for
the C inline function. LLVM IR for C inline functions and LLVM IR for Swift code
is put into one LLVM module, allowing all LLVM optimizations (like inlining) to
work transparently across language boundaries.

## Global variables

Global C variables are imported as Swift variables or constants, depending on
constness.

```c
// C header.

extern int NumAlpacas;
extern const int NumLlamas;
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

var NumAlpacas: CInt
let NumLlamas: CInt
```

## Pointers to data

C has one way to form a pointer to a value of type `T` -- `T*`.

Swift language does not provide a builtin pointer type. The standard library
defines multiple pointer types:

* `UnsafePointer<T>`: equivalent to `const T*` in C.

* `UnsafeMutablePointer<T>`: equivalent to `T*` in C, where `T` is non-const.

* `UnsafeRawPointer`: a pointer for accessing data that is not statically typed,
  similar to `const void*` in C. Unlike C pointer types, `UnsafeRawPointer`
  allows type punning, and provides special APIs to do it correctly and safely.

* `UnsafeMutableRawPointer`: like `UnsafeRawPointer`, but can mutate the data it
  points to.

* `OpaquePointer`: a pointer to typed data, however the type of the pointee is
  not known, for example, it is determined by the value of some other variable,
  or the type of the pointee is not representable in Swift.

* `AutoreleasingUnsafeMutablePointer<T>`: only used for Objective-C
  interoperability; corresponds to an Objective-C pointer T `__autoreleasing *`,
  where `T` is an Objective-C pointer type.

C pointer types can be trivially imported in Swift as long as the memory layout
of the pointee is identical in C and Swift. So far, this document only described
primitive types, whose memory layout in C and Swift is indeed identical, for
example, `char` in C and `Int8` in Swift. Pointers to such types are trivial to
import into Swift, for example, `char*` in C corresponds to
`UnsafeMutablePointer<Int8>!` in Swift.

```c
// C header.

void AddSecondToFirst(int *x, const long *y);
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

func AddSecondToFirst(_ x: UnsafeMutablePointer<CInt>!, _ y: UnsafePointer<CLong>!)
```

## Nullable and non-nullable pointers

Any C pointer can be null. However, in practice, many pointers are never null.
Therefore, code often does not expect certain pointers to be null and does not
handle null values gracefully.

C does not provide a way to distinguish nullable and non-nullable pointers.
However, Swift makes this distinction: all pointer types (for example,
`UnsafePointer<T>` and `UnsafeMutablePointer<T>`) are non-nullable.  Swift
represents the possibility of a missing value with a type called "Optional",
spelled `T?` in the shorthand form, or `Optional<T>` fully. The missing value is
called "nil". For example, `UnsafePointer<T>?` (shorthand for
`Optional<UnsafePointer<T>>`) can store a nil value.

Swift also provides a different syntax for declaring an optional, `T!`, which
creates a so-called "implicitly unwrapped optional". These optionals are
automatically checked for nil and unwrapped if it is necessary for the
expression to compile. Unwrapping a `T?` or a `T!` optional that contains nil is
a fatal error (the program is terminated with an error message).

Formally, since any C pointer can be null, C pointers must be imported as
optional unsafe pointers in Swift. However, that is not idiomatic in Swift:
optional should be used when value can be truly missing, and when it is
meaningful for the API. C APIs do not provide this information in a
machine-readable form. Information about which pointers are nullable is
typically provided in free-form documentation for C APIs, if it is provided at
all.

Clang implements an [extension to the C language that allows C API vendors to
annotate pointers as nullable or
non-nullable](https://clang.llvm.org/docs/AttributeReference.html#nullability-attributes).

Quoting the Clang manual:

> The `_Nonnull` nullability qualifier indicates that null is not a meaningful
> value for a value of the `_Nonnull` pointer type. For example, given a
> declaration such as:

```c
int fetch(int * _Nonnull ptr);
```

> a caller of `fetch` should not provide a null value, and the compiler will
> produce a warning if it sees a literal null value passed to fetch. Note that,
> unlike the declaration attribute `nonnull`, the presence of `_Nonnull` does
> not imply that passing null is undefined behavior: `fetch` is free to consider
> null undefined behavior or (perhaps for backward-compatibility reasons)
> defensively handle null.

`_Nonnull` C pointers are imported in Swift as non-optional `UnsafePointer<T>`
or `UnsafeMutablePointer<T>`, depending on the constness of the pointer.

```swift
// C declaration above imported in Swift.

func fetch(_ ptr: UnsafeMutablePointer<CInt>) -> CInt
```

Quoting the Clang manual:

> The `_Nullable` nullability qualifier indicates that a value of the
> `_Nullable` pointer type can be null. For example, given:

```c
int fetch_or_zero(int * _Nullable ptr);
```

> a caller of `fetch_or_zero` can provide null.

`_Nullable` pointers are imported in Swift as `UnsafePointer<T>?` or
`UnsafeMutablePointer<T>?`, depending on the constness of the pointer.

```swift
// C declaration above imported in Swift.

func fetch_or_zero(_ ptr: UnsafeMutablePointer<CInt>?) -> CInt
```

Quoting the Clang manual:

> The `_Null_unspecified` nullability qualifier indicates that neither the
> `_Nonnull` nor `_Nullable` qualifiers make sense for a particular pointer
> type.  It is used primarily to indicate that the role of null with specific
> pointers in a nullability-annotated header is unclear, e.g., due to
> overly-complex implementations or historical factors with a long-lived API.

`_Null_unspecified` and not annotated C pointers are imported in Swift as
implicitly-unwrapped optional pointers, `UnsafePointer<T>!` or
`UnsafeMutablePointer<T>!`. This strategy provides ergonomics equivalent to the
original C API (no need to explicitly unwrap), and safety expected by Swift code
(a dynamic check for null during implicit unwrapping).

These qualifiers do not affect program semantics in C and C++, allowing C API
vendors to safely add them to headers for the benefit of Swift users without
disturbing existing C and C++ users.

In C APIs most pointers are non-nullable. To reduce the annotation burden, Clang
provides a way to mass-annotate pointers as non-nullable, and then mark
exceptions with `_Nullable`.

```c
// C header.

void Func1(int * _Nonnull x, int * _Nonnull y, int * _Nullable z);

#pragma clang assume_nonnull begin

void Func2(int *x, int *y, int * _Nullable z);

#pragma clang assume_nonnull end
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

// Note that `Func1` and `Func2` are imported identically, but `Func2` required
// fewer annotations in the C header.

func Func1(
  _ x: UnsafeMutablePointer<CInt>,
  _ y: UnsafeMutablePointer<CInt>,
  _ z: UnsafeMutablePointer<CInt>?
)

func Func2(
  _ x: UnsafeMutablePointer<CInt>,
  _ y: UnsafeMutablePointer<CInt>,
  _ z: UnsafeMutablePointer<CInt>?
)
```

API owners that adopt nullability qualifiers usually wrap all declarations in
the header with a single `assume_nonnull begin/end` pair of pragmas, and then
annotate nullable pointers.

See also Apple's documentation about this topic: [Designating Nullability in
Objective-C
APIs](https://developer.apple.com/documentation/swift/objective-c_and_c_code_customization/designating_nullability_in_objective-c_apis).

## Incomplete types and pointers to them

C and C++ have a notion of incomplete types; Swift does not have anything
similar. Incomplete C types are not imported in Swift in any form.

Sometimes types are incomplete only accidentally, for example, when a file just
happens to forward declare a type instead of including a header with a complete
definition, although it could include that header. In cases like that, to enable
Swift to import the C API, it is recommended to change C headers and to replace
forward declarations with `#include`s of the header that defines the type.

Incomplete types are often used intentionally to define opaque types. This is
done too often, and Swift could not ignore this use case.  Swift imports
pointers to incomplete types as `OpaquePointer`. For example:

```c
// C header.

struct Foo;
void Print(const Foo* foo);
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

// Swift can't import the incomplete type `Foo` and has to drop some type
// information when importing a pointer to `Foo`.
func Print(_ foo: OpaquePointer)
```

## Function pointers

C supports only one form of function pointers: `Result (*)(Arg1, Arg2, Arg3)`.

Swift's closest native equivalent to a function pointer is a closure: `(Arg1,
Arg2, Arg3) -> Result`. Swift closures don't have the same memory layout as C
function pointers: closures in Swift consist of two pointers, a pointer to the
code and a pointer to the captured data (the context). A C function pointer can
be converted to a Swift closure; however, bridging is required to adjust the
memory layout.

As discussed above, there are cases where bridging that adjusts memory layout is
not possible, for example, when importing pointers to function pointers. For
example, while C's `int (*)(char)` can be imported as `(CChar) -> CInt` (requires
an adjustment of memory layout), C's `int (**)(char)` can't be imported as
`UnsafePointer<(CChar) -> CInt>`, because the pointee must have identical memory
layout in C and in Swift.

Therefore, we need a Swift type that has a memory layout identical to C function
pointers, at least for such fallback cases. This type is spelled `@convention(c)
(Arg1, Arg2, Arg3) -> Result`.

Even though it is possible to import C function pointers as Swift closure with a
context pointer in some cases, C function pointers are always imported as
`@convention(c)` "closures" (in quotes because they don't have a context
pointer, so they are not real closures). Swift provides an implicit conversion
from `@convention(c)` closures to Swift closures with a context.

Importing C function pointers also takes pointer nullability into account: a
nullable C function pointer is imported as optional.

```c
// C header.

void qsort(
  void *base,
  size_t nmemb,
  size_t size,
  int (*compar)(const void *, const void *));

void qsort_annotated(
  void * _Nonnull base,
  size_t nmemb,
  size_t size,
  int (* _Nonnull compar)(const void * _Nonnull, const void * _Nonnull));
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

func qsort(
  _ base: UnsafeMutableRawPointer!,
  _ nmemb: Int,
  _ size: Int,
  _ compar: (@convention(c) (UnsafeRawPointer?, UnsafeRawPointer?) -> CInt)!
)

func qsort_annotated(
  _ base: UnsafeMutableRawPointer,
  _ nmemb: Int,
  _ size: Int,
  _ compar: @convention(c) (UnsafeRawPointer, UnsafeRawPointer) -> CInt
)
```

See also Apple's documentation about this topic: [Using Imported C Functions in
Swift](https://developer.apple.com/documentation/swift/imported_c_and_objective-c_apis/using_imported_c_functions_in_swift)

## Fixed-size arrays

C's fixed-size arrays are imported as Swift tuples.

```c
// C header.

extern int x[4];
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

var x: (CInt, CInt, CInt, CInt) { get set }
```

This mapping strategy is widely recognized as being far from optimal because
ergonomics of Swift tuples does not match C's fixed-size arrays. For example,
Swift tuples cannot be accessed through an index that only becomes known at
runtime. If you need to access a tuple element by index, you have to get an
unsafe pointer to values in a homogeneous tuple with
`withUnsafeMutablePointer(&myTuple) { ... }`, and then perform pointer
arithmetic.

Fixed-size arrays are a commonly requested feature in Swift, and a good proposal
is likely to be accepted. Once Swift has fixed-size arrays natively in the
language, we can use them to improve C interoperability.

## Structs

C structs are imported as Swift structs, their fields are mapped to stored Swift
properties. Bitfields are mapped to computed Swift properties. Swift structs
also get a synthesized default initializer (that sets all properties to zero),
and an elementwise initializer (that sets all properties to the provided
values).

```c
// C header.

struct Point {
  int x;
  int y;
};

struct Line {
  struct Point start;
  struct Point end;
  unsigned int brush : 4;
  unsigned int stroke : 3;
};
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

struct Point {
  var x: CInt { get set }
  var y: CInt { get set }
  init()
  init(x: CInt, y: CInt)
}

struct Line {
  var start: Point { get set }
  var end: Point { get set }
  var brush: CUnsignedInt { get set }
  var stroke: CUnsignedInt { get set }

  // Default initializer that sets all properties to zero.
  init()

  // Elementwise initializer.
  init(start: Point, end: Point, brush: CUnsignedInt, stroke: CUnsignedInt)
}
```

Swift can also import unnamed and anonymous structs.

```c
// C header.

struct StructWithAnonymousStructs {
  struct {
    int x;
  };
  struct {
    int y;
  } containerForY;
};
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.
struct StructWithAnonymousStructs {
  struct __Unnamed_struct___Anonymous_field0 {
    var x: CInt
    init()
    init(x: CInt)
  }
  struct __Unnamed_struct_containerForY {
    var y: CInt
    init()
    init(y: CInt)
  }
  var __Anonymous_field0: StructWithAnonymousStructs.__Unnamed_struct___Anonymous_field0
  var x: CInt
  var containerForY: StructWithAnonymousStructs.__Unnamed_struct_containerForY

  // Default initializer that sets all properties to zero.
  init()

  // Elementwise initializer.
  init(
    _ __Anonymous_field0: StructWithAnonymousStructs.__Unnamed_struct___Anonymous_field0,
    containerForY: StructWithAnonymousStructs.__Unnamed_struct_containerForY
  )
}
```

See also Apple's documentation about this topic: [Using Imported C Structs and
Unions in
Swift](https://developer.apple.com/documentation/swift/imported_c_and_objective-c_apis/using_imported_c_structs_and_unions_in_swift).

## Unions

Swift does not have a direct equivalent to a C union. C unions are mapped to
Swift structs with computed properties that read from/write to the same
underlying storage.

```c
// C header.

union IntOrFloat {
  int i;
  float f;
};
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

struct IntOrFloat {
  var i: CInt { get set } // Computed property.
  var f: CFloat { get set } // Computed property.
  init(i: CInt)
  init(f: CFloat)
  init()
}
```

See also Apple's documentation about this topic: [Using Imported C Structs and
Unions in
Swift](https://developer.apple.com/documentation/swift/imported_c_and_objective-c_apis/using_imported_c_structs_and_unions_in_swift).

## Enums

We would have liked to map C enums to Swift enums, like this:

```c
// C header.

// Enum that is not explicitly marked as either open or closed.
enum HomeworkExcuse {
  EatenByPet,
  ForgotAtHome,
  ThoughtItWasDueNextWeek,
};
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift: aspiration, not an actual mapping!

enum HomeworkExcuse: CUnsignedInt {
  case EatenByPet
  case ForgotAtHome
  case ThoughtItWasDueNextWeek
}
```

However, in practice, plain C enums are mapped to Swift structs like this:

```swift
// C header imported in Swift: actual mapping.

struct HomeworkExcuse: Equatable, RawRepresentable {
  init(_ rawValue: CUnsignedInt)
  init(rawValue: CUnsignedInt)
  var rawValue: CUnsignedInt { get }
  typealias RawValue = CUnsignedInt
}
var EatenByPet: HomeworkExcuse { get }
var ForgotAtHome: HomeworkExcuse { get }
var ThoughtItWasDueNextWeek: HomeworkExcuse { get }
```

To explain why this mapping was chosen, we need to discuss certain features of C
enums:

* In C, adding new enumerators is not source-breaking; in Itanium C ABI, it is
  not ABI breaking either as long as the size of the enum does not change.
  Therefore, C library vendors add enumerators without expecting downstream
  breakage.

* In C, it is common to use enums as bitfields: enumerators are assigned values
  that are powers of two, and enum values are bitwise-or combinations of
  enumerators.

* Some C API vendors define two sets of enumerators: "public" enumerators that
  are listed in the header file, and "private" enumerators that are used only in
  the implementation of the library.

Due to these coding patterns, at runtime, C enums can carry values that were not
listed in the enum declaration at compile time (either such values were added
after the code was compiled, or they are a result of an intentional cast from an
integer to an enum).

Swift compiler performs exhaustiveness checks for switch statements, which
becomes problematic when performed on C enums, where expectations about
exhaustiveness are different.

From Swift's point of view, C enums come in two flavors: closed AKA frozen, and
open AKA non-frozen. This distinction is aimed at supporting library evolution
and ABI stability, while allowing the user to ergonomically work with their
code. Swift's solution also supports the unusual C enum coding patterns.

Frozen enums have a fixed set of cases (enumerators in C terms). A library
vendor can change (add or remove) cases in a frozen enum, however, it will be
both ABI-breaking and source-breaking. In other words, there is a guarantee that
the set of enum cases that was seen at compile time exactly matches the set of
values that an enum variable can carry at runtime. Swift performs an
exhaustiveness check for switch statements on frozen enums: if switch does not
handle all enum cases, the user gets a warning. Moreover, the optimizer can make
an assumption that a variable that has a frozen enum type will only store values
that correspond to enum cases visible at compile time; unused bit patterns can
be reused for other purposes.

Non-frozen enums have an extensible set of cases. A library vendor can add cases
without breaking ABI or source compatibility. Swift performs a different flavor
of exhaustiveness check for switch statements on non-frozen enums: it always
requires an `@unknown default` clause, but only produces a warning if the code
does not handle all cases available at the compilation time.

```c
// C header.

// An open enum: we expect to add more kinds of input devices in future.
enum InputDevice {
  Keyboard,
  Mouse,
  Touchscreen,
} __attribute__((enum_extensibility(open)));

// A closed enum: we think we know enough about the geometry of Earth to
// confidently say that these are all cardinal directions we will ever need.
enum CardinalDirection {
  East,
  West,
  North,
  South,
} __attribute__((enum_extensibility(closed)));
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

enum InputDevice: CUnsignedInt, Hashable, RawRepresentable {
  init?(rawValue: CUnsignedInt)
  var rawValue: CUnsignedInt { get }
  typealias RawValue = CUnsignedInt
  case Keyboard
  case Mouse
  case Touchscreen
}

@frozen
enum CardinalDirection: CUnsignedInt, Hashable, RawRepresentable {
  init?(rawValue: CUnsignedInt)
  var rawValue: CUnsignedInt { get }
  typealias RawValue = CUnsignedInt
  case East
  case West
  case North
  case South
}
```

C enums that are not marked as open or closed are mapped to structs since Swift
1.0. At that time, we realized that mapping C enums to Swift enums is not
correct if the Swift compiler makes Swift-like assumptions about such imported
enums. Specifically, Swift compiler assumes that the only allowed bit patterns
of an enum value are declared in enum's cases. This assumption is valid for
frozen Swift enums (which were the only flavor of enums in Swift 1.0). However,
this assumption does not hold for C enums, for which any bit pattern is a valid
value; this assumption was creating an undefined behavior hazard. To resolve
this issue in Swift 1.0, C enums were imported as Swift structs by default, and
their enumerators were exposed as global computed variables. Objective-C enums
declared with `NS_ENUM` were assumed to have "enum nature" and were imported as
Swift enums.

The concept of open enums was added in Swift 5 ([SE-0192 Handling Future
Enum
Cases](https://github.com/apple/swift-evolution/blob/main/proposals/0192-non-exhaustive-enums.md)),
but that proposal did not change the importing strategy of non-annotated C
enums, in part because of source compatibility concerns. It might be still
possible to change C enums to be imported as open Swift enums, but as the time
passes, it will be more difficult to change.

Another feature of C enums is that they expose integer values to the user;
furthermore, enum values are implicitly convertible to integers. Swift enums are
opaque by default. When imported in Swift, C enums conform to the
`RawRepresentable` protocol, allowing the user to explicitly convert between
numeric and typed values.

```swift
// Converting enum values to integers and back.

var south: CardinalDirection = .South
// var southAsInteger: CUnsignedInt = south // error: type mismatch
var southAsInteger: CUnsignedInt = south.rawValue // = 3
var southAsEnum = CardinalDirection(rawValue: 3) // = .South
```

## Typedefs

C typedefs are generally mapped to Swift typealiases, except for a few common C
coding patterns that are handled in a special way.

```c
// C header.

// An ordinary typedef.
typedef int Money;

// A special case pattern that is mapped to a named struct.
typedef struct {
  int x;
  int y;
} Point;
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

typealias Money = Int

struct Point {
  var x: CInt { get set }
  var y: CInt { get set }
  init()
  init(x: CInt, y: CInt)
}
```

## Macros

C macros are generally not imported in Swift. Macros that define constants are
imported as readonly variables.

```c
// C header.

#define BUFFER_SIZE 4096
#define SERVER_VERSION "3.14"
```

```swift
// C header imported in Swift.

var BUFFER_SIZE: CInt { get }
var SERVER_VERSION: String { get }
```

See also Apple's documentation about this topic: [Using Imported C Macros in
Swift](https://developer.apple.com/documentation/swift/imported_c_and_objective-c_apis/using_imported_c_macros_in_swift).