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.\"
.\" ObjCmdWrite.3
.\"
.\" Command writing manual.
.\"----------------------------------------------------------------------------
.\" Copyright 1992-1999 Karl Lehenbauer and Mark Diekhans.
.\"
.\" Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its
.\" documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided
.\" that the above copyright notice appear in all copies. Karl Lehenbauer and
.\" Mark Diekhans make no representations about the suitability of this
.\" software for any purpose. It is provided "as is" without express or
.\" implied warranty.
.\"----------------------------------------------------------------------------
.\" $Id: ObjCmdWrite.3,v 8.4 1999/03/31 06:37:42 markd Exp $
.\"----------------------------------------------------------------------------
.\"
.TH "Command Writing" TCL "" "Tcl"
.ad b
.SH NAME
TclCommandWriting - Writing C language extensions to Tcl.
'
.SH OVERVIEW
This document is intended to help the programmer who wishes to extend
Tcl with C language routines. It should also be useful to someone
wishing to add Tcl to an existing editor, communications program,
window manager, etc. Experienced extension writers may find this manual
helpful in rewriting their applications to use the new Tcl object system.
We assume you are already fluent in the C programming language and that
you have built and installed Tcl on your machine.
.PP
Information on the available C interface routines to Tcl can be found in
the \fI*.3\fR manual pages in the \fIdoc\fR directory of the baseline Tcl
distribution, and in the \fI*.3\fR manpages in the \fIdoc\fR directory of
Extended Tcl.
'
.SH TCL OBJECT SYSTEM
'
With the release of Tcl version 8, Tcl has a new system for managing Tcl
values internally. To the Tcl programmer, the new objects look and act
like strings, as before. But at the C level, these objects can now also
hold cached internal representations of the strings in various native
datatypes. For example, an object containing a string consisting of an
integer, will now maintain a machine-code integer representation, if an
integer representation has been needed.
Using these objects is much more efficient than
using the older-style Tcl strings, although the older style is still
(currently) supported.
.PP
Although the object system has almost no effect at all on how the Tcl
programmer uses Tcl, the object system's C interfaces to strings, integers,
lists, etc., have changed considerably. While converting a package
to use the new system can be a lot of work, the combination of the
object system, which saves Tcl from having to constantly convert strings
to integers and back, etc., and the on-the-fly bytecode compiler (which
keeps Tcl from having to continually reparse code it is to execute) yield
Tcl programs
that routinely execute several times more quickly than with previous
versions (Tcl 7 and before), and in some cases run as much
as 2500 (!) times faster than before.
.PP
We have chosen, then, to rewrite the Command Writer's manpage, which has
been shipping with Extended Tcl for a number of years, to produce this
new version based on the new object system. The old manpage, based on
the older string-oriented routines, will still be included in TclX releases
for now, as it is still relevant to Tcl releases through version 7,
and may be of use to those modifying/upgrading packages written for
the old model. The old manual will be dropped from the release once
we deem it unneeded; the old interfaces should now be considered legacy
interfaces, and all new development should be done using the new object
interfaces, unless backwards compatibility to pre-Tcl-8 releases is needed.
.SH A SIMPLE C EXTENSION
All C-based Tcl commands are called with four arguments: a client data pointer,
an interpreter pointer, an argument count and a pointer to an array of
Tcl objects containing the arguments to the command.
.PP
A simple C extension to Tcl is now presented, and described below:
.sp
.nf
.ft CW
#include "tcl.h"
int App_DumpArgsObjCmd(clientData, interp, objc, objv)
void *clientData;
Tcl_Interp *interp;
int objc;
Tcl_Obj **objv;
{
int i;
int stringLen;
char *stringPtr;
for (i = 1; i < objc; i++) {
stringPtr = Tcl_GetStringFromObj (objv [i], &stringLen);
printf("%s", stringPtr);
if (i < objc - 1) printf(" ");
}
printf("\\n");
return TCL_OK;
}
.ft R
.fi
.PP
The client data pointer will be described later.
.SH INTERPRETERS
The interpreter pointer is the ``key'' to an interpreter. It is returned by
\fBTcl_CreateInterp\fR and is used extensively
within Tcl, and will be used by your C extensions. The data structure
pointed to by the interpreter pointer,
and all of the subordinate structures that branch off of it, make up a
Tcl interpreter, which includes all of the currently defined
procedures, commands, variables, arrays and the execution state of that
interpreter. (For more information on creating and deleting interpreters,
please examine the \fBCrtInterp\fR(3) manpage in the core Tcl distribution.
For information on creating interpreters that include the commands provided
by Extended Tcl, check out the \fBTclX_Init\fR(3) manpage of Extended
Tcl.
For a manual page describing the user-visible fields of a Tcl interpreter,
please look at \fBInterp\fR(3) in core Tcl.)
.SH OBJECT COUNT AND ARGUMENTS
The argument count, or object count (objc), and pointer to an array of
pointers to Tcl objects of the command's arguments (objv) is handled by your
C code, in a manner similar to the one you would use in writing a C \fImain\fR
function -- an argument count and array of pointers works the same as in a
C \fImain\fR call; pointers to the arguments to the function are contained in
the \fIobjv\fR array. Similar to a C main, the first argument
(\fIobjv[0]\fR) is an object containing the name the routine was called as
(in a C main, the name the program was invoked as).
.PP
In Tcl, however, the array of pointers are not pointers to character
strings (although they were in all version of Tcl before 8.0).
.PP
In the above example, all of the arguments are output with a space between
each one by looping through elements of the \fIobjv\fR array from one to the
argument count, \fIobjc\fR, and a
newline is output to terminate the line -- a simple ``echo'' command.
This example uses printf for simplicity. Of course in production code
you would want to use the Tcl filesystem interfaces. See
\fBGetFile\fR(3) and friends for more information.
.PP
All arguments from a Tcl call to a Tcl C extension are passed as Tcl Objects.
If your C routine wants to look at one of those arguments as an integer,
you need to make a call to a routine to fetch the representation of the
object that you need. In the earlier example, for instance,
\fBTcl_GetStringFromObj\fR is called to obtain a textual representation
of an object. Additional routines are available to fetch the representation
of a data element as other data types. Tcl_GetBooleanFromObj,
Tcl_GetDoubleFromObj, Tcl_GetIntFromObj, Tcl_GetLongFromObj, and
Tcl_GetIndexFromObj, fetch object representations of Tcl strings as booleans,
double-precision floating point, integer, long integer, and lists, among
others.
.PP
These routines automatically leave an appropriate error message in
the Tcl interpreter's result object and return \fBTCL_ERROR\fR if
a conversion error occurs. (For more information on these
routines, please look at the \fBObject\fR(3) manpage in the
core Tcl distribution.)
'
.SH RETURNING RESULTS
'
As you might expect, the API for setting results from C extensions has
changed significantly under the object system.
The old technique of writing small results directory into the interpreter's
result buffer is no longer used, for example. The notion of
having to tell Tcl whether a result is static or dynamic is also
a thing of the past. Under the object system, results are objects that
are set up by your code, and objects are freed when their reference
counts say they should be. More on this later.
.P
If you program produces a numeric result, it should
set the result object to contain that numeric value.
A common way of doing this is something like...
.sp
.nf
.ft CW
Tcl_Obj *obj;
obj = Tcl_GetObjResult (interp);
Tcl_SetIntObj (obj, value);
.ft R
.fi
.PP
The above code obtains a pointer to the result object (an object made
available to your routine that you're supposed to store your results
into) and sets the integer value \fIvalue\fR into it.
.PP
Another way to do it would be to set up a new object and tell Tcl that
this object contains the result...
.sp
.nf
.ft CW
Tcl_Obj *resultObj;
/* create a new object for use as a result */
resultObj = Tcl_NewObj ();
Tcl_SetIntObj (obj, value);
Tcl_SetObjResult (interp, resultObj);
.ft R
.fi
.PP
Understanding how results
are passed back to Tcl is essential to the C extension writer.
Please study the \fBSetObjResult\fR(3) manual page in the Tcl
distribution for more information.
'
.SH VALIDATING ARGUMENTS
'
It is a design goal of Tcl that no Tcl program be able to cause Tcl to
dump core. It is important that the extension writers, likewise,
use the available methods and tools to make sure that their extensions
do not allow unchecked input, for example, to cause the code to get
some kind of runtime exception.
.PP
The object system has simplified, to some degree, the task of validating
arguments, in that the object system automatically attempts type
conversions as needed, and will return an error when a type conversion fails.
.PP
A simple, but important, check that every C extension should do is verify
that it has the right number of arguments.
.PP
The act of trying to use, say, a string as an integer, implicitly performs
the type conversion of the string and, if it doesn't work as an integer,
returns TCL_ERROR. The developer should check for the TCL_ERROR return
from all of the GetXxxFromObj commands, and handle them as appropriate.
Usually this will mean propagating the error on back to the user, or to
an intevening catch, as the case may be.
.PP
You should also check that values are in range (when their ranges are known),
and so forth. When C data structures need to be handled in Tcl in some
form or another, yet the contents of the data must remain opaque to Tcl,
as is usually the case with binary data (although futures releases of
Tcl are expected to have native abilities to read, write and manipulate
binary data instrinsically), \fIhandles\fR need to be used. Handles will
be described and examples presented, later in this doc.
'
.SH ANOTHER C EXTENSION - THE MAX COMMAND
'
In the command below, two or more arguments are compared, and the one with
the maximum value is returned, if all goes well. It is an error if there
are fewer than two arguments (the pointer to the ``max'' command text itself,
\fIobjv[0]\fR, and a pointer to at least one object to compare the
values of).
.PP
.nf
.ft CW
int
Tcl_MaxCmd (clientData, interp, objc, objv)
char *clientData;
Tcl_Interp *interp;
int objc;
Tcl_Obj **objv;
{
int maxVal = MININT;
int value, idx;
if (objc < 3)
return TclX_WrongArgs (interp, objv[0],
" num1 num2 [..numN]");
for (idx = 1; idx < objc; idx++) {
if (Tcl_GetIntFromObj (interp, objv[idx], &value) != TCL_OK)
return TCL_ERROR;
if (value > maxVal) {
maxVal = value;
}
}
Tcl_SetIntObj (Tcl_GetObjResult (interp), value);
return TCL_OK;
}
.ft R
.fi
.PP
Here we introduce the Extended Tcl helper function
\fBTclX_WrongArgs\fR. This routine makes it easy to create an
error message and error return in response to the common mistake of being
called with a wrong number.
.PP
\fBTcl_GetIntFromObj\fR is used to fetch the integer values of the
remaining arguments. If any fail to be converted, we return a Tcl
error. If an interpreter is specified in the call to
\fBTcl_GetIntFromObj\fR, an appropriate error message about the
conversion failure will be left in the result, so we do that here.
.PP
After examining all of the arguments to find the largest value, we
set the result object to contain that value, and return \fBTCL_OK\fR.
'
.SH RETURNING RESULTS
'
When Tcl-callable functions complete, they should normally return
\fBTCL_OK\fR or \fBTCL_ERROR\fR.
\fBTCL_OK\fR is returned when the command succeeded, and \fBTCL_ERROR\fR
is returned when the command has failed in some abnormal way.
\fBTCL_ERROR\fR should
be returned for all syntax errors, non-numeric values when numeric ones
were expected, and so forth. Less clear in some cases is whether Tcl errors
should be returned or whether a function should just return a status value.
For example, end-of-file during a \fIgets\fR returns a status,
but \fIopen\fR
returns an error if it fails. Errors can be caught from
Tcl programs using the \fIcatch\fR command. (See Tcl's \fBcatch\fR(n)
and \fBerror\fR(n) manual pages.)
.PP
Less common return values are
\fBTCL_RETURN\fR, \fBTCL_BREAK\fR and \fBTCL_CONTINUE\fR.
These are used if you are adding new control and/or looping
structures to Tcl. To see these values in action, examine the source code to
Extended Tcl's \fIloop\fR commands. Tcl's \fIwhile\fR, \fIfor\fR and
\fIif\fR commands used to work in the just same manner, but are now compiled
into bytecode by the bytecode for performance.
.PP
.SH ANOTHER C EXTENSION - THE LREVERSE COMMAND
In the command below, a list is passed as an argument, and a list
containing all of the elements of the list in reverse order is
returned. It is an error if anything other than two arguments are
passed (the pointer to the ``lreverse'' command text itself,
\fIobjv[0]\fR, and a pointer to the list to reverse.
.PP
Once \fIlreverse\fR has determined that it has received the correct
number of arguments, \fBTcl_ListObjGetElements\fR is called to split the
list into its own \fIobjc\fR count of elements and \fIobjv\fR array of
pointers to the list's elements.
.PP
\fIlreverse\fR then operates on the array of pointers, swapping them
from lowest to highest, second-lowest to second-highest, and so forth.
.PP
\fBTcl_ListObjAppendElement\fR is called on successive list elements
to build up the new list, which is finally returned as result of the
command.
.PP
.sp
.nf
.ft CW
int
Tcl_LreverseObjCmd(notUsed, interp, objc, objv)
ClientData notUsed; /* Not used. */
Tcl_Interp *interp; /* Current interpreter. */
int objc; /* Number of arguments. */
Tcl_Obj **obj; /* Argument strings. */
{
int listObjc, lowListIndex, hiListIndex;
Tcl_Obj **listObjv;
char *temp, *resultList;
Tcl_Obj **newListObjv;
/* Verify argument count. Since we take only one argument, argument
* count must be 2 (command plus one argument).
*/
if (objc != 2)
return TclX_WrongArgs (interp, objv [0], "list");
/* Create an object to handle the new list we're creating */
newListObjv = Tcl_NewObj();
/* Crack the list at objv[1] into its own count and array of object
* pointers.
*/
if (Tcl_ListObjGetElements (interp, objv[1], &listObjc, &listObjv) != TCL_OK) {
return TCL_ERROR;
}
/* For each element in the source list from last to first, append an
* element to the new list.
*/
for (listIndex = listObjc - 1; listIndex >= 0; listIndex--) {
Tcl_ListObjAppendElement (interp, newListObjv, listObjv[listIndex]);
}
FIX: NEED TO RETURN THE LIST.
return TCL_OK;
}
.ft R
.fi
.PP
'
.SH INSTALLING YOUR COMMAND
.P
To install your command into Tcl you must call
\fBTcl_CreateObjCommand\fR, passing
it the pointer to the interpreter you want to install the command into,
the name of the command, a pointer to the C function that implements the
command, a client data pointer,
and a pointer to an optional callback routine.
.PP
The client data pointer and the callback routine will be described later.
.PP
For example, for the max function above (which, incidentally, comes from
TclX's tclXmath.c in the \fITclX7.4/src\fR directory):
.sp
.nf
.ft CW
Tcl_CreateCommand (interp, "max", Tcl_MaxCmd, (ClientData)NULL,
(void (*)())NULL);
.ft R
.fi
.PP
In the above example, the max function is added
to the specified interpreter. The client data pointer and callback
function pointer are NULL. (For complete information on
\fBTcl_CreateCommand\fR and its companion routine, \fBTcl_CommandInfo\fR,
please examine the \fBCrtCommand\fR(3) command page in the
core Tcl distribution.)
.PP
.SH DYNAMIC STRINGS
.PP
\fIDynamic strings\fR
are an important abstraction that first became
available with Tcl 7.0. Dynamic strings, or \fIDStrings\fR, provide
a way to build up arbitrarily long strings through a repeated process
of appending information to them. DStrings reduce the amount of
allocating and copying required to add information to a string.
Further, they simplify the process of doing so.
.PP
At first glance, it may seem that the object system supersedes DStrings.
It does not, in that the performance improvements made possible by the
lazy conversion of an object's representation from one datatype to another
does not come into play much while constructing strings as the string
representation is always available either without any type conversion or
where type conversion would be necessary in any case as a string
representation of the object is required when strings are being constructed
by concatenation, etc.
.PP
It should be noted, however, that the C level string manipulation capabilities
of objects, such as \fBTcl_AppendToObj\fR and \fBTcl_AppendStringsToObj\fR,
are often plenty enough for what you need to do.
For complete information on dynamic strings, please examine the
\fBDString\fR(3) manual page in the core Tcl distribution. For more
on Tcl object's string-oriented calls, seek \fBTcl_StringObj\fR(3) in
the same location.
.PP
.SH CLIENT DATA
.PP
The client data pointer provides a means for Tcl commands to have data
associated with them that is not global to the C program nor included in
the Tcl core. Client data is essential in a multi-interpreter environment
(where a single program has created and is making use of multiple
Tcl interpreters)
for the C routines to maintain any permanent data they need on a
per-interpreter basis.
If needed static data was simply declared static in C, you will probably
have reentrancy problems when you work with multiple interpreters.
.PP
Tcl solves this through the client data mechanism. When you are about
to call
\fBTcl_CreateObjCommand\fR to add a new command to an interpreter, if your
command needs to keep some read/write data across invocations,
you should allocate the space, preferably using \fBTcl_Alloc\fR instead
of \fBmalloc\fR, then pass
the address of that space as the ClientData pointer to
\fBTcl_CreateObjCommand\fR.
.PP
When your command is called from Tcl, the ClientData pointer you passed to
\fBTcl_CreateObjCommand\fR will be passed to your C routine through the
ClientData pointer calling argument.
.PP
Commands that need to share this data with one another can do so by using the
same ClientData pointer when the commands are added.
.PP
It is important to note that the Tcl extensions in the \fItclX8.0.0\fR
directory have had all of their data set up in this way.
Since release 6.2, Extended Tcl has supported
multiple interpreters within one invocation of Tcl.
'
.SH THEORY OF HANDLES
Sometimes you need to have a data element that isn't readily representable
as a string within Tcl, for example a pointer to a complex C data structure.
It is not a good idea to try to pass pointers around within
Tcl as strings by converting them to and from hex or integer representations,
for example. It is too easy to mess one up, and the likely outcome of
doing that is a core dump.
.PP
Instead we have developed and made use of the concept
of \fIhandles\fR.
Handles are identifiers a C extension can pass to, and accept from,
Tcl to make the transition between what your C code knows something as
and what name Tcl knows it by to be as safe and painless as possible.
For example,
the I/O system included in Tcl uses file handles. When you open a
file from Tcl, a handle is returned of the form \fBfile\fIn\fR where
\fIn\fR is a file number. When you pass the file handle back to \fIputs\fR,
\fIgets\fR, \fIseek\fR, \fIflush\fR and so forth, they validate the file
handle by checking the the \fBfile\fR text is present, then converting
the file number to an integer that they use to look into a data
structure of pointers
to Tcl open file structures, which contain a Unix file descriptor, flags
indicating whether or not the file is currently open, whether the file is
a file or a pipe and so forth.
.PP
Handles have proven so useful that, since TclX release 6.1a, general support
has been available to help create and manipulate them. Many of these
capabilities have migrated into baseline Tcl.
If you have a similar need, you might like to use the handle
routines documented in \fBHandles\fR(3) in Extended Tcl.
We recommend that you use a
unique-to-your-package textual handle coupled with a specific identifier
and let the handle management routines validate it when it's passed back.
It is much easier to
track down a bug with an implicated handle named something like \fBfile4\fR
or \fBbitmap6\fR than just \fB6\fR.
.PP
Note that Tcl's object offers another way for complex data structures to
exist in parallel with and underneath Tcl strings. As of this writing
(May 30, 1997) this is fairly new territory, but things are looking good
for the prospects of using the Tcl object system in this manner, and for
enhancements to the object system that allow even Tcl objects to have
methods in a very straightforward and simple way.
'
.SH USING COMMANDS TO DO THE SAME THING, AND MORE
.PP
Another handle-like technique, first popularized in the Tk toolkit, offers
handle-like capabilities as well as some neat additional capabilities.
That is to create a new Tcl command, from C, that uses ClientData to keep
a "handle" on its complex underlying data structure. Then by having
that command look at its second argument for what it is to do (its
sub-functions), you get these nice methods, where you have several additional
sub-commands that don't pollute the global namespace and only work on (and
are available with) the objects (new commands) they are relevant to.
For example, in Tk, creating a checkbutton (\fBcheckbutton .b\fB) creates a
new Tcl command (\fB.b\fB), that has methods to configure the button,
select, deselect, toggle and flash it.
.PP
A lot of people think this is really the way to go, and I am pretty much
leaning that way myself. If you use the \fBincr tcl\fR script-level object
system for Tcl, objects that you define in Tcl will be highly compatible
in terms of their command interfaces and configuration management with
objects you create in C using the the command-and-ClientData technique
described here. I believe \fBTk\fR has some nice facilities for making this
easy for the Tcl programmer. \fBItcl\fR certainly does.
.PP
.SH TRACKING MEMORY CORRUPTION PROBLEMS
Occasionally you may write code that scribbles past the end of an
allocated piece of memory. This will usually result in a core dump or
memory allocation failure sometime later in the program, often implicating
code that is not actually responsible for the problem (as you start looking
from the point where the error is detected, which is usually where the later
routine has failed).
.PP
The memory debugging routines included in Tcl can help find these problems.
Developed by Mark and Karl, the memory debugging routines are now part of
baseline Tcl, and is to our knowledge the largest piece of TclX to drop
into the core without being reengineered first. (You see, summer back
in '91, John was sitting in his office in the CS building at UC Berkeley
trying to find a memory leak somewhere in Tcl, when he was paid a visit
by two long-haired-yet-polite programmers bearing gifts in the form of
the technology grab-bag known as Extended Tcl. He saw that, using TclX's
malloc routines, Tcl could be prompted to print the filename and line number
of every single memory allocation that did not have a corresponding free.
It was just what the doctor ordered ;-)
See
\fIMemory(TCL)\fR for details.
.PP
.SH INSTALLING YOUR EXTENSIONS INTO TCL
To add your extensions to Tcl, you used to have to statically link them,
together with any other extensions, into a single binary executable
image. Today, although the statically linked executable is still an option,
most operating systems, even Microsoft Windows, support shared libraries,
and in most cases, Tcl can now make use of those shared libraries such
that you extensions, and most others, can now be built a shared libraries
that can be loaded in (using \fBpackage require\fR) by scripts that need
them. Shared libraries can simplify a Tcl installation, because only
one copy of Tcl is required, rather than a hodepodge of combinations of
applications that you might have found at a big Tcl site in the previous
era.
'
.SH GNU AUTOCONF
While the build procedure for shared libraries varies from system to system,
most Unix and Unix workalike systems will figure out the nuances of the
compiler and linker arguments automatically when the \fIconfigure\fR script
is run. If you are building a package that you plan to make generally
available, we strongly recommend that you use \fBGNU autoconf\fR
(ftp://prep.ai.mit.edu/pub/gnu) to set up an automatic \fIconfigure\fR script
for it. Be forewarned that \fIautoconf\fR uses some pretty heavy duty
shell and sed script magic to get the job done, and the learning curve
can be pretty steep. Once done and shaken out, though, it's rewarding
to know that your package can build and run on everything from a notebook
to a Cray to a RISC SMP server.
.PP
Application-specific startup is accomplished by creating or editing the
\fITcl_AppInit\fR function. In \fITcl_AppInit\fR you should add a
call to an application-specific init function which you create. This
function should take the address of the interpreter it should install its
commands into, and it should install those commands with \fBTcl_CreateCommand\fR
and do any other application-specific startup that is necessary.
.PP
The naming convention for application startup routines is \fBApp_Init\fR,
where \fIApp\fR is the name of your application. For example, to add
an application named \fIcute\fR one would create a \fICute_Init\fR routine
that expected a \fBTcl_Interp\fR pointer as an argument, and add the following
code to \fITcl_AppInit\fR:
.sp
.nf
.ft CW
if (Cute_Init (interp) == TCL_ERROR) {
return TCL_ERROR;
}
.ft R
.fi
.PP
As you can guess from the above example, if your init routine is unable
to initialize, it should use \fBTcl_AppendResult\fR to provide some kind
of useful error message back to TclX, then return \fBTCL_ERROR\fR to
indicate that an error occurred. If the routine executed successfully,
it should return \fBTCL_OK\fR.
.PP
When you examine \fITcl_AppInit\fR, note that there is
one call already there to install an application -- the call to
\fITclX_Init\fR installs Extended Tcl into the Tcl core.
.SH MAKING APPLICATION INFORMATION VISIBLE FROM EXTENDED TCL
TclX's \fBinfox\fR command can return several pieces of information
relevant to Extended Tcl, including the application's name, descriptive
name, patch level and version. Your application's startup can set
these variables to application-specific values. If it doesn't, they
are given default values for Extended Tcl.
.PP
To set these values, first be sure that you include either \fBtclExtend.h\fR
or \fBtclExtdInt.h\fR from the source file that defines your init routine.
This will create external declarations for the variables. Then, set the
variables in your init route, for example:
.sp
.nf
.ft CW
tclAppName = "cute";
tclAppLongName = "Call Unix/Tcl Environment";
tclAppVersion = "2.1";
.ft R
.fi
.PP
Note that the default values are set by \fITclX_Init\fR, so if you wish
to override them, you must call your init routine in \fITcl_AppInit\fR
after its call to \fITclX_Init\fR.
.PP
.SH EXTENDED TCL EXIT
.PP
When Extended Tcl exits,
\fBTcl_DeleteInterp\fR may be called to free memory used by Tcl -- normally,
this is only called if \fBTCL_MEM_DEBUG\fR was defined, since Unix
will return all of the allocated memory back to the system, anyway.
If \fBTCL_MEM_DEBUG\fR was defined, it is called so that any memory that
was allocated without ever being freed can be detected. This greatly
reduces the amount of work to detect and track down memory leaks, a
situation where some piece of your code allocates memory repeatedly without
ever freeing it, or at least without always freeing it.
.PP
It is often necessary for an application to perform special cleanup
functions upon the deletion of an interpreter as well. To facilitate
this activity, Tcl provides the ability to perform a function callback
when an interpreter is deleted. To arrange for a C function to be
called when the interpreter is deleted, call \fBTcl_CallWhenDeleted\fR
from your application initialization routine. For details on how to
use this function, read the \fBCallDel\fR(3) manual page that ships with
core Tcl.
.PP
.SH EXECUTING TCL CODE FROM YOUR C EXTENSION
Suppose you are in the middle of coding a C extension and you realize
that you need some operation performed, one that would be simple from
Tcl, but possibly excruciating to do directly in C. Tcl provides
a number of C-level interfaces whereby you can cause Tcl code to be
executeed. The old-style calls are \fBTcl_Eval\fR, \fBTcl_VarEval\fR,
\fBTcl_EvalFile\fR and \fBTcl_GlobalEval\fR. The results of these calls
can be dug out of the interpreter using \fBTcl_GetStringResult\fR, if you
want a string representation of the result, or \fBTcl_GetObjResult\fR
if you want the object. (The use of \fBinterp->result\fR to access
the result string has been deprecated.)
.PP
The Tcl object system adds \fBTcl_EvalObj\fR and \fBTcl_GlobalEvalObj\fR.
The difference here is that we are evaluating an object, not just a
string, and using these routines in preference to the aforementioned
ones can result in a major performance improvement in your code, when
the code is executed repeatedly (even if it only executes once but
loops several times within itself), as these routines make it possible
for the bytecode compiler to compile the code being evaluated and save
the compiled code with the data structure, in an implementation-dependent
manner.
.PP
For more information please consult the
\fBEvalObj\fR(3) and \fBEval\fR(3) manual pages within the Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH ACCESSING TCL VARIABLES AND ARRAYS FROM YOUR C EXTENSIONS
In addition to the non-object-system ways of reading from and storing to
Tcl variables, using routines such as \fBTcl_SetVar2\fR and
\fBTcl_GetVar2\fR, Tcl variables and arrays can be read from a C extension
as Tcl objects by using the \fBTcl_ObjGetVar2\fR function, and
set from C extensions through the \fBTcl_ObjSetVar2\fR function.
.PP
Please note that the object versions do not carry forward analogues
to the one-variable-name-argument \fBTcl_GetVar\fR, \fBTcl_SetVar\fR,
and \fBTcl_UnsetVar\fR. If you know you have a scalar, call the object
variable get and set functions with a NULL second argument. If your variable
name might contain an array reference via a self-contained embedded array
index (i.e., I'm asking \fBTcl_ObjGetVar2\fR for \fB"foo(5)"\fR instead
of \fB"foo" "5"\fR), add the \fBTCL_PARSE_PART1\fR to the flags in your call.
.PP
While the fact that \fBTcl_ObjGetVar2\fR retrieves Tcl objects, rather
than strings, is critical for the object system to be able to provide
the performance boosts from "lazy" type conversion and the binary data
capabilities, the arguments containing the variable name, or the
array name and element name if they've been split out, also must be
specified as Tcl objects rather than strings. While this is useful
on occasion, those writing C extensions for Tcl in the post-object-system
era usually have the names available as plain old \fIchar *\fR variables,
requiring conversion of the strings to objects before use and account for
their possible destruction afterwards.
.PP
To simplify the task in those cases, TclX adds the
\fBTclX_ObjGetVar2S\fR subroutine. It works just like
\fBTcl_ObjGetVar2\fR, except the one or two variable name arguments
are specified as strings, and the routine takes care of making and
disposing of object equivalents.
.PP
Tcl variables can be unset from C via the \fBTcl_UnsetVar\fR and
\fBTcl_UnsetVar2\fR functions. There are currently (as of 8.0)
no object-system equivalents, so in the rare case where you have the
name of the variable you want unset as an object instead of a string,
you can call \fBTcl_GetStringFromObj\fR to obtain the string
representation first.
.PP
For complete information on these functions,
please refer to the \fBObjSetVar\fR(3) and \fBSetVar\fR(3) manual
pages in the \fIdoc\fR directory of the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH LINKING TCL VARIABLES TO C VARIABLES
\fBTcl_LinkVar\fR and \fBTcl_UnlinkVar\fR can be used to automatically
keep Tcl variables synchronized with corresponding C variables. Once
a Tcl variable has been linked to a C variable with \fBTcl_LinkVar\fR,
anytime the Tcl variable is read, the value of the C variable is
converted (if necessary) and returned, and when the Tcl variable is
written, the C variable will be updated with the new value.
.PP
\fBTcl_LinkVar\fR uses variable traces to keep the Tcl variable
named by \fIvarName\fR in sync with the C variable at the address
given by \fIaddr\fR.
.PP
\fIInt\fR, \fIdouble\fR, \fIboolean\fR and \fIchar *\fR variables
are supported. You can make your linked variables read only
from the Tcl side, as well. Please note that the C variables must
continually exist while they are linked, in other words, linking
"automatic" C variables, those created on the stack while a routine
is being executed and destroyed afterwards, will result in a
malfunctioning program at best and a coredump or more at worst.
.PP
For more information, please examine the
\fBLinkVar\fR(3) manual page in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH ADDING NEW MATH FUNCTIONS TO TCL
As of Tcl version 7.0, math functions such as \fIsin\fR, \fIcos\fR, etc,
are directly supported within Tcl expressions. These obsolete the
Extended Tcl commands that provided explicit commands for these functions
for many, many releases, although procs equivalencing the old TclX commands
to the new math functions are still provided for backwards compatibility.
.PP
New math functions can be added to Tcl, or existing math functions
can be replaced, by calling \fBTcl_CreateMathFunc\fR.
.PP
.SH ACCESSING AND MANIPULATING THE RANDOM NUMBER GENERATOR
Prior to Tcl version 8.0, the Tcl core did not provide access to a
random number generator, but TclX did, through its \fIrandom\fR
command. As of Tcl version 8.0, access to a random number generator is
provided by baseline Tcl through the new math functions, \fIrand\fR and
\fIsrand\fR.
.PP
The TclX \fIrandom\fR command is still available -- it has some useful
capabilities not directly provided by the new baseline functions.
.PP
For more information on adding your own math functions to Tcl, please study
the \fBCrtMathFnc\fR(3) manual page in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH CONVERTING FILENAMES TO NATIVE FORM AND PERFORMING TILDE SUBSTITUTIONS
The \fBTcl_TranslateFileName\fR function is available to C extension writers
to translate filenames to a form suitable for use by the local operating
system. It converts network names to their native form, and if the name
starts with a ``~'' character, the function returns a new string where
the name is replaced with the home directory of the given user.
.PP
For more information please consult the \fBTranslate\fR(3) manual
page in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH SETTING THE RECURSION LIMIT
Tcl has a preset recursion limit that limits the maximum allowable nesting
depth of calls within an interpreter. This is useful for detecting
infinite recursions before other limits such as the process memory limit
or, worse, available swap space on the system, run out.
.PP
The default limit is just a guess, however, and applications that make
heavy use of recursion may need to call \fBTcl_SetRecursionLimit\fR
to raise this limit. For more information, please consult the
\fBSetRecLmt\fR(3) manual page in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH HANDLING SIGNALS FROM TCL EXTENSIONS
If an event such as a signal occurs while a Tcl script is being
executed, it isn't safe to do much in the signal handling routine --
the Tcl environment cannot be safely manipulated at this point because
it could be in the middle of some operation, such as updating pointers,
leaving the interpreter in an unreliable state.
.PP
The only safe approach is to set a flag indicating that the event
occurred, then handle the event later when the interpreter has returned
to a safe state, such as after the current Tcl command completes.
.PP
The \fBTcl_AsyncCreate\fR, \fBTcl_AsyncMark\fR, \fBTcl_AsyncInvoke\fR,
and \fBTcl_AsyncDelete\fR functions provide a safe mechanism for dealing
with signals and other asynchronous events. For more information on how
to use this capability, please refer to the \fBAsync\fR(3) manual page
in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
Note that Extended Tcl provides built-in support for managing
signals in numerous ways, including generating them with \fIalarm\fR(2)
and \fIkill\fR(2), ignoring them, trapping them, getting, setting,
blocking and unblocking them. You can cause specific code to execute at
a safe point after a signal occurs, or cause a Tcl error backtrace on
one's occurrence. For more information, please examine the TclX
documentation.
.SH PARSING BACKSLASH SEQUENCES
The \fBTcl_Backslash\fR function is called to parse Tcl backslash sequences.
These backslash sequences are the usual sort that you see in the C
programming language, such as \fB\\n\fR for newline, \fB\\r\fR for return, and
so forth. \fBTcl_Backslash\fR parses a single backslash sequence and
returns a single character corresponding to the backslash sequence.
.PP
For more info on this call, look at the \fBBackslash\fR(3) manual page
in the core Tcl distribution. For information on the valid backslash
sequences, consult the summary of Tcl language syntax, \fBTcl\fR(n)
in the same distribution.
.PP
.SH HASH TABLES
\fIHash tables\fR provide Tcl with a high-performance facility for looking up
and managing key-value pairs located and maintained in memory. Tcl uses
hash tables internally to locate procedure definitions, Tcl variables,
array elements, file handles and so forth. Tcl makes the hash table
functions accessible to C extension writers as well.
.PP
Hash tables grow automatically to maintain efficiency, rather than exposing
the table size to the programmer at allocation time, which would needlessly
add complexity to Tcl and would be prone to inefficiency due
to the need to guess the number of items that will go into the table,
and the seemingly inevitable growth in amount of data processed
per run over the useful life of the program.
.PP
For more information on hash tables, please consult the \fBHash\fR(3) manual
page in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH TRACING VARIABLE ACCESSES
The C extension writer can arrange to have a C routine called whenever a
Tcl variable is read, written, or unset. Variable traces are the
mechanism by which Tk toolkit widgets such as radio and checkbuttons,
messages and so forth update without Tcl programmer intervention when their
data variables are changed. They are also used by the routine that links
Tcl and C variables, \fBTcl_LinkVar\fR, described above.
.PP
\fBTcl_TraceVar\fR is called to establish a variable trace. Entire arrays
and individual array elements can be traced as well. If the programmer
already has an array name in one string and a variable name in another,
\fBTcl_TraceVar2\fR can be called. Calls are also available to
request information about traces and to delete them.
.PP
For more information on variable traces, consult the \fBTraceVar\fR(3)
manual page in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH TRACING TCL EXECUTION
Tcl has the ability to call C routines each time it executes a Tcl command,
up to a specified depth of nesting levels. The command \fBTcl_CreateTrace\fR
creates an execution trace; \fBTcl_DeleteTrace\fR deletes it.
.PP
Command tracing is used in Extended Tcl to implement the
\fIcmdtrace\fR Tcl command, a useful command for debugging
Tcl applications.
.PP
For complete information on execution tracing, please look at
the \fBCrtTrace\fR(3) manual pages in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH EVALUATING TCL EXPRESSIONS FROM C
\fBTcl_ExprLong\fR, \fBTcl_ExprDouble\fR, \fBTcl_ExprBool\fR,
and \fBTcl_ExprString\fR all take string arguments and, when
called, evaluate those strings as Tcl expressions.
Depending on the routine called, the
result is either a C \fIlong\fR, a \fIdouble\fR, a boolean
(\fIint\fR with a value of \fB0\fR or \fI1\fR), or a \fIchar *\fR
(obtainable through \fBTcl_GetResult\fR).
.PP
To take advantage of the performance gains available through the bytecode
compiler, \fBTcl_ExprLongObj\fR, \fBTcl_ExprDoubleObj\fR,
\fBTcl_ExprBoolObj\fR, and \fBTcl_ExprObj\fR all take an object containing
an expression to be evaluated (rather than a string.) The result
is that bytecode-compiled version of the expression will be kept in the
object, alongside the string representation. If the expression is evaluated
again, without being changed, it does not have to be recompiled... a major
performance win.
.PP
For complete information on evaluating Tcl expressions from C, you
are invited to examine the \fBExprLong\fR(3) and \fBExprLongObj\fR(3)
manpages in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH PATTERN MATCHING
The \fBTcl_StringMatch\fR function can be called to see
if a string matches a specified pattern. \fBTcl_StringMatch\fR
is called by the Tcl \fIstring match\fR command, so the format for
patterns is identical. The pattern format is similar to the one
used by the C-shell; \fBstring\fR(n) describes this format.
.PP
More information about \fBTcl_StringMatch\fR is available in
the \fBStrMatch\fR(3) manpage in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH REGULAR EXPRESSION PATTERN MATCHING
\fBTcl_RegExpMatch\fR can be called to determine whether
a string matches a regular expression. \fBTcl_RegExpMatch\fR
is used internally by the \fIregexp\fR Tcl command.
.PP
As regular expressions are typically "compiled" before use, a fairly
involved process, Tcl also supports routines that separate the compilation
of an expression from its use: \fBTcl_RegExpCompile\fR, \fBTcl_RegExpExec\fR,
and \fBTcl_RegExpRange\fR. If an expression is going to be matched
many times, doing the compile once and caching the compiled regular
expression result, then reusing the cached version by using
\fBTcl_RegExpExec\fR, can be a significant performance win.
.PP
For more information on this function, please consult
the \fBRegExp\fR(3) manpage in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH MANIPULATING TCL LISTS FROM C EXTENSIONS
The C extension writer often needs to create, manipulate and decompose
Tcl lists. \fBTcl_SplitList\fR and \fBTcl_Merge\fR used to be the only
way to parse strings into lists and vice versa. As of Tcl 8, lists
can be parsed and assembled, object-style, using
\fBTcl_ListObjGetElements\fR and \fBTcl_SetListObj\fR, and friends.
Once again the "win" of using object-system-based list manipulation,
instead of the previous string based routines, is that the parsing of a
string in an object to a list is cached in the object structure, the same as
with integers and floating point numbers, compiled procedures, etc. The
next time this string needs to be looked at as a list, if the contents
of the string have not changed, the string does not have to be parsed.
.PP
In the author's experience, working with an admittedly degenerate test
whereby we iterated rather inefficiently across a 6,000-element list,
a speedup factor of more than 2500 was obtained over the previous
non-object-based version of Tcl.
.PP
For more information on these commands, please consult the
\fBListObj\fR(3) manual page in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH CONCATENATING STRINGS
\fBTcl_ConcatObj\fR concatenates the string representation of
zero or more objects into a single new object.
The elements of the new string are space-separated. \fBTcl_Concat\fR
does the same thing for strings, as \fBTcl_ConcatObj\fR does for
objects.
.PP
Concatenating strings is similar to constructing lists from them,
except that \fBTcl_ConcatObj\fR and \fBTcl_Concat\fR do not attempt to
make the resulting string into a valid Tcl list.
.PP
\fBTcl_Concat\fR is documented in the \fBConcat\fR(3) manpage,
and \fBTcl_ConcatObj\fR in the \fBtringObj\fR manpage,
both in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH DETECTING WHETHER OR NOT YOU HAVE A COMPLETE COMMAND
C routines that collect data to form a command to be passed to
\fITcl_Eval\fR often need a way to tell whether they have a complete
command already or whether they need more data. (Programs that read
typed-in Tcl input such as Tcl shells need this capability, for instance.)
\fBTcl_CommandComplete\fR can be used to tell whether or not you have a
complete command.
.PP
For more information examine \fBCmdCmplt\fR(3) in the
core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH RECORDING COMMANDS FOR COMMAND HISTORY
Tcl has a history mechanism that is accessed from Tcl through the
\fIhistory\fR command. If you want your extension to propagate commands
into the command history, you should call \fITcl_RecordAndEvalObj\fR (object
system) or \fITcl_RecordAndEval\fR (old system),
.PP
These commands work like \fITcl_EvalObj\fR and \fITcl_Eval\fR,
respectively, except that these versions record the command as well as
executing it.
.PP
\fITcl_RecordAndEval\fR and \fITcl_RecordAndEvlObj\fR should only be called
with user-entered top-level commands, since the history mechanism exists to
allow the user to easily access, edit and reissue previously issued
commands.
.PP
For complete information on these functions, please examine the
\fBRecordEval\fR.3 and \fBRecEvalObj\fR.3 manual pages in the core Tcl
distribution.
.PP
.SH CONVERTING FLOATING POINT VALUES TO STRINGS
The Tcl object system's \fBTcl_GetDoubleFromObj\fR and
\fBTcl_SetDoubleObj\fR use Tcl objects, rather than
the strings used by \fBTcl_PrintDouble\fR, and convert,
when necessary, an ASCII string to a \fIdouble\fR and
back again.
.PP
These routines ensure that the string output
will continue to be interpretable as a floating point
number, rather than an integer, by always putting a
``.'' or ``e'' into the string representing the number.
.PP
The precision of the output
string is controlled by the Tcl \fBtcl_precision\fR
variable.
.PP
For complete information on these routines, please
examine \fBDoubleObj\fR(3) and \fBPrintDbl\fR(3) in the core
Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH CREATING CHILD PROCESSES AND PIPELINES FROM C
\fBTcl_OpenCommandChannel\fR provides a C-level interface
to the \fBexec\fR and \fBopen\fR commands.
The child (or pipeline of children)
can have its standard input, output and error redirected
from files, variables or pipes. To understand the meaning
of the redirection symbols understood by this function,
look at the \fBexec\fR(n) Tcl
command. For complete information on \fBTcl_OpenCommandChannel\fR,
please examine \fBOpenFileChnl\fR(3).
.PP
.SH ACCESSING TCL FILEHANDLES FROM C
On Posix/Unix systems, Tcl filehandles
passed to your C extension can be translated to a Posix
\fIFILE *\fR structure using the \fBTcl_GetOpenFile\fR function,
documented in \fBGetOpnFl\fR.3.
.PP
.SH MANAGING BACKGROUND PROCESS TERMINATION AND CLEANUP
When a Posix system does a \fIfork\fR to create a new process,
the process ID of the child is returned to the caller. After
the child process exits, its process table entry (and some
other data associated with the process) cannot be
reclaimed by the operating system until a call to
\fIwaitpid\fR, or one of a couple of other, similar system calls,
has been made by the parent process.
.PP
The C extension writer who has created a subprocess, by whatever
mechanism, can turn over responsibility for detecting
the processes' termination and calling \fIwaitpid\fR to obtain
its exit status, by calling \fBTcl_DetachPids\fR on it.
.PP
\fBTcl_ReapDetachedProcs\fR is the C routine that will
detect the termination of any processes turned over to Tcl,
permitting the processes to be fully reclaimed by the operating system.
It is usually not necessary to call \fBTcl_ReapDetachedProcs\fR,
as it is called automatically every time \fBexec\fR is performed.
.PP
For complete information on these routines, please look at
\fIDetachPids(3)\fR in the core Tcl distribution.
.PP
.SH FOR MORE INFORMATION
.PP
In addition to the documentation referenced above, you can learn a lot
by studying the source code of the commands added by Tcl, Tk and
Extended Tcl, etc. The \fIcomp.lang.tcl\fR Usenet newsgroup is read by
hundreds of thousands of Tcl people. A number of Frequently Asked Questions
(FAQs) about Tcl are posted there periodically. The newsgroup is a good
place to ask questions (after you've made sure they're not already
answered in the FAQ ;-)
.PP
Finally, if you have interactive Internet access, you can ftp to
\fIftp://ftp.neosoft.com/pub/tcl\fR, the site for contributed Tcl sources.
This site contains quite a few extensions, applications, and so forth,
including several object-oriented extension packages.
.PP
If you have access via the world-wide web, check out the
Sun Microsystems site (\fIhttp://sunscript.sun.com\fR),
the contributed sources archive website (\fIhttp://www.neosoft.com/tcl\fR),
and the homepage for Extended Tcl (\fIhttp://www.neosoft.com/tclx\fR).
.PP
.SH AUTHORS
.PP
Extended Tcl was created by Karl Lehenbauer (karl@neosoft.com) and
Mark Diekhans (markd@grizzly.com).
.PP
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