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<div class='intro'> <p>This is an unofficial reference manual for
LaTeX.  See below for the <a href='#SEC_Overview'>Table of Contents</a>. 
If you want a tutorial then please instead visit <a
href="https://www.learnlatex.org/"><code>learnlatex.org</code></a> or <a
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a <a href="https://latexref.xyz/dev/latex2e.pdf">pdf</a>.  Note that
there is also a separately-maintained <a
href="https://latexref.xyz/fr/">French edition</a>.</p>

<p> This document is not official.  It has not been reviewed by the
LaTeX maintainers.  Our goal is to cover all (non-private) LaTeX
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Next: <a href="#About-this-document" accesskey="n" rel="next">About this document</a>, Up: <a href="https://tug.org/texinfohtml/" accesskey="u" rel="up">(dir)</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
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<h1 class="top" id="LaTeX2e_003a-An-unofficial-reference-manual">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</h1>

<p>This document is an unofficial reference manual (version of
January 2023) for LaTeX2e, a document preparation system.
</p>

<div class="element-contents" id="SEC_Contents">
<h2 class="contents-heading">Table of Contents</h2>

<div class="contents">

<ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
  <li><a id="toc-About-this-document-1" href="#About-this-document">1 About this document</a></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Overview-of-LaTeX" href="#Overview">2 Overview of LaTeX</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-Starting-and-ending-1" href="#Starting-and-ending">2.1 Starting and ending</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Output-files-1" href="#Output-files">2.2 Output files</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-TeX-engines-1" href="#TeX-engines">2.3 TeX engines</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-LaTeX-command-syntax-1" href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">2.4 LaTeX command syntax</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Environment-1" href="#Environment">2.5 Environment</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-CTAN_003a-The-Comprehensive-TeX-Archive-Network" href="#CTAN">2.6 CTAN: The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network</a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Document-classes-1" href="#Document-classes">3 Document classes</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-Document-class-options-1" href="#Document-class-options">3.1 Document class options</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Additional-packages-1" href="#Additional-packages">3.2 Additional packages</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Class-and-package-construction-1" href="#Class-and-package-construction">3.3 Class and package construction</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-Class-and-package-structure-1" href="#Class-and-package-structure">3.3.1 Class and package structure</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-Class-and-package-commands-1" href="#Class-and-package-commands">3.3.2 Class and package commands</a></li>
    </ul></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Fonts-1" href="#Fonts">4 Fonts</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-fontenc-package-1" href="#fontenc-package">4.1 <code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareFontEncoding-1" href="#g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding">4.1.1 <code class="code">\DeclareFontEncoding</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareTextAccent-1" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent">4.1.2 <code class="code">\DeclareTextAccent</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault-1" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault">4.1.3 <code class="code">\DeclareTextAccentDefault</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand-1" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand">4.1.4 <code class="code">\DeclareTextCommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommand</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault-" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault">4.1.5 <code class="code">\DeclareTextCommandDefault</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommandDefault </code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareTextComposite-1" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextComposite">4.1.6 <code class="code">\DeclareTextComposite</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand-1" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand">4.1.7 <code class="code">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareTextSymbol-1" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol">4.1.8 <code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbol</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault-1" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault">4.1.9 <code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cLastDeclaredEncoding-1" href="#g_t_005cLastDeclaredEncoding">4.1.10 <code class="code">\LastDeclaredEncoding</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cUseTextSymbol-_0026-_005cUseTextAccent-1" href="#g_t_005cUseTextSymbol-_0026-_005cUseTextAccent">4.1.11 <code class="code">\UseTextSymbol</code> &amp; <code class="code">\UseTextAccent</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Font-styles-1" href="#Font-styles">4.2 Font styles</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Font-sizes-1" href="#Font-sizes">4.3 Font sizes</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Low_002dlevel-font-commands-1" href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">4.4 Low-level font commands</a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Layout-1" href="#Layout">5 Layout</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005conecolumn-1" href="#g_t_005conecolumn">5.1 <code class="code">\onecolumn</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005ctwocolumn-1" href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">5.2 <code class="code">\twocolumn</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cflushbottom-1" href="#g_t_005cflushbottom">5.3 <code class="code">\flushbottom</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005craggedbottom-1" href="#g_t_005craggedbottom">5.4 <code class="code">\raggedbottom</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Page-layout-parameters-1" href="#Page-layout-parameters">5.5 Page layout parameters</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch-1" href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">5.6 <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\baselinestretch</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Floats-1" href="#Floats">5.7 Floats</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005ccaption-1" href="#g_t_005ccaption">5.7.1 <code class="code">\caption</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Sectioning-1" href="#Sectioning">6 Sectioning</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005cpart-1" href="#g_t_005cpart">6.1 <code class="code">\part</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cchapter-1" href="#g_t_005cchapter">6.2 <code class="code">\chapter</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005csection-1" href="#g_t_005csection">6.3 <code class="code">\section</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005csubsection-1" href="#g_t_005csubsection">6.4 <code class="code">\subsection</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005csubsubsection_002c-_005cparagraph_002c-_005csubparagraph" href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">6.5 <code class="code">\subsubsection</code>, <code class="code">\paragraph</code>, <code class="code">\subparagraph</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cappendix-1" href="#g_t_005cappendix">6.6 <code class="code">\appendix</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cfrontmatter_002c-_005cmainmatter_002c-_005cbackmatter" href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">6.7 <code class="code">\frontmatter</code>, <code class="code">\mainmatter</code>, <code class="code">\backmatter</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005c_0040startsection_002c-typesetting-sectional-unit-headings" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection">6.8 <code class="code">\@startsection</code>, typesetting sectional unit headings</a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Cross-references-1" href="#Cross-references">7 Cross references</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005clabel-1" href="#g_t_005clabel">7.1 <code class="code">\label</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cpageref-1" href="#g_t_005cpageref">7.2 <code class="code">\pageref</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cref-1" href="#g_t_005cref">7.3 <code class="code">\ref</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-xr-package-1" href="#xr-package">7.4 <code class="code">xr</code> package</a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Environments-1" href="#Environments">8 Environments</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-abstract-1" href="#abstract">8.1 <code class="code">abstract</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-array-1" href="#array">8.2 <code class="code">array</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-center-1" href="#center">8.3 <code class="code">center</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005ccentering-1" href="#g_t_005ccentering">8.3.1 <code class="code">\centering</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-description-1" href="#description">8.4 <code class="code">description</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-displaymath-1" href="#displaymath">8.5 <code class="code">displaymath</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-document-1" href="#document">8.6 <code class="code">document</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005cAtBeginDocument-1" href="#g_t_005cAtBeginDocument">8.6.1 <code class="code">\AtBeginDocument</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cAtEndDocument-1" href="#g_t_005cAtEndDocument">8.6.2 <code class="code">\AtEndDocument</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-enumerate-1" href="#enumerate">8.7 <code class="code">enumerate</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-eqnarray-1" href="#eqnarray">8.8 <code class="code">eqnarray</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-equation-1" href="#equation">8.9 <code class="code">equation</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-figure-1" href="#figure">8.10 <code class="code">figure</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-filecontents-1" href="#filecontents">8.11 <code class="code">filecontents</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-flushleft-1" href="#flushleft">8.12 <code class="code">flushleft</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005craggedright-1" href="#g_t_005craggedright">8.12.1 <code class="code">\raggedright</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-flushright-1" href="#flushright">8.13 <code class="code">flushright</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005craggedleft-1" href="#g_t_005craggedleft">8.13.1 <code class="code">\raggedleft</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-itemize-1" href="#itemize">8.14 <code class="code">itemize</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-letter-environment_003a-writing-letters" href="#letter">8.15 <code class="code">letter</code> environment: writing letters</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-list-1" href="#list">8.16 <code class="code">list</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005citem_003a-An-entry-in-a-list" href="#g_t_005citem">8.16.1 <code class="code">\item</code>: An entry in a list</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-trivlist_003a-A-restricted-form-of-list" href="#trivlist">8.16.2 <code class="code">trivlist</code>: A restricted form of <code class="code">list</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-math-1" href="#math">8.17 <code class="code">math</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-minipage-1" href="#minipage">8.18 <code class="code">minipage</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-picture-1" href="#picture">8.19 <code class="code">picture</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005cput-1" href="#g_t_005cput">8.19.1 <code class="code">\put</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cmultiput-1" href="#g_t_005cmultiput">8.19.2 <code class="code">\multiput</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cqbezier-1" href="#g_t_005cqbezier">8.19.3 <code class="code">\qbezier</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cgraphpaper-1" href="#g_t_005cgraphpaper">8.19.4 <code class="code">\graphpaper</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cline-1" href="#g_t_005cline">8.19.5 <code class="code">\line</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005clinethickness-1" href="#g_t_005clinethickness">8.19.6 <code class="code">\linethickness</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cthinlines-1" href="#g_t_005cthinlines">8.19.7 <code class="code">\thinlines</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cthicklines-1" href="#g_t_005cthicklines">8.19.8 <code class="code">\thicklines</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005ccircle-1" href="#g_t_005ccircle">8.19.9 <code class="code">\circle</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005coval-1" href="#g_t_005coval">8.19.10 <code class="code">\oval</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cshortstack-1" href="#g_t_005cshortstack">8.19.11 <code class="code">\shortstack</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cvector-1" href="#g_t_005cvector">8.19.12 <code class="code">\vector</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029-1" href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029">8.19.13 <code class="code">\makebox</code> (picture)</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029-1" href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029">8.19.14 <code class="code">\framebox</code> (picture)</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cframe-1" href="#g_t_005cframe">8.19.15 <code class="code">\frame</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cdashbox-1" href="#g_t_005cdashbox">8.19.16 <code class="code">\dashbox</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-quotation-_0026-quote-1" href="#quotation-_0026-quote">8.20 <code class="code">quotation</code> &amp; <code class="code">quote</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-tabbing-1" href="#tabbing">8.21 <code class="code">tabbing</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-table-1" href="#table">8.22 <code class="code">table</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-tabular-1" href="#tabular">8.23 <code class="code">tabular</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005cmulticolumn-1" href="#g_t_005cmulticolumn">8.23.1 <code class="code">\multicolumn</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cvline-1" href="#g_t_005cvline">8.23.2 <code class="code">\vline</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005ccline-1" href="#g_t_005ccline">8.23.3 <code class="code">\cline</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005chline-1" href="#g_t_005chline">8.23.4 <code class="code">\hline</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-thebibliography-1" href="#thebibliography">8.24 <code class="code">thebibliography</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005cbibitem-1" href="#g_t_005cbibitem">8.24.1 <code class="code">\bibitem</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005ccite-1" href="#g_t_005ccite">8.24.2 <code class="code">\cite</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cnocite-1" href="#g_t_005cnocite">8.24.3 <code class="code">\nocite</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-Using-BibTeX-1" href="#Using-BibTeX">8.24.4 Using BibTeX</a>
      <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
        <li><a id="toc-BibTeX-error-messages-1" href="#BibTeX-error-messages">8.24.4.1 BibTeX error messages</a></li>
      </ul></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-theorem-1" href="#theorem">8.25 <code class="code">theorem</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-titlepage-1" href="#titlepage">8.26 <code class="code">titlepage</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-verbatim-1" href="#verbatim">8.27 <code class="code">verbatim</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005cverb-1" href="#g_t_005cverb">8.27.1 <code class="code">\verb</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-verse-1" href="#verse">8.28 <code class="code">verse</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Line-breaking-1" href="#Line-breaking">9 Line breaking</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005c_005c-1" href="#g_t_005c_005c">9.1 <code class="code">\\</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr-1" href="#g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr">9.2 <code class="code">\obeycr</code> &amp; <code class="code">\restorecr</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cnewline-1" href="#g_t_005cnewline">9.3 <code class="code">\newline</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005c_002d-_0028discretionary-hyphen_0029" href="#g_t_005c_002d-_0028hyphenation_0029">9.4 <code class="code">\-</code> (discretionary hyphen)</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cdiscretionary-_0028generalized-hyphenation-point_0029" href="#g_t_005cdiscretionary">9.5 <code class="code">\discretionary</code> (generalized hyphenation point)</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy-1" href="#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy">9.6 <code class="code">\fussy</code> &amp; <code class="code">\sloppy</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-sloppypar-1" href="#sloppypar">9.6.1 <code class="code">sloppypar</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005chyphenation-1" href="#g_t_005chyphenation">9.7 <code class="code">\hyphenation</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak-1" href="#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak">9.8 <code class="code">\linebreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nolinebreak</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Page-breaking-1" href="#Page-breaking">10 Page breaking</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage-1" href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">10.1 <code class="code">\clearpage</code> &amp; <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cnewpage-1" href="#g_t_005cnewpage">10.2 <code class="code">\newpage</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cenlargethispage-1" href="#g_t_005cenlargethispage">10.3 <code class="code">\enlargethispage</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak-1" href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak">10.4 <code class="code">\pagebreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nopagebreak</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Footnotes-1" href="#Footnotes">11 Footnotes</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005cfootnote-1" href="#g_t_005cfootnote">11.1 <code class="code">\footnote</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cfootnotemark-1" href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark">11.2 <code class="code">\footnotemark</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cfootnotetext-1" href="#g_t_005cfootnotetext">11.3 <code class="code">\footnotetext</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Footnotes-in-section-headings-1" href="#Footnotes-in-section-headings">11.4 Footnotes in section headings</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Footnotes-in-a-table-1" href="#Footnotes-in-a-table">11.5 Footnotes in a table</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Footnotes-of-footnotes-1" href="#Footnotes-of-footnotes">11.6 Footnotes of footnotes</a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Definitions-1" href="#Definitions">12 Definitions</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand-1" href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">12.1 <code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-Control-sequence_002c-control-word-and-control-symbol" href="#Control-sequences">12.1.1 Control sequence, control word and control symbol</a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cprovidecommand-1" href="#g_t_005cprovidecommand">12.2 <code class="code">\providecommand</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother-1" href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">12.3 <code class="code">\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makeatother</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005c_0040ifstar-1" href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar">12.4 <code class="code">\@ifstar</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cnewcounter_003a-Allocating-a-counter" href="#g_t_005cnewcounter">12.5 <code class="code">\newcounter</code>: Allocating a counter</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cnewlength-1" href="#g_t_005cnewlength">12.6 <code class="code">\newlength</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cnewsavebox-1" href="#g_t_005cnewsavebox">12.7 <code class="code">\newsavebox</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment-1" href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">12.8 <code class="code">\newenvironment</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewenvironment</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cnewtheorem-1" href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem">12.9 <code class="code">\newtheorem</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cnewfont-1" href="#g_t_005cnewfont">12.10 <code class="code">\newfont</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cprotect-1" href="#g_t_005cprotect">12.11 <code class="code">\protect</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend-1" href="#g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend">12.12 <code class="code">\ignorespaces &amp; \ignorespacesafterend</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-xspace-package-1" href="#xspace-package">12.13 xspace package</a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Counters-1" href="#Counters">13 Counters</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol_003a-Printing-counters" href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">13.1 <code class="code">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cusecounter-1" href="#g_t_005cusecounter">13.2 <code class="code">\usecounter</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cvalue-1" href="#g_t_005cvalue">13.3 <code class="code">\value</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005csetcounter-1" href="#g_t_005csetcounter">13.4 <code class="code">\setcounter</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005caddtocounter-1" href="#g_t_005caddtocounter">13.5 <code class="code">\addtocounter</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005crefstepcounter-1" href="#g_t_005crefstepcounter">13.6 <code class="code">\refstepcounter</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cstepcounter-1" href="#g_t_005cstepcounter">13.7 <code class="code">\stepcounter</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear-1" href="#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear">13.8 <code class="code">\day</code> &amp; <code class="code">\month</code> &amp; <code class="code">\year</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Lengths-1" href="#Lengths">14 Lengths</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-Units-of-length-1" href="#Units-of-length">14.1 Units of length</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005csetlength-1" href="#g_t_005csetlength">14.2 <code class="code">\setlength</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005caddtolength-1" href="#g_t_005caddtolength">14.3 <code class="code">\addtolength</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005csettodepth-1" href="#g_t_005csettodepth">14.4 <code class="code">\settodepth</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005csettoheight-1" href="#g_t_005csettoheight">14.5 <code class="code">\settoheight</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005csettowidth-1" href="#g_t_005csettowidth">14.6 <code class="code">\settowidth</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cstretch-1" href="#g_t_005cstretch">14.7 <code class="code">\stretch</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Expressions-1" href="#Expressions">14.8 Expressions</a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Making-paragraphs-1" href="#Making-paragraphs">15 Making paragraphs</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005cpar-1" href="#g_t_005cpar">15.1 <code class="code">\par</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent-1" href="#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent">15.2 <code class="code">\indent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\noindent</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip-1" href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">15.3 <code class="code">\parindent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\parskip</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Marginal-notes-1" href="#Marginal-notes">15.4 Marginal notes</a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Math-formulas-1" href="#Math-formulas">16 Math formulas</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-Subscripts-_0026-superscripts-1" href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">16.1 Subscripts &amp; superscripts</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Math-symbols-1" href="#Math-symbols">16.2 Math symbols</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-Arrows-1" href="#Arrows">16.2.1 Arrows</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath-1" href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath">16.2.2 <code class="code">\boldmath</code> &amp; <code class="code">\unboldmath</code></a>
      <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
        <li><a id="toc-bm_003a-Individual-bold-math-symbols" href="#bm">16.2.2.1 <code class="code">bm</code>: Individual bold math symbols</a></li>
        <li><a id="toc-OpenType-bold-math-1" href="#OpenType-bold-math">16.2.2.2 OpenType bold math</a></li>
      </ul></li>
      <li><a id="toc-Blackboard-bold-1" href="#Blackboard-bold">16.2.3 Blackboard bold</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-Calligraphic-1" href="#Calligraphic">16.2.4 Calligraphic</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-Delimiters-1" href="#Delimiters">16.2.5 Delimiters</a>
      <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
        <li><a id="toc-_005cleft-_0026-_005cright-1" href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">16.2.5.1 <code class="code">\left</code> &amp; <code class="code">\right</code></a></li>
        <li><a id="toc-_005cbigl_002c-_005cbigr_002c-etc_002e" href="#g_t_005cbigl-_0026-_005cbigr-etc_002e">16.2.5.2 <code class="code">\bigl</code>, <code class="code">\bigr</code>, etc.</a></li>
      </ul></li>
      <li><a id="toc-Dots_002c-horizontal-or-vertical" href="#Dots">16.2.6 Dots, horizontal or vertical</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-Greek-letters-1" href="#Greek-letters">16.2.7 Greek letters</a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Math-functions-1" href="#Math-functions">16.3 Math functions</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Math-accents-1" href="#Math-accents">16.4 Math accents</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Over_002d-and-Underlining-1" href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">16.5 Over- and Underlining</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Spacing-in-math-mode-1" href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">16.6 Spacing in math mode</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005csmash-1" href="#g_t_005csmash">16.6.1 <code class="code">\smash</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom-1" href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">16.6.2 <code class="code">\phantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\vphantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\hphantom</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cmathstrut-1" href="#g_t_005cmathstrut">16.6.3 <code class="code">\mathstrut</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Math-styles-1" href="#Math-styles">16.7 Math styles</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Math-miscellany-1" href="#Math-miscellany">16.8 Math miscellany</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-Colon-character-_003a-_0026-_005ccolon" href="#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">16.8.1 Colon character <code class="code">:</code> &amp; <code class="code">\colon</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005c_002a-1" href="#g_t_005c_002a">16.8.2 <code class="code">\*</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cfrac-1" href="#g_t_005cfrac">16.8.3 <code class="code">\frac</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005csqrt-1" href="#g_t_005csqrt">16.8.4 <code class="code">\sqrt</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cstackrel-1" href="#g_t_005cstackrel">16.8.5 <code class="code">\stackrel</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Modes-1" href="#Modes">17 Modes</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005censuremath-1" href="#g_t_005censuremath">17.1 <code class="code">\ensuremath</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Page-styles-1" href="#Page-styles">18 Page styles</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005cmaketitle-1" href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">18.1 <code class="code">\maketitle</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cpagenumbering-1" href="#g_t_005cpagenumbering">18.2 <code class="code">\pagenumbering</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cpagestyle-1" href="#g_t_005cpagestyle">18.3 <code class="code">\pagestyle</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cthispagestyle-1" href="#g_t_005cthispagestyle">18.4 <code class="code">\thispagestyle</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Spaces-1" href="#Spaces">19 Spaces</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad-1" href="#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad">19.1 <code class="code">\enspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\quad</code> &amp; <code class="code">\qquad</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005chspace-1" href="#g_t_005chspace">19.2 <code class="code">\hspace</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005chfill-1" href="#g_t_005chfill">19.3 <code class="code">\hfill</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005chss-1" href="#g_t_005chss">19.4 <code class="code">\hss</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cspacefactor-1" href="#g_t_005cspacefactor">19.5 <code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005c_0040-1" href="#g_t_005c_0040">19.5.1 <code class="code">\@</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cfrenchspacing-_0026-_005cnonfrenchspacing-1" href="#g_t_005cfrenchspacing-_0026-_005cnonfrenchspacing">19.5.2 <code class="code">\frenchspacing</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nonfrenchspacing</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cnormalsfcodes-1" href="#g_t_005cnormalsfcodes">19.5.3 <code class="code">\normalsfcodes</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Backslash_002dspace_002c-_005c-" href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029">19.6 Backslash-space, <code class="code">\ </code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_007e-1" href="#g_t_007e">19.7 <code class="code">~</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace-1" href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">19.8 <code class="code">\thinspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\negthinspace</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005c_002f-1" href="#g_t_005c_002f">19.9 <code class="code">\/</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill-1" href="#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill">19.10 <code class="code">\hrulefill</code> &amp; <code class="code">\dotfill</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip-1" href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">19.11 <code class="code">\bigskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallskip</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak-1" href="#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak">19.12 <code class="code">\bigbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallbreak</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cstrut-1" href="#g_t_005cstrut">19.13 <code class="code">\strut</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cvspace-1" href="#g_t_005cvspace">19.14 <code class="code">\vspace</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cvfill-1" href="#g_t_005cvfill">19.15 <code class="code">\vfill</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005caddvspace-1" href="#g_t_005caddvspace">19.16 <code class="code">\addvspace</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Boxes-1" href="#Boxes">20 Boxes</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox-1" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">20.1 <code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox-1" href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">20.2 <code class="code">\fbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\framebox</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cparbox-1" href="#g_t_005cparbox">20.3 <code class="code">\parbox</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005craisebox-1" href="#g_t_005craisebox">20.4 <code class="code">\raisebox</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox-1" href="#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox">20.5 <code class="code">\sbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\savebox</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-lrbox-1" href="#lrbox">20.6 <code class="code">lrbox</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cusebox-1" href="#g_t_005cusebox">20.7 <code class="code">\usebox</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Color-1" href="#Color">21 Color</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-color-package-options" href="#Color-package-options">21.1 <code class="code">color</code> package options</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Color-models-1" href="#Color-models">21.2 Color models</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Commands-for-color-1" href="#Commands-for-color">21.3 Commands for color</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-Define-colors-1" href="#Define-colors">21.3.1 Define colors</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-Colored-text-1" href="#Colored-text">21.3.2 Colored text</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-Colored-boxes-1" href="#Colored-boxes">21.3.3 Colored boxes</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-Colored-pages-1" href="#Colored-pages">21.3.4 Colored pages</a></li>
    </ul></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Graphics-1" href="#Graphics">22 Graphics</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-graphics-package-options" href="#Graphics-package-options">22.1 <code class="code">graphics</code> package options</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-graphics-package-configuration" href="#Graphics-package-configuration">22.2 <code class="code">graphics</code> package configuration</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005cgraphicspath-1" href="#g_t_005cgraphicspath">22.2.1 <code class="code">\graphicspath</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions-1" href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions">22.2.2 <code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cDeclareGraphicsRule-1" href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsRule">22.2.3 <code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsRule</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Commands-for-graphics-1" href="#Commands-for-graphics">22.3 Commands for graphics</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005cincludegraphics-1" href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">22.3.1 <code class="code">\includegraphics</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005crotatebox-1" href="#g_t_005crotatebox">22.3.2 <code class="code">\rotatebox</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cscalebox-1" href="#g_t_005cscalebox">22.3.3 <code class="code">\scalebox</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cresizebox-1" href="#g_t_005cresizebox">22.3.4 <code class="code">\resizebox</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Special-insertions-1" href="#Special-insertions">23 Special insertions</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-Reserved-characters-1" href="#Reserved-characters">23.1 Reserved characters</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Upper-and-lower-case-1" href="#Upper-and-lower-case">23.2 Upper and lower case</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Symbols-by-font-position-1" href="#Symbols-by-font-position">23.3 Symbols by font position</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Text-symbols-1" href="#Text-symbols">23.4 Text symbols</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Accents-1" href="#Accents">23.5 Accents</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005caccent-1" href="#g_t_005caccent">23.5.1 <code class="code">\accent</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Additional-Latin-letters-1" href="#Additional-Latin-letters">23.6 Additional Latin letters</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-inputenc-package-1" href="#inputenc-package">23.7 <code class="code">inputenc</code> package</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005crule-1" href="#g_t_005crule">23.8 <code class="code">\rule</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005ctoday-1" href="#g_t_005ctoday">23.9 <code class="code">\today</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Splitting-the-input-1" href="#Splitting-the-input">24 Splitting the input</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005cendinput-1" href="#g_t_005cendinput">24.1 <code class="code">\endinput</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly-1" href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly">24.2 <code class="code">\include</code> &amp; <code class="code">\includeonly</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cinput-1" href="#g_t_005cinput">24.3 <code class="code">\input</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Front_002fback-matter-1" href="#Front_002fback-matter">25 Front/back matter</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-Table-of-contents_002c-list-of-figures_002c-list-of-tables" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">25.1 Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005c_0040dottedtocline-1" href="#g_t_005c_0040dottedtocline">25.1.1 <code class="code">\@dottedtocline</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005caddcontentsline-1" href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline">25.1.2 <code class="code">\addcontentsline</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005caddtocontents-1" href="#g_t_005caddtocontents">25.1.3 <code class="code">\addtocontents</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005ccontentsline-1" href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">25.1.4 <code class="code">\contentsline</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cnofiles-1" href="#g_t_005cnofiles">25.1.5 <code class="code">\nofiles</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cnumberline-1" href="#g_t_005cnumberline">25.1.6 <code class="code">\numberline</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Indexes-1" href="#Indexes">25.2 Indexes</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-Produce-the-index-manually-1" href="#Produce-the-index-manually">25.2.1 Produce the index manually</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cindex-1" href="#g_t_005cindex">25.2.2 <code class="code">\index</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-makeindex-1" href="#makeindex">25.2.3 <code class="command">makeindex</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cprintindex-1" href="#g_t_005cprintindex">25.2.4 <code class="command">\printindex</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Glossaries-1" href="#Glossaries">25.3 Glossaries</a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005cnewglossaryentry-1" href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry">25.3.1 <code class="code">\newglossaryentry</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cgls-1" href="#g_t_005cgls">25.3.2 <code class="code">\gls</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Letters-1" href="#Letters">26 Letters</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005caddress-1" href="#g_t_005caddress">26.1 <code class="code">\address</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005ccc-1" href="#g_t_005ccc">26.2 <code class="code">\cc</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cclosing-1" href="#g_t_005cclosing">26.3 <code class="code">\closing</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cencl-1" href="#g_t_005cencl">26.4 <code class="code">\encl</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005clocation-1" href="#g_t_005clocation">26.5 <code class="code">\location</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cmakelabels-1" href="#g_t_005cmakelabels">26.6 <code class="code">\makelabels</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cname-1" href="#g_t_005cname">26.7 <code class="code">\name</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005copening-1" href="#g_t_005copening">26.8 <code class="code">\opening</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cps-1" href="#g_t_005cps">26.9 <code class="code">\ps</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005csignature-1" href="#g_t_005csignature">26.10 <code class="code">\signature</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005ctelephone-1" href="#g_t_005ctelephone">26.11 <code class="code">\telephone</code></a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Input_002foutput-1" href="#Input_002foutput">27 Input/output</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout-1" href="#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout">27.1 <code class="code">\openin</code> &amp; <code class="code">\openout</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cread-1" href="#g_t_005cread">27.2 <code class="code">\read</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005ctypein-1" href="#g_t_005ctypein">27.3 <code class="code">\typein</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005ctypeout-1" href="#g_t_005ctypeout">27.4 <code class="code">\typeout</code></a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-_005cwrite-1" href="#g_t_005cwrite">27.5 <code class="code">\write</code></a>
    <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
      <li><a id="toc-_005cwrite-and-security-1" href="#g_t_005cwrite-and-security">27.5.1 <code class="code">\write</code> and security</a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cmessage-1" href="#g_t_005cmessage">27.5.2 <code class="code">\message</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cwlog-1" href="#g_t_005cwlog">27.5.3 <code class="code">\wlog</code></a></li>
      <li><a id="toc-_005cwrite18-1" href="#g_t_005cwrite18">27.5.4 <code class="code">\write18</code></a></li>
    </ul></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Command-line-interface-1" href="#Command-line-interface">28 Command line interface</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-Command-line-options-1" href="#Command-line-options">28.1 Command line options</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Command-line-input-1" href="#Command-line-input">28.2 Command line input</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Jobname-1" href="#Jobname">28.3 Jobname</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Recovering-from-errors-1" href="#Recovering-from-errors">28.4 Recovering from errors</a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Document-templates-1" href="#Document-templates">Appendix A Document templates</a>
  <ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
    <li><a id="toc-beamer-template-1" href="#beamer-template">A.1 <code class="code">beamer</code> template</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-article-template-1" href="#article-template">A.2 <code class="code">article</code> template</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-book-template-1" href="#book-template">A.3 <code class="code">book</code> template</a></li>
    <li><a id="toc-Larger-book-template-1" href="#Larger-book-template">A.4 Larger <code class="code">book</code> template</a></li>
  </ul></li>
  <li><a id="toc-Index-1" href="#Index" rel="index">Index</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div class="element-shortcontents" id="SEC_Shortcontents">
<h2 class="shortcontents-heading">Short Table of Contents</h2>

<div class="shortcontents">
<ul class="toc-numbered-mark">
<li><a id="stoc-About-this-document-1" href="#toc-About-this-document-1">1 About this document</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Overview-of-LaTeX" href="#toc-Overview-of-LaTeX">2 Overview of LaTeX</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Document-classes-1" href="#toc-Document-classes-1">3 Document classes</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Fonts-1" href="#toc-Fonts-1">4 Fonts</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Layout-1" href="#toc-Layout-1">5 Layout</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Sectioning-1" href="#toc-Sectioning-1">6 Sectioning</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Cross-references-1" href="#toc-Cross-references-1">7 Cross references</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Environments-1" href="#toc-Environments-1">8 Environments</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Line-breaking-1" href="#toc-Line-breaking-1">9 Line breaking</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Page-breaking-1" href="#toc-Page-breaking-1">10 Page breaking</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Footnotes-1" href="#toc-Footnotes-1">11 Footnotes</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Definitions-1" href="#toc-Definitions-1">12 Definitions</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Counters-1" href="#toc-Counters-1">13 Counters</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Lengths-1" href="#toc-Lengths-1">14 Lengths</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Making-paragraphs-1" href="#toc-Making-paragraphs-1">15 Making paragraphs</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Math-formulas-1" href="#toc-Math-formulas-1">16 Math formulas</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Modes-1" href="#toc-Modes-1">17 Modes</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Page-styles-1" href="#toc-Page-styles-1">18 Page styles</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Spaces-1" href="#toc-Spaces-1">19 Spaces</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Boxes-1" href="#toc-Boxes-1">20 Boxes</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Color-1" href="#toc-Color-1">21 Color</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Graphics-1" href="#toc-Graphics-1">22 Graphics</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Special-insertions-1" href="#toc-Special-insertions-1">23 Special insertions</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Splitting-the-input-1" href="#toc-Splitting-the-input-1">24 Splitting the input</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Front_002fback-matter-1" href="#toc-Front_002fback-matter-1">25 Front/back matter</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Letters-1" href="#toc-Letters-1">26 Letters</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Input_002foutput-1" href="#toc-Input_002foutput-1">27 Input/output</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Command-line-interface-1" href="#toc-Command-line-interface-1">28 Command line interface</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Document-templates-1" href="#toc-Document-templates-1">Appendix A Document templates</a></li>
<li><a id="stoc-Index-1" href="#toc-Index-1" rel="index">Index</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<hr>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="About-this-document">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Overview" accesskey="n" rel="next">Overview of LaTeX</a>, Previous: <a href="#Top" accesskey="p" rel="prev">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="About-this-document-1">1 About this document</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-home-page-for-manual"></a>
<p>This is an unofficial reference manual for the LaTeX2e document
preparation system, which is a macro package for the TeX
typesetting program (see <a class="pxref" href="#Overview">Overview of LaTeX</a>).
</p>
<p>This document&rsquo;s home page is <a class="url" href="https://latexref.xyz">https://latexref.xyz</a>; it has
separate web pages for each topic.  Alternatively.
<a class="url" href="https://latexref.xyz/dev/latex2e.html">https://latexref.xyz/dev/latex2e.html</a> has the entire document on
a single page.  For other output formats, the sources, and plenty more
information, see <a class="url" href="https://latexref.xyz/dev/">https://latexref.xyz/dev/</a>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LaTeX-vs_002e-LaTeX2e"></a>
<p>In this document, we will mostly just use &lsquo;LaTeX&rsquo; rather than
&lsquo;LaTeX2e&rsquo;, since the previous version of LaTeX&nbsp;(2.09) was
frozen decades ago.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-unofficial-nature-of-this-manual"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LaTeX-Project-team"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-latexrefman_0040tug_002eorg-email-address"></a>
<p>LaTeX is maintained by a group of volunteers
(<a class="url" href="https://latex-project.org">https://latex-project.org</a>).  The official documentation written
by the LaTeX project is available from their web site.  The present
document is completely unofficial and has not been written or reviewed
by the LaTeX maintainers.
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bug-reporting"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-reporting-bugs"></a>
Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them.
Instead, please send all comments to <a class="email" href="mailto:latexrefman@tug.org">latexrefman@tug.org</a>.
</p>
<p>This document is a reference, not a tutorial.  There is a vast array
of other information available about LaTeX, at all levels.  Here
are a few introductions.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-latex_002ddoc_002dptr-document'><span><a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/latex-doc-ptr">https://ctan.org/pkg/latex-doc-ptr</a><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-latex_002ddoc_002dptr-document'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Two pages of recommended references to LaTeX documentation.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-first_002dlatex_002ddoc-document'><span><a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/first-latex-doc">https://ctan.org/pkg/first-latex-doc</a><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-first_002dlatex_002ddoc-document'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-lshort-document'><span><a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/lshort">https://ctan.org/pkg/lshort</a><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-lshort-document'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>A longer introduction to LaTeX, translated to many languages.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><a class="url" href="https://tug.org/begin.html">https://tug.org/begin.html</a></dt>
<dd><p>Introduction to the TeX system, including LaTeX, with further
references.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Overview">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Document-classes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Document classes</a>, Previous: <a href="#About-this-document" accesskey="p" rel="prev">About this document</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Overview-of-LaTeX">2 Overview of LaTeX</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-overview-of-LaTeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-basics-of-LaTeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Knuth_002c-Donald-E_002e"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Lamport_002c-Leslie"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LaTeX-overview"></a>

<p>LaTeX is a system for typesetting documents.  It was originally
created by Leslie Lamport in 1984, but has been maintained by a group
of volunteers for many years now (<a class="url" href="https://latex-project.org">https://latex-project.org</a>).
It is widely used, particularly but not exclusively for mathematical
and technical documents.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-UTF_002d8_002c-default-LaTeX-input-encoding"></a>
<p>A LaTeX user writes an input file containing text to be typeset
along with interspersed commands. The default encoding for the text is
UTF-8 (as of 2018). The commands specify, for example, how the text
should be formatted. 
</p>
<p>LaTeX is implemented as a set of related so-called &ldquo;macros&rdquo; which
use Donald&nbsp;E. Knuth&rsquo;s TeX typesetting program or one of its
derivatives, collectively known as &ldquo;engines&rdquo;. Thus, the user
produces output, typically PDF, by giving the input file to a TeX
engine. (The following sections describe all this in more detail.)
</p>
<p>The term LaTeX is also sometimes used to mean the language in which
the input document is marked up, that is, to mean the set of commands
available to a LaTeX user.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Lamport-TeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-pronunciation"></a>
<p>The name LaTeX is short for &ldquo;Lamport TeX&rdquo;.  It is pronounced
LAH-teck or LAY-teck, or sometimes LAY-tecks.  Inside a document,
produce the logo with <code class="code">\LaTeX</code>.  Where use of the logo is not
sensible, such as in plain text, write it as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Starting-and-ending" accesskey="1">Starting and ending</a></li>
<li><a href="#Output-files" accesskey="2">Output files</a></li>
<li><a href="#TeX-engines" accesskey="3">TeX engines</a></li>
<li><a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax" accesskey="4">LaTeX command syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="#Environment" accesskey="5">Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="#CTAN" accesskey="6">CTAN: The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Starting-and-ending">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Output-files" accesskey="n" rel="next">Output files</a>, Up: <a href="#Overview" accesskey="u" rel="up">Overview of LaTeX</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Starting-and-ending-1">2.1 Starting and ending</h3>

<a class="anchor" id="Starting-_0026-ending"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-starting-and-ending"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ending-and-starting"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hello_002c-world"></a>

<p>LaTeX files have a simple global structure, with a standard beginning
and ending.  This is a small example.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{article}
\begin{document}
Hello, \LaTeX\ world.
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>Every LaTeX document has a <code class="code">\begin{document}</code> line and an
<code class="code">\end{document}</code> line.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-document-class_002c-defined"></a>
<p>Here, the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">article</samp>&rsquo; is the <em class="dfn">document class</em>.  It is implemented
in a file <samp class="file">article.cls</samp>.  You can use any document class on your
system.  A few document classes are defined by LaTeX itself, and vast
array of others are widely available.  See <a class="xref" href="#Document-classes">Document classes</a>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-preamble_002c-defined"></a>
<p>You can include other LaTeX commands between the
<code class="code">\documentclass</code> and the <code class="code">\begin{document}</code> commands.
This area is called the <em class="dfn">preamble</em>.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\begin{document}</code>, <code class="code">\end{document}</code> pair defines an
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment"></a>
<em class="dfn">environment</em>; the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">document</samp>&rsquo; environment (and no others) is
required in all LaTeX documents (see <a class="pxref" href="#document"><code class="code">document</code></a>).  LaTeX make
available to you many environments that are documented here
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Environments">Environments</a>).  Many more are available to you from external
packages, most importantly those available at CTAN (see <a class="pxref" href="#CTAN">CTAN: The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network</a>).
</p>
<p>The following sections discuss how to produce PDF or other output from
a LaTeX input file.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Output-files">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#TeX-engines" accesskey="n" rel="next">TeX engines</a>, Previous: <a href="#Starting-and-ending" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Starting and ending</a>, Up: <a href="#Overview" accesskey="u" rel="up">Overview of LaTeX</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Output-files-1">2.2 Output files</h3>

<p>LaTeX produces a main output file and at least two auxiliary files.
The main output file&rsquo;s name ends in either <samp class="file">.dvi</samp> or <samp class="file">.pdf</samp>.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-_002edvi-file'><span><code class="code">.dvi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_002edvi-file'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-latex-command"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-xdvi-command"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dvips-command"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dvipdfmx-command"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dvitype-command"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="output-files-dvi"></a><p>If LaTeX is invoked with the system command <code class="command">latex</code> then it
produces a DeVice Independent file, with extension <samp class="file">.dvi</samp>.  You
can view this file with a command such as <code class="command">xdvi</code>, or convert
it to a PostScript <code class="code">.ps</code> file with <code class="command">dvips</code> or to a
Portable Document Format <code class="code">.pdf</code> file with <code class="command">dvipdfmx</code>.
The contents of the file can be dumped in human-readable form with
<code class="command">dvitype</code>.  A vast array of other DVI utility programs are
available (<a class="url" href="https://mirror.ctan.org/dviware">https://mirror.ctan.org/dviware</a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_002epdf-file'><span><code class="code">.pdf</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_002epdf-file'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-pdfTeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-pdflatex-command"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="output-files-pdf"></a><p>If LaTeX is invoked via the system command <code class="command">pdflatex</code>,
among other commands (see <a class="pxref" href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>), then the main output is
a Portable Document Format (PDF) file.  Typically this is a
self-contained file, with all fonts and images included.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>LaTeX always produces at least two additional files.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-transcript-file'><span><code class="code">.log</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-transcript-file'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-log-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002elog-file"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="output-files-log"></a><p>This transcript file contains summary information such as a list of
loaded packages.  It also includes diagnostic messages and perhaps
additional information for any errors.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-auxiliary-file'><span><code class="code">.aux</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-auxiliary-file'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002eaux-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cross-references_002c-resolving"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-forward-references_002c-resolving"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-references_002c-resolving-forward"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="output-files-aux"></a><p>Auxiliary information is used by LaTeX for things such as
cross references.  For example, the first time that LaTeX finds a
forward reference&mdash;a cross reference to something that has not yet
appeared in the source&mdash;it will appear in the output as a doubled
question mark <code class="code">??</code>.  When the referred-to spot does eventually
appear in the source then LaTeX writes its location information to
this <code class="code">.aux</code> file.  On the next invocation, LaTeX reads the
location information from this file and uses it to resolve the
reference, replacing the double question mark with the remembered
location.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002elof-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-list-of-figures-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002elot-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-list-of-tables-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002etoc-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-table-of-contents-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-contents-file"></a>
<p>LaTeX may produce yet more files, characterized by the filename
ending.  These include a <code class="code">.lof</code> file that is used to make a list of
figures, a <code class="code">.lot</code> file used to make a list of tables, and a
<code class="code">.toc</code> file used to make a table of contents (see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>).  A particular class may create others; the list is
open-ended.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="TeX-engines">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax" accesskey="n" rel="next">LaTeX command syntax</a>, Previous: <a href="#Output-files" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Output files</a>, Up: <a href="#Overview" accesskey="u" rel="up">Overview of LaTeX</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="TeX-engines-1">2.3 TeX engines</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-engines_002c-TeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-implementations-of-TeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-UTF_002d8_002c-engine-support-for"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Unicode-input_002c-native"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-TrueType-fonts"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-OpenType-fonts"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-TeX-format-_0028_002efmt_0029-files"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LaTeX-format-_0028_002efmt_0029-files"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-format-files_002c-TeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002efmt-file"></a>
<p>LaTeX is a large set of commands that is executed by a TeX
program (see <a class="pxref" href="#Overview">Overview of LaTeX</a>). Such a set of commands is called a
<em class="dfn">format</em>, and is embodied in a binary <code class="code">.fmt</code> file, which can
be read much more quickly than the corresponding TeX source.
</p>
<p>This section gives a terse overview of the TeX programs that are
commonly available (see also <a class="ref" href="#Command-line-interface">Command line interface</a>).
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-latex'><span><code class="code">latex</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-latex'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-pdflatex'><span><code class="code">pdflatex</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-pdflatex'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-etex-command"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-pdfTeX-engine"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-e_002dTeX"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="tex-engines-latex"></a><p>In TeX Live (<a class="url" href="https://tug.org/texlive">https://tug.org/texlive</a>), if LaTeX is invoked
via either the system command <code class="command">latex</code> or <code class="command">pdflatex</code>,
then the pdfTeX engine is run (<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/pdftex">https://ctan.org/pkg/pdftex</a>).
When invoked as <code class="command">latex</code>, the main output is a <samp class="file">.dvi</samp>
file; as <code class="command">pdflatex</code>, the main output is a <samp class="file">.pdf</samp> file.
</p>
<p>pdfTeX incorporates the e-TeX extensions to Knuth&rsquo;s original
program (<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/etex">https://ctan.org/pkg/etex</a>), including additional
programming features and bi-directional typesetting, and has plenty of
extensions of its own.  e-TeX is available on its own as the system
command <code class="command">etex</code>, but this is plain TeX (and produces
<samp class="file">.dvi</samp>).
</p>
<p>In other TeX distributions, <code class="command">latex</code> may invoke e-TeX
rather than pdfTeX.  In any case, the e-TeX extensions can be
assumed to be available in LaTeX.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-lualatex'><span><code class="code">lualatex</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-lualatex'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LuaTeX"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="tex-engines-lualatex"></a><p>If LaTeX is invoked via the system command <code class="command">lualatex</code>, the
LuaTeX engine is run (<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/luatex">https://ctan.org/pkg/luatex</a>).  This
program allows code written in the scripting language Lua
(<a class="url" href="http://luatex.org">http://luatex.org</a>) to interact with TeX&rsquo;s typesetting.
LuaTeX handles UTF-8 Unicode input natively, can handle OpenType
and TrueType fonts, and produces a <samp class="file">.pdf</samp> file by default.
There is also <code class="command">dvilualatex</code> to produce a <samp class="file">.dvi</samp> file.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-xelatex'><span><code class="code">xelatex</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-xelatex'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-XeTeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002exdv-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-xdvipdfmx"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="tex-engines-xelatex"></a><p>If LaTeX is invoked with the system command <code class="command">xelatex</code>, the
XeTeX engine is run (<a class="url" href="https://tug.org/xetex">https://tug.org/xetex</a>).  Like LuaTeX,
XeTeX natively supports UTF-8 Unicode and TrueType and OpenType
fonts, though the implementation is completely different, mainly using
external libraries instead of internal code.  XeTeX produces a
<samp class="file">.pdf</samp> file as output; it does not support DVI output.
</p>
<p>Internally, XeTeX creates an <code class="code">.xdv</code> file, a variant of DVI,
and translates that to PDF using the (<code class="code">x</code>)<code class="code">dvipdfmx</code>
program, but this process is automatic.  The <code class="code">.xdv</code> file is only
useful for debugging.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-platex'><span><code class="code">platex</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-platex'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-uplatex'><span><code class="code">uplatex</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-uplatex'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>These commands provide significant additional support for Japanese and
other languages; the <code class="code">u</code> variant supports Unicode.  See
<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/ptex">https://ctan.org/pkg/ptex</a> and <a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/uptex">https://ctan.org/pkg/uptex</a>.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>As of 2019, there is a companion <code class="code">-dev</code> command and format for
all of the above:
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-dvilualatex_002ddev'><span><code class="code">dvilualatex-dev</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-dvilualatex_002ddev'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-latex_002ddev'><span><code class="code">latex-dev</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-latex_002ddev'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-lualatex_002ddev'><span><code class="code">lualatex-dev</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-lualatex_002ddev'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-pdflatex_002ddev'><span><code class="code">pdflatex-dev</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-pdflatex_002ddev'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-platex_002ddev'><span><code class="code">platex-dev</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-platex_002ddev'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-uplatex_002ddev'><span><code class="code">uplatex-dev</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-uplatex_002ddev'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-xelatex_002ddev'><span><code class="code">xelatex-dev</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-xelatex_002ddev'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-release-candidates"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-prerelease-testing"></a>
<p>These are candidates for an upcoming LaTeX release. The main
purpose is to find and address compatibility problems before an
official release.
</p>
<p>These <code class="code">-dev</code> formats make it easy for anyone to help test
documents and code: you can run, say, <code class="code">pdflatex-dev</code> instead of
<code class="code">pdflatex</code>, without changing anything else in your environment.
Indeed, it is easiest and most helpful to always run the <code class="code">-dev</code>
versions instead of bothering to switch back and forth. During quiet
times after a release, the commands will be equivalent.
</p>
<p>These are not daily snapshots or untested development code. They
undergo the same extensive regression testing by the LaTeX team
before being released.
</p>
<p>For more information, see &ldquo;The LaTeX release workflow and the
LaTeX <code class="code">dev</code> formats&rdquo; by Frank Mittelbach, <cite class="cite">TUGboat</cite> 40:2,
<a class="url" href="https://tug.org/TUGboat/tb40-2/tb125mitt-dev.pdf">https://tug.org/TUGboat/tb40-2/tb125mitt-dev.pdf</a>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="LaTeX-command-syntax">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Environment" accesskey="n" rel="next">Environment</a>, Previous: <a href="#TeX-engines" accesskey="p" rel="prev">TeX engines</a>, Up: <a href="#Overview" accesskey="u" rel="up">Overview of LaTeX</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="LaTeX-command-syntax-1">2.4 LaTeX command syntax</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-command-syntax"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c-character-starting-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005b_002e_002e_002e_005d-_0028for-optional-arguments_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_007b_002e_002e_002e_007d-_0028for-required-arguments_0029"></a>
<p>In the LaTeX input file, a command name starts with a backslash
character, <code class="code">\</code>.  The name itself then consists of either
(a)&nbsp;a string of letters or (b)&nbsp;a single non-letter.
</p>
<p>LaTeX commands names are case sensitive so that <code class="code">\pagebreak</code>
differs from <code class="code">\Pagebreak</code> (the latter is not a standard command).
Most command names are lowercase, but in any event you must enter all
commands in the same case as they are defined.
</p>
<p>A command may be followed by zero, one, or more arguments. These
arguments may be either required or optional.  Required arguments are
contained in curly braces, <code class="code">{...}</code>.  Optional arguments are
contained in square brackets, <code class="code">[...]</code>.  Generally, but not
universally, if the command accepts an optional argument, it comes
first, before any required arguments.
</p>
<p>Inside of an optional argument, to use the character close square
bracket&nbsp;(<code class="code">]</code>) hide it inside curly braces, as
in&nbsp;<code class="code">\item[closing bracket {]}]</code>.  Similarly, if an optional
argument comes last, with no required argument after it, then to make
the first character of the following text be an open square bracket,
hide it inside curly braces.
</p>
<p>LaTeX has the convention that some commands have a <code class="code">*</code> form that
is related to the form without a <code class="code">*</code>, such as <code class="code">\chapter</code> and
<code class="code">\chapter*</code>.  The exact difference in behavior varies from command
to command.
</p>
<p>This manual describes all accepted options and <code class="code">*</code>-forms for the
commands it covers (barring unintentional omissions, a.k.a. bugs).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-expl3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-expl3-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-xparse"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-xparse-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LaTeX3-syntax"></a>
<p>As of the 2020-10-01 release of LaTeX, the <code class="code">expl3</code> and
<code class="code">xparse</code> packages are part of the LaTeX2e format.  They
provide a completely different underlying programming language
syntax. We won&rsquo;t try to cover them in this document; see the related
package documentation and other LaTeX manuals.
</p>
<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Environment">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#CTAN" accesskey="n" rel="next">CTAN: The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network</a>, Previous: <a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax" accesskey="p" rel="prev">LaTeX command syntax</a>, Up: <a href="#Overview" accesskey="u" rel="up">Overview of LaTeX</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Environment-1">2.5 Environment</h3>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{<var class="var">environment-name</var>}
  ...
\end{<var class="var">environment-name</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>An <em class="dfn">environment</em> is an area of LaTeX source, inside of which
there is a distinct behavior.  For instance, for poetry in LaTeX
put the lines between <code class="code">\begin{verse}</code> and <code class="code">\end{verse}</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{verse}
  There once was a man from Nantucket \\
  ...
\end{verse}
</pre></div>

<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Environments">Environments</a>, for a list of environments.  Particularly notable is
that every LaTeX document must have a <code class="code">document</code> environment,
a <code class="code">\begin{document} ... \end{document}</code> pair.
</p>
<p>The <var class="var">environment-name</var> at the beginning must exactly match that at
the end.  This includes the case where <var class="var">environment-name</var> ends in a
star&nbsp;(<code class="code">*</code>); both the <code class="code">\begin</code> and <code class="code">\end</code> texts must
include the star.
</p>
<p>Environments may have arguments, including optional arguments.  This
example produces a table.  The first argument is optional (and causes
the table to be aligned on its top row) while the second argument is
required (it specifies the formatting of columns).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}[t]{r|l}
  ... rows of table ...
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="CTAN">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Environment" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Environment</a>, Up: <a href="#Overview" accesskey="u" rel="up">Overview of LaTeX</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="CTAN_003a-The-Comprehensive-TeX-Archive-Network">2.6 CTAN: The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-CTAN"></a>

<p>The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network, CTAN, is the TeX and
LaTeX community&rsquo;s repository of free material.  It is a set of
Internet sites around the world that offer material related to LaTeX
for download.  Visit CTAN on the web at <a class="url" href="https://ctan.org">https://ctan.org</a>.
</p>
<p>This material is organized into packages, discrete bundles that
typically offer some coherent functionality and are maintained by one
person or a small number of people.  For instance, many publishers have
a package that allows authors to format papers to that publisher&rsquo;s
specifications.
</p>
<p>In addition to the massive holdings, the <code class="code">ctan.org</code> web site
offers features such as search by name or by functionality.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-DANTE-e_002eV_002e"></a>
<p>CTAN is not a single host, but instead is a set of hosts, one of which
is the so-called &ldquo;master&rdquo;. The master host actively manages the
material, for instance, by accepting uploads of new or updated
packages. For many years, it has been hosted by the German TeX
group, DANTE e.V.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mirrors-of-CTAN"></a>
<p>Other sites around the world help out by mirroring, that is,
automatically syncing their collections with the master site and then
in turn making their copies publicly available. This gives users close
to their location better access and relieves the load on the master
site. The list of mirrors is at <a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/mirrors">https://ctan.org/mirrors</a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Document-classes">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Fonts" accesskey="n" rel="next">Fonts</a>, Previous: <a href="#Overview" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Overview of LaTeX</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Document-classes-1">3 Document classes</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-document-classes"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-classes-of-documents"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cdocumentclass"></a>

<p>The document&rsquo;s overall class is defined with this command, which is
normally the first command in a LaTeX source file.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass[<var class="var">options</var>]{<var class="var">class</var>}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-article-class"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-report-class"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-book-class"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-letter-class"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-slides-class"></a>
<p>The following document <var class="var">class</var> names are built into LaTeX.
(Many other document classes are available as separate packages;
see <a class="pxref" href="#Overview">Overview of LaTeX</a>.)
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">article</code></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="document-classes-article"></a><p>For a journal article, a presentation, and miscellaneous general use.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">book</code></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="document-classes-book"></a><p>Full-length books, including chapters and possibly including front
matter, such as a preface, and back matter, such as an appendix
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Front_002fback-matter">Front/back matter</a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">letter</code></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="document-classes-letter"></a><p>Mail, optionally including mailing labels 
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Letters">Letters</a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">report</code></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="document-classes-report"></a><p>For documents of length between an <code class="code">article</code> and a <code class="code">book</code>,
such as technical reports or theses, which may contain several chapters.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">slides</code></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="document-classes-slides"></a><p>For slide presentations&mdash;rarely used nowadays. The
<code class="code">beamer</code> package is perhaps the most prevalent
(<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/beamer">https://ctan.org/pkg/beamer</a>). See <a class="xref" href="#beamer-template"><code class="code">beamer</code> template</a>, for a
small template for a beamer document.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Standard <var class="var">options</var> are described in the next section.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Document-class-options" accesskey="1">Document class options</a></li>
<li><a href="#Additional-packages" accesskey="2">Additional packages</a></li>
<li><a href="#Class-and-package-construction" accesskey="3">Class and package construction</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Document-class-options">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Additional-packages" accesskey="n" rel="next">Additional packages</a>, Up: <a href="#Document-classes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Document classes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Document-class-options-1">3.1 Document class options</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-document-class-options"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-options_002c-document-class"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-class-options"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-global-options"></a>

<p>You can specify <em class="dfn">global options</em> or <em class="dfn">class options</em> to the
<code class="code">\documentclass</code> command by enclosing them in square brackets.  To
specify more than one <var class="var">option</var>, separate them with a comma.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass[<var class="var">option1</var>,<var class="var">option2</var>,...]{<var class="var">class</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Here is the list of the standard class options.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-10pt-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-11pt-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-12pt-option"></a>
<p>All of the standard classes except <code class="code">slides</code> accept the following
options for selecting the typeface size (default is <code class="code">10pt</code>):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">10pt  11pt  12pt
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-a4paper-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-a5paper-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-b5paper-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-executivepaper-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-legalpaper-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-letterpaper-option"></a>
<p>All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper
size (these show height by width):
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">a4paper</code></dt>
<dd><p>210 by 297<span class="dmn">mm</span> (about 8.25 by 11.75&nbsp;inches)
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">a5paper</code></dt>
<dd><p>148 by 210<span class="dmn">mm</span> (about 5.8 by 8.3&nbsp;inches)
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">b5paper</code></dt>
<dd><p>176 by 250<span class="dmn">mm</span> (about 6.9 by 9.8&nbsp;inches)
</p> 
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">executivepaper</code></dt>
<dd><p>7.25 by 10.5&nbsp;inches
</p> 
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">legalpaper</code></dt>
<dd><p>8.5 by 14&nbsp;inches
</p> 
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">letterpaper</code></dt>
<dd><p>8.5 by 11&nbsp;inches (the default)
</p></dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpdfpagewidth"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpdfpageheight"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-geometry"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-geometry-package"></a>

<p>When using one of the engines pdfLaTeX, LuaLaTeX, or XeLaTeX
(see <a class="pxref" href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>), options other than <code class="code">letterpaper</code> set
the print area but you must also set the physical paper size.  One way
to do that is to put <code class="code">\pdfpagewidth=\paperwidth</code> and
<code class="code">\pdfpageheight=\paperheight</code> in your document&rsquo;s preamble.
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-geometry-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-geometry-package-1"></a>
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">geometry</code> package provides flexible ways of setting the print
area and physical page size.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-draft-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-final-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fleqn-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-landscape-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-leqno-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-openbib-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-titlepage-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-notitlepage-option"></a>
<p>Miscellaneous other options:
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-black-boxes_002c-omitting'><span><code class="code">draft</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-black-boxes_002c-omitting'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">final</code></dt>
<dd><p>Mark (<code class="code">draft</code>) or do not mark (<code class="code">final</code>) overfull boxes with a
black box in the margin; default is <code class="code">final</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-flush-left-equations'><span><code class="code">fleqn</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-flush-left-equations'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-centered-equations"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-equations_002c-flush-left-vs_002e-centered"></a>
<p>Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-landscape-orientation'><span><code class="code">landscape</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-landscape-orientation'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-portrait-orientation"></a>
<p>Selects landscape format; default is portrait.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-left_002dhand-equation-numbers'><span><code class="code">leqno</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-left_002dhand-equation-numbers'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-right_002dhand-equation-numbers"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-equation-numbers_002c-left-vs_002e-right"></a>
<p>Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-bibliography-format_002c-open'><span><code class="code">openbib</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-bibliography-format_002c-open'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Use &ldquo;open&rdquo; bibliography format.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-title-page_002c-separate-or-run_002din'><span><code class="code">titlepage</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-title-page_002c-separate-or-run_002din'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">notitlepage</code></dt>
<dd><p>Specifies whether there is a separate page for the title information and
for the abstract also, if there is one.  The default for the
<code class="code">report</code> class is <code class="code">titlepage</code>, for the other classes it is
<code class="code">notitlepage</code>.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>The following options are not available with the <code class="code">slides</code> class.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-onecolumn-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-twocolumn-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-oneside-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-twoside-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-openright-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-openany-option"></a>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">onecolumn</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">twocolumn</code></dt>
<dd><p>Typeset in one or two columns; default is <code class="code">onecolumn</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cevensidemargin'><span><code class="code">oneside</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cevensidemargin'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">twoside</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005coddsidemargin"></a>
<p>Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is <code class="code">oneside</code>, except
that in the <code class="code">book</code> class the default is <code class="code">twoside</code>.
</p>
<p>For one-sided printing, the text is centered on the page.  For two-sided
printing, the <code class="code">\evensidemargin</code> (<code class="code">\oddsidemargin</code>) parameter
determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left
side of the page and the text&rsquo;s left margin, with <code class="code">\oddsidemargin</code>
being 40% of the difference between <code class="code">\paperwidth</code> and
<code class="code">\textwidth</code>, and <code class="code">\evensidemargin</code> is the remainder.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">openright</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">openany</code></dt>
<dd><p>Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is
<code class="code">openright</code> for <code class="code">book</code>, and <code class="code">openany</code> for <code class="code">report</code>.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-clock-option-to-slides-class"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">slides</code> class offers the option <code class="code">clock</code> for printing
the time at the bottom of each note.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Additional-packages">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Class-and-package-construction" accesskey="n" rel="next">Class and package construction</a>, Previous: <a href="#Document-class-options" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Document class options</a>, Up: <a href="#Document-classes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Document classes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Additional-packages-1">3.2 Additional packages</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-loading-additional-packages"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-packages_002c-loading-additional"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-additional-packages_002c-loading"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cusepackage"></a>
<p>Load a package <var class="var">pkg</var>, with the package options given in the comma-separated
list <var class="var">options</var>, as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[<var class="var">options</var>]{<var class="var">pkg</var>}.
</pre></div>

<p>To specify more than one package you can separate them with a comma,
as in <code class="code">\usepackage{<var class="var">pkg1</var>,<var class="var">pkg2</var>,...}</code>, or use multiple
<code class="code">\usepackage</code> commands.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-global-options-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-options_002c-global"></a>
<p>Any options given in the <code class="code">\documentclass</code> command that are unknown
to the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with
<code class="code">\usepackage</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Class-and-package-construction">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Additional-packages" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Additional packages</a>, Up: <a href="#Document-classes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Document classes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Class-and-package-construction-1">3.3 Class and package construction</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-document-class-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-commands_002c-document-class"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-new-class-commands"></a>

<p>You can create new document classes and new packages.  For instance, if
your memos must satisfy some local requirements, such as a
standard header for each page, then you could create a new class
<code class="code">smcmemo.cls</code> and begin your documents with
<code class="code">\documentclass{smcmemo}</code>.
</p>
<p>What separates a package from a document class is that the commands in a
package are useful across classes while those in a document class are
specific to that class.  Thus, a command to set page headers is for a
package while a command to make the page headers say <code class="code">Memo from the
SMC Math Department</code> is for a class.
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-class-and-package-difference"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-difference-between-class-and-package"></a>
</p>
<p>Inside of a class or package file you can use the at-sign <code class="code">@</code> as a
character in command names without having to surround the code
containing that command with <code class="code">\makeatletter</code> and
<code class="code">\makeatother</code>.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother"><code class="code">\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makeatother</code></a>. This allow
you to create commands that users will not accidentally redefine.
Another technique is to preface class- or package-specific commands with
some string to prevent your class or package from interfering with
others. For instance, the class <code class="code">smcmemo</code> might have commands
<code class="code">\smc@tolist</code>, <code class="code">\smc@fromlist</code>, etc.
</p>



<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Class-and-package-structure" accesskey="1">Class and package structure</a></li>
<li><a href="#Class-and-package-commands" accesskey="2">Class and package commands</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Class-and-package-structure">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Class-and-package-commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Class and package commands</a>, Up: <a href="#Class-and-package-construction" accesskey="u" rel="up">Class and package construction</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Class-and-package-structure-1">3.3.1 Class and package structure</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-class-and-package-structure"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-class-file-layout"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package-file-layout"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-options_002c-document-class-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-options_002c-package"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-class-options-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package-options"></a>

<p>A class file or package file typically has four parts.  
</p><ol class="enumerate">
<li> In the <em class="dfn">identification part</em>, the file says that it is a LaTeX
package or class and describes itself, using the <code class="code">\NeedsTeXFormat</code>
and <code class="code">\ProvidesClass</code> or <code class="code">\ProvidesPackage</code> commands.

</li><li> The <em class="dfn">preliminary declarations part</em> declares some commands and
can also load other files. Usually these commands will be those needed
for the code used in the next part.  For example, an <code class="code">smcmemo</code>
class might be called with an option to read in a file with a list of
people for the to-head, as <code class="code">\documentclass[mathto]{smcmemo}</code>, and
therefore needs to define a command
<code class="code">\newcommand{\setto}[1]{\def\@tolist{#1}}</code> used in that
file.

</li><li> In the <em class="dfn">handle options part</em> the class or package declares
and processes its options.  Class options allow a user to start their
document as <code class="code">\documentclass[<var class="var">option list</var>]{<var class="var">class
name</var>}</code>, to modify the behavior of the class.  An example is when you
declare <code class="code">\documentclass[11pt]{article}</code> to set the default
document font size.  

</li><li> Finally, in the <em class="dfn">more declarations part</em> the class or package
usually does most of its work: declaring new variables, commands and
fonts, and loading other files.
</li></ol>

<p>Here is a starting class file, which should be saved as <samp class="file">stub.cls</samp>
where LaTeX can find it, for example in the same directory as the
<samp class="file">.tex</samp> file.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}
\ProvidesClass{stub}[2017/07/06 stub to start building classes from]
\DeclareOption*{\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}}
\ProcessOptions\relax
\LoadClass{article}
</pre></div>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-class-file-example"></a>

<p>It identifies itself, handles the class options via the default of
passing them all to the <code class="code">article</code> class, and then loads the
<code class="code">article</code> class to provide the basis for this class&rsquo;s code.
</p>
<p>For more, see the official guide for class and package writers, the
Class Guide, at
<a class="url" href="https://www.latex-project.org/help/documentation/clsguide.pdf">https://www.latex-project.org/help/documentation/clsguide.pdf</a> (much
of the descriptions here derive from this document), or the tutorial
<a class="url" href="https://www.tug.org/TUGboat/tb26-3/tb84heff.pdf">https://www.tug.org/TUGboat/tb26-3/tb84heff.pdf</a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Class-and-package-commands">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Class-and-package-structure" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Class and package structure</a>, Up: <a href="#Class-and-package-construction" accesskey="u" rel="up">Class and package construction</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Class-and-package-commands-1">3.3.2 Class and package commands</h4>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-class-and-package-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-commands_002c-class-and-package"></a>

<p>These are the commands designed to help writers of classes or packages.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-_005cAtBeginDvi'><span><code class="code">\AtBeginDvi{specials}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cAtBeginDvi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Save in a box register things that are written to the <samp class="file">.dvi</samp> file
at the beginning of the shipout of the first page of the document.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cAtEndOfClass'><span><code class="code">\AtEndOfClass{<var class="var">code</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cAtEndOfClass'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\AtEndOfPackage{<var class="var">code</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cAtEndOfPackage"></a>
<p>Hook to insert <var class="var">code</var> to be executed when LaTeX finishes
processing the current class or package.  You can use these hooks
multiple times; the <code class="code">code</code> will be executed in the order that you
called it.  See also <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cAtBeginDocument"><code class="code">\AtBeginDocument</code></a>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cCheckCommand'><span><code class="code">\CheckCommand{<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">num</var>][<var class="var">default</var>]{<var class="var">definition</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cCheckCommand'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\CheckCommand*{<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">num</var>][<var class="var">default</var>]{<var class="var">definition</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cCheckCommand_002a"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-new-command_002c-checking"></a>
<p>Like <code class="code">\newcommand</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a>) but does
not define <var class="var">cmd</var>; instead it checks that the current definition of
<var class="var">cmd</var> is exactly as given by <var class="var">definition</var> and is or is not 
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-long-command"></a>
<em class="dfn">long</em> as expected.  A long command is a command that accepts
<code class="code">\par</code> within an argument.  The <var class="var">cmd</var> command is expected to be
long with the unstarred version of <code class="code">\CheckCommand</code>.  Raises an
error when the check fails.  This allows you to check before you start
redefining <code class="code">cmd</code> yourself that no other package has already
redefined this command.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cClassError'><span><code class="code">\ClassError{<var class="var">class name</var>}{<var class="var">error text</var>}{<var class="var">help text</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cClassError'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\ClassWarning{<var class="var">class name</var>}{<var class="var">warning text</var>}</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\ClassWarningNoLine{<var class="var">class name</var>}{<var class="var">warning text</var>}</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\ClassInfo{<var class="var">class name</var>}{<var class="var">info text</var>}</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\ClassInfoNoLine{<var class="var">class name</var>}{<var class="var">info text</var>}</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\PackageError{<var class="var">package name</var>}{<var class="var">error text</var>}{<var class="var">help text</var>}</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\PackageWarning{<var class="var">package name</var>}{<var class="var">warning text</var>}</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\PackageWarningNoLine{<var class="var">package name</var>}{<var class="var">warning text</var>}</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\PackageInfo{<var class="var">package name</var>}{<var class="var">info text</var>}</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\PackageInfoNoLine{<var class="var">package name</var>}{<var class="var">info text</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cPackageError"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cClassWarning"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cPackageWarning"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cClassWarningNoLine"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cPackageWarningNoLine"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cClassInfo"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cPackageInfo"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cClassInfoNoLine"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cPackageInfoNoLine"></a>
<p>Produce an error message, or warning or informational messages.
</p>
<p>For <code class="code">\ClassError</code> and <code class="code">\PackageError</code> the message is
<var class="var">error text</var>, followed by TeX&rsquo;s <code class="code">?</code> error prompt. If the
user then asks for help by typing <code class="code">h</code>, they see the <var class="var">help
text</var>.
</p>
<p>The four warning commands are similar except that they write
<var class="var">warning text</var> on the screen with no error prompt.  The four info
commands write <var class="var">info text</var> only in the transcript file.  The
<code class="code">NoLine</code> versions do not show the number of the line generating the
message, while the other versions do show that number.
</p>
<p>To format the messages, including the <var class="var">help text</var>: use
<code class="code">\protect</code> to stop a command from expanding, get a line break with
<code class="code">\MessageBreak</code>, and get a space with <code class="code">\space</code> when a space
character does not allow it, like after a command.  Note that LaTeX
appends a period to the messages.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cCurrentOption'><span><code class="code">\CurrentOption</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cCurrentOption'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Expands to the name of the currently-being-processed option.  Can only
be used within the <var class="var">code</var> argument of either <code class="code">\DeclareOption</code>
or <code class="code">\DeclareOption*</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cDeclareOption'><span><code class="code">\DeclareOption{<var class="var">option</var>}{<var class="var">code</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cDeclareOption'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\DeclareOption*{<var class="var">code</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareOption_002a"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-class-options-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package-options-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-options_002c-class"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-options_002c-package-1"></a>
<p>Make an option available to a user to invoke in their
<code class="code">\documentclass</code> command.  For example, the <code class="code">smcmemo</code> class
could have an option <code class="code">\documentclass[logo]{smcmemo}</code> allowing
users to put the institutional logo on the first page.  The class file
must contain <code class="code">\DeclareOption{logo}{<var class="var">code</var>}</code> (and later,
<code class="code">\ProcessOptions</code>).
</p>
<p>If you request an option that has not been declared, by default this
will produce a warning like <code class="code">Unused global option(s):
[badoption].</code>  Change this behavior with the starred version
<code class="code">\DeclareOption*{<var class="var">code</var>}</code>.  For example, many classes
extend an existing class, using a command such as
<code class="code">\LoadClass{article}</code>, and for passing extra options to the
underlying class use code such as this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareOption*{%
\PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}%
}
</pre></div>

<p>Another example is that the class <code class="code">smcmemo</code> may allow users to keep
lists of memo recipients in external files.  Then the user could invoke
<code class="code">\documentclass[math]{smcmemo}</code> and it will read the file
<code class="code">math.memo</code>.  This code handles the file if it exists and otherwise
passes the option to the <code class="code">article</code> class.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareOption*{\InputIfFileExists{\CurrentOption.memo}{}{%
    \PassOptionsToClass{\CurrentOption}{article}}}
</pre></div>

</dd>
<dt><code class="code">\DeclareRobustCommand{<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">num</var>][<var class="var">default</var>]{<var class="var">definition</var>}</code></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cDeclareRobustCommand'><span><code class="code">* \DeclareRobustCommand*{<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">num</var>][<var class="var">default</var>]{<var class="var">definition</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cDeclareRobustCommand'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareRobustCommand_002a"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-new-command_002c-definition"></a>
<p>Like <code class="code">\newcommand</code> and <code class="code">\newcommand*</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a>) but these declare a robust command, even if some code
within the <var class="var">definition</var> is fragile.  (For a discussion of robust and
fragile commands see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>.) Use this command to define new
robust commands or to redefine existing commands and make them
robust. Unlike <code class="code">\newcommand</code> these do not give an error if macro
<var class="var">cmd</var> already exists; instead, a log message is put into the
transcript file if a command is redefined.
</p>
<p>Commands defined this way are a bit less efficient than those defined
using <code class="code">\newcommand</code> so unless the command&rsquo;s data is fragile and the
command is used within a moving argument, use <code class="code">\newcommand</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-etoolbox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-etoolbox-package"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">etoolbox</code> package offers the commands
<code class="code">\newrobustcmd</code>, <code class="code">\newrobustcmd*</code>, as well as the commands
<code class="code">\renewrobustcmd</code>, <code class="code">\renewrobustcmd*</code>, and the commands
<code class="code">\providerobustcmd</code>, and <code class="code">\providerobustcmd*</code>.  These are
similar to <code class="code">\newcommand</code>, <code class="code">\newcommand*</code>,
<code class="code">\renewcommand</code>, <code class="code">\renewcommand*</code>, <code class="code">\providecommand</code>, and
<code class="code">\providecommand*</code>, but define a robust <var class="var">cmd</var> with two
advantages as compared to <code class="code">\DeclareRobustCommand</code>:
</p><ol class="enumerate">
<li> They use the low-level e-TeX protection mechanism rather than the
higher level LaTeX <code class="code">\protect</code> mechanism, so they do not incur
the slight loss of performance mentioned above, and
</li><li> They make the same distinction between <code class="code">\new&hellip;</code>,
<code class="code">\renew&hellip;</code>, and <code class="code">\provide&hellip;</code>, as the standard
commands, so they do not just make a log message when you redefine
<var class="var">cmd</var> that already exists, in that case you need to use either
<code class="code">\renew&hellip;</code> or <code class="code">\provide&hellip;</code> or you get an error.
</li></ol>

</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cIfFileExists'><span><code class="code">\IfFileExists{<var class="var">filename</var>}{<var class="var">true code</var>}{<var class="var">false code</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cIfFileExists'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\InputIfFileExists{<var class="var">filename</var>}{<var class="var">true code</var>}{<var class="var">false code</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cInputIfFileExists"></a>
<p>Execute <var class="var">true code</var> if LaTeX finds the file <samp class="file"><var class="var">file
name</var></samp> or <var class="var">false code</var> otherwise.  In the first case it executing
<var class="var">true code</var> and then inputs the file.  Thus the command
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\IfFileExists{img.pdf}{%
  \includegraphics{img.pdf}}{\typeout{!! img.pdf not found}
</pre></div>

<p>will include the graphic <samp class="file">img.pdf</samp> if it is found and otherwise
give a warning.
</p>
<p>This command looks for the file in all search paths that LaTeX uses,
not only in the current directory.  To look only in the current
directory do something like <code class="code">\IfFileExists{./filename}{<var class="var">true
code</var>}{<var class="var">false code</var>}</code>.  If you ask for a filename without a
<code class="code">.tex</code> extension then LaTeX will first look for the file by
appending the <code class="code">.tex</code>; for more on how LaTeX handles file
extensions see <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cinput"><code class="code">\input</code></a>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cLoadClass'><span><code class="code">\LoadClass[<var class="var">options list</var>]{<var class="var">class name</var>}[<var class="var">release date</var>]</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cLoadClass'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\LoadClassWithOptions{<var class="var">class name</var>}[<var class="var">release date</var>]</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cLoadClassWithOptions"></a>
<p>Load a class, as with <code class="code">\documentclass[<var class="var">options
list</var>]{<var class="var">class name</var>}[<var class="var">release info</var>]</code>.  An example is
<code class="code">\LoadClass[twoside]{article}</code>.
</p>
<p>The <var class="var">options list</var>, if present, is a comma-separated list.  The
<var class="var">release date</var> is optional.  If present it must have the form
<var class="var">YYYY/MM/DD</var>.
</p>
<p>If you request a <var class="var">release date</var> and the date of the package
installed on your system is earlier, then you get a warning on the
screen and in the log like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">You have requested, on input line 4, version `2038/01/19' of
document class article, but only version `2014/09/29 v1.4h
Standard LaTeX document class' is available.
</pre></div>

<p>The command version <code class="code">\LoadClassWithOptions</code> uses the list of
options for the current class.  This means it ignores any options passed
to it via <code class="code">\PassOptionsToClass</code>.  This is a convenience command
that lets you build classes on existing ones, such as the standard
<code class="code">article</code> class, without having to track which options were passed.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cExecuteOptions'><span><code class="code">\ExecuteOptions{<var class="var">options-list</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cExecuteOptions'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>For each option <var class="var">option</var> in the <var class="var">options-list</var>, in order, this command
executes the command <code class="code">\ds@<var class="var">option</var></code>.  If this command is not
defined then that option is silently ignored.
</p>
<p>It can be used to provide a default option list before
<code class="code">\ProcessOptions</code>.  For example, if in a class file you want the
default to be 11pt fonts then you could specify
<code class="code">\ExecuteOptions{11pt}\ProcessOptions\relax</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cNeedsTeXFormat'><span><code class="code">\NeedsTeXFormat{<var class="var">format</var>}[<var class="var">format date</var>]</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cNeedsTeXFormat'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Specifies the format that this class must be run under.  Often issued
as the first line of a class file, and most often used as:
<code class="code">\NeedsTeXFormat{LaTeX2e}</code>.  When a document using that class is
processed, the format name given here must match the format that is
actually being run (including that the <var class="var">format</var> string is case
sensitive).  If it does not match then execution stops with an error
like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">This file needs format `LaTeX2e' but this is `xxx'.</samp>&rsquo;
</p>
<p>To specify a version of the format that you know to have certain
features, include the optional <var class="var">format date</var> on which those features
were implemented.  If present it must be in the form <code class="code">YYYY/MM/DD</code>.
If the format version installed on your system is earlier than
<var class="var">format date</var> then you get a warning like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">You have requested release `2038/01/20' of LaTeX, but only
release `2016/02/01' is available.
</pre></div>

</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cOptionNotUsed'><span><code class="code">\OptionNotUsed</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cOptionNotUsed'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Adds the current option to the list of unused options.  Can only be used
within the <var class="var">code</var> argument of either <code class="code">\DeclareOption</code> or
<code class="code">\DeclareOption*</code>.
</p>

</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cPassOptionsToClass'><span><code class="code">\PassOptionsToClass{<var class="var">option list</var>}{<var class="var">class name</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cPassOptionsToClass'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\PassOptionsToPackage{<var class="var">option list</var>}{<var class="var">package name</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cPassOptionsToPackage"></a>
<p>Adds the options in the comma-separated list <var class="var">option list</var> to the
options used by any future <code class="code">\RequirePackage</code> or <code class="code">\usepackage</code>
command for package <var class="var">package name</var> or the class <var class="var">class name</var>.
</p>
<p>The reason for these commands is: you may load a package any number of
times with no options but if you want options then you may only supply
them when you first load the package.  Loading a package with options
more than once will get you an error like <code class="code">Option clash for package
foo.</code> (LaTeX throws an error even if there is no conflict between the
options.)
</p>
<p>If your own code is bringing in a package twice then you can collapse
that to once, for example replacing the two
<code class="code">\RequirePackage[landscape]{geometry}</code> and
<code class="code">\RequirePackage[margins=1in]{geometry}</code> with the single command
<code class="code">\RequirePackage[landscape,margins=1in]{geometry}</code>.
</p>
<p>However, imagine that you are loading <samp class="file">firstpkg</samp> and inside that
package it loads <samp class="file">secondpkg</samp>, and you need the second package to be
loaded with option <code class="code">draft</code>.  Then before doing the first package
you must queue up the options for the second package, like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{secondpkg}
\RequirePackage{firstpkg}
</pre></div>

<p>(If <code class="code">firstpkg.sty</code> loads an option in conflict with what you want
then you may have to alter its source.)
</p>
<p>These commands are useful for general users as well as class and package
writers.  For instance, suppose a user wants to load the <code class="code">graphicx</code>
package with the option <code class="code">draft</code> and also wants to use a class
<code class="code">foo</code> that loads the <code class="code">graphicx</code> package, but without that
option. The user could start their LaTeX file with
<code class="code">\PassOptionsToPackage{draft}{graphicx}\documentclass{foo}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cProcessOptions'><span><code class="code">\ProcessOptions</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cProcessOptions'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\ProcessOptions*<var class="var">\@options</var></code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cProcessOptions_002a"></a>
<p>Execute the code for each option that the user has invoked.  Include it
in the class file as <code class="code">\ProcessOptions\relax</code> (because of the
existence of the starred command).
</p>
<p>Options come in two types.  <em class="dfn">Local options</em> have been specified for this
particular package in the <var class="var">options</var> argument of
<code class="code">\PassOptionsToPackage{<var class="var">options</var>}</code>,
<code class="code">\usepackage[<var class="var">options</var>]</code>, or
<code class="code">\RequirePackage[<var class="var">options</var>]</code>.  <em class="dfn">Global options</em> are those given
by the class user in <code class="code">\documentclass[<var class="var">options</var>]</code> (If an option
is specified both locally and globally then it is local.)
</p>
<p>When <code class="code">\ProcessOptions</code> is called for a package <samp class="file">pkg.sty</samp>, the
following happens:
</p><ol class="enumerate">
<li> For each option <var class="var">option</var> so far declared
with <code class="code">\DeclareOption</code>, it looks to see if that option is either a
global or a local option for <code class="code">pkg</code>. If so then it executes the
declared code.  This is done in the order in which these options were
given in <samp class="file">pkg.sty</samp>.
</li><li> For each remaining local option, it executes the command
<code class="code">\ds@</code><var class="var">option</var> if it has been defined somewhere (other than by
a <code class="code">\DeclareOption</code>); otherwise, it executes the default option code
given in <code class="code">\DeclareOption*</code>. If no default option code has been
declared then it gives an error message.  This is done in the order in
which these options were specified.
</li></ol>

<p>When <code class="code">\ProcessOptions</code> is called for a class it works in the same
way except that all options are local, and the default <var class="var">code</var> for
<code class="code">\DeclareOption*</code> is <code class="code">\OptionNotUsed</code> rather than an error.
</p>
<p>The starred version <code class="code">\ProcessOptions*</code> executes the
options in the order specified in the calling commands, rather than in
the order of declaration in the class or package. For a package this
means that the global options are processed first.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cProvidesClass'><span><code class="code">\ProvidesClass{<var class="var">class name</var>}[<var class="var">release date</var> <var class="var">brief additional information</var>]</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cProvidesClass'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\ProvidesClass{<var class="var">class name</var>}[<var class="var">release date</var>]</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\ProvidesPackage{<var class="var">package name</var>}[<var class="var">release date</var> <var class="var">brief additional information</var>]</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\ProvidesPackage{<var class="var">package name</var>}[<var class="var">release date</var>]</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cProvidesPackage"></a>
<p>Identifies the class or package, printing a message to the screen and
the log file.
</p>
<p>When you load a class or package, for example with
<code class="code">\documentclass{smcmemo}</code> or <code class="code">\usepackage{test}</code>, LaTeX
inputs a file.  If the name of the file does not match the class or
package name declared in it then you get a warning.  Thus, if you invoke
<code class="code">\documentclass{smcmemo}</code>, and the file <samp class="file">smcmemo.cls</samp> has
the statement <code class="code">\ProvidesClass{xxx}</code> then you get a warning like
<code class="code">You have requested document class `smcmemo', but the document
class provides 'xxx'.</code>  This warning does not prevent LaTeX from
processing the rest of the class file normally.
</p>
<p>If you include the optional argument then you must include a date,
before any spaces, of the form <code class="code">YYYY/MM/DD</code>. The rest of the
optional argument is free-form, although it traditionally identifies the
class, and is written to the screen during compilation and to the log
file.  Thus, if your file <samp class="file">smcmemo.cls</samp> contains the line
<code class="code">\ProvidesClass{smcmemo}[2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo class]</code> and
your document&rsquo;s first line is <code class="code">\documentclass{smcmemo}</code> then you
will see <code class="code">Document Class: smcmemo 2008/06/01 v1.0 SMC memo class</code>.
</p>
<p>The date in the optional argument allows class and package users to ask
to be warned if the version of the class or package is earlier than
<var class="var">release date</var>.  For instance, a user could enter
<code class="code">\documentclass{smcmemo}[2018/10/12]</code> or
<code class="code">\usepackage{foo}[[2017/07/07]]</code> to require a class or package
with certain features by specifying that it must be released no earlier
than the given date.  (Although, in practice package users only rarely
include a date, and class users almost never do.)
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cProvidesFile'><span><code class="code">\ProvidesFile{<var class="var">filename</var>}[<var class="var">additional information</var>]</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cProvidesFile'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Declare a file other than the main class and package files, such as
configuration files or font definition files.  Put this command in that
file and you get in the log a string like <code class="code">File: test.config
2017/10/12 config file for test.cls</code> for <var class="var">filename</var> equal to
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">test.config</samp>&rsquo; and <var class="var">additional information</var> equal to
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">2017/10/12 config file for test.cls</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cRequirePackage'><span><code class="code">\RequirePackage[<var class="var">option list</var>]{<var class="var">package name</var>}[<var class="var">release date</var>]</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cRequirePackage'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\RequirePackageWithOptions{<var class="var">package name</var>}[<var class="var">release date</var>]</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cRequirePackageWithOptions"></a>
<p>Load a package, like the command <code class="code">\usepackage</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Additional-packages">Additional packages</a>). The LaTeX development team strongly recommends use of
these commands over Plain&nbsp;TeX&rsquo;s <code class="code">\input</code>; see the Class
Guide.  An example is
<code class="code">\RequirePackage[landscape,margin=1in]{geometry}</code>.
</p>
<p>The <var class="var">option list</var>, if present, is a comma-separated list.  The
<var class="var">release date</var>, if present, must have the form <var class="var">YYYY/MM/DD</var>.  If
the release date of the package as installed on your system is earlier
than <var class="var">release date</var> then you get a warning like <code class="code">You have
requested, on input line 9, version `2017/07/03' of package jhtest, but
only version `2000/01/01' is available</code>.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\RequirePackageWithOptions</code> version uses the list of options
for the current class.  This means it ignores any options passed to it
via <code class="code">\PassOptionsToClass</code>.  This is a convenience command to allow
easily building classes on existing ones without having to track which
options were passed.
</p>
<p>The difference between <code class="code">\usepackage</code> and <code class="code">\RequirePackage</code> is
small.  The <code class="code">\usepackage</code> command is intended for the document file
while <code class="code">\RequirePackage</code> is intended for package and class files.
Thus, using <code class="code">\usepackage</code> before the <code class="code">\documentclass</code> command
causes LaTeX to give error like <code class="code">\usepackage before
\documentclass</code>, but you can use <code class="code">\RequirePackage</code> there.
</p></dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Fonts">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Layout" accesskey="n" rel="next">Layout</a>, Previous: <a href="#Document-classes" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Document classes</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Fonts-1">4 Fonts</h2>
<a class="anchor" id="Typefaces"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-typefaces"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fonts"></a>

<p>LaTeX comes with powerful font capacities.  For one thing, its New
Font Selection Scheme allows you to work easily with the font families
in your document (for instance, see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a>).  And,
LaTeX documents can use most fonts that are available today,
including versions of Times Roman, Helvetica, Courier, etc.  (Note,
though, that many fonts do not have support for mathematics.)
</p>
<p>The first typeface in the TeX world was the Computer Modern family,
developed by Donald Knuth.  It is the default for LaTeX documents and
is still the most widely used.  But changing to another font often only
involves a few commands.  For instance, putting the following in your
preamble gives you a Palatino-like font, which is handsome and more
readable online than many other fonts, while still allowing you to
typeset mathematics.  (This example is from Michael Sharpe,
<a class="url" href="https://math.ucsd.edu/~msharpe/RcntFnts.pdf">https://math.ucsd.edu/~msharpe/RcntFnts.pdf</a>.)
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[osf]{newpxtext} % osf for text, not math
\usepackage{cabin} % sans serif
\usepackage[varqu,varl]{inconsolata} % sans serif typewriter
\usepackage[bigdelims,vvarbb]{newpxmath} % bb from STIX
\usepackage[cal=boondoxo]{mathalfa} % mathcal
</pre></div>

<p>In addition, the <code class="command">xelatex</code> or <code class="command">lualatex</code> engines allow
you to use any fonts on your system that are in OpenType or TrueType
format (see <a class="pxref" href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>).
</p>
<p>The LaTeX Font Catalogue (<a class="url" href="https://tug.org/FontCatalogue">https://tug.org/FontCatalogue</a>) shows
font sample graphics and copy-and-pasteable source to use many fonts,
including many with support for mathematics.  It aims to cover all Latin
alphabet free fonts available for easy use with LaTeX.
</p>
<p>More information is also available from the TeX Users Group, at
<a class="url" href="https://www.tug.org/fonts/">https://www.tug.org/fonts/</a>.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="1"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a></li>
<li><a href="#Font-styles" accesskey="2">Font styles</a></li>
<li><a href="#Font-sizes" accesskey="3">Font sizes</a></li>
<li><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands" accesskey="4">Low-level font commands</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="fontenc-package">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Font-styles" accesskey="n" rel="next">Font styles</a>, Up: <a href="#Fonts" accesskey="u" rel="up">Fonts</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="fontenc-package-1">4.1 <code class="code">fontenc</code> package</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-font-encoding"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-UTF_002d8_002c-font-support-for"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-T1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-OT1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fontenc"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[<var class="var">font_encoding</var>]{fontenc}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[<var class="var">font_encoding1</var>, <var class="var">font_encoding2</var>, ...]{fontenc}
</pre></div>

<p>Specify the font encodings.  A font encoding is a mapping of the
character codes to the font glyphs that are used to typeset your output.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-fontspec"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fontspec-package"></a>

<p>This package only applies if you use the <code class="code">pdflatex</code> engine
(see <a class="pxref" href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>).  If you use the <code class="command">xelatex</code> or
<code class="command">lualatex</code> engine then instead use the <code class="code">fontspec</code> package.
</p>
<p>TeX&rsquo;s original font family, Computer Modern, has a limited character
set. For instance, to make common accented characters you must use
<code class="code">\accent</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005caccent"><code class="code">\accent</code></a>) but this disables hyphenation.  TeX
users have agreed on a number of standards to access the larger sets of
characters provided by modern fonts.  If you are using
<code class="command">pdflatex</code> then put this in the preamble
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
</pre></div>

<p>gives you support for the most widespread European languages, including
French, German, Italian, Polish, and others.  In particular, if you have
words with accented letters then LaTeX will hyphenate them and your
output can be copied and pasted.  (The optional second line allows you
to directly enter accented characters into your source file.)
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-lmodern"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lmodern-package"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-cm_002dsuper"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cm_002dsuper-package"></a>

<p>If you are using an encoding such as <code class="code">T1</code> and the characters appear
blurry or do not magnify well then your fonts may be bitmapped,
sometimes called raster or Type&nbsp;3.  You want vector fonts.  Use a
package such as <code class="code">lmodern</code> or <code class="code">cm-super</code> to get a font that
extends LaTeX&rsquo;s default using vector fonts.
</p>
<p>For each <var class="var">font_encoding</var> given as an option but not already
declared, this package loads the encoding definition files, named
<samp class="file"><var class="var">font_encoding</var>enc.def</samp>.  It also sets <code class="code">\encodingdefault</code>
to be the last encoding in the option list.
</p>
<p>These are the common values for <var class="var">font_encoding</var>.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">OT1</code></dt>
<dd><p>The original encoding for TeX.  Limited to mostly English characters.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">OMS, OML</code></dt>
<dd><p>Math symbols and math letters encoding.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">T1</code></dt>
<dd><p>TeX text extended.  Sometimes called the Cork encoding for the Users
Group meeting where it was developed.  Gives access to most European
accented characters.  The most common option for this package.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">TS1</code></dt>
<dd><p>Text Companion encoding.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s default is to load <code class="code">OML</code>, <code class="code">T1</code>, <code class="code">OT1</code>, and
then <code class="code">OMS</code>, and set the default to <code class="code">OT1</code>.
</p>
<p>Even if you do not use accented letters, you may need to specify a font
encoding if your font requires it.
</p>
<p>If you use <code class="code">T1</code>&nbsp;encoded fonts other than the default Computer
Modern family then you may need to load the package that selects your
fonts before loading <samp class="file">fontenc</samp>, to prevent the system from loading
any <code class="code">T1</code>&nbsp;encoded fonts from the default.
</p>
<p>The LaTeX team reserve encoding names starting with: &lsquo;<samp class="samp">T</samp>&rsquo; for the
standard text encodings with 256 characters, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">TS</samp>&rsquo; for symbols that
extend the corresponding T encodings, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">X</samp>&rsquo; for test encodings,
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">M</samp>&rsquo; for standard math encodings with 256 characters, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">A</samp>&rsquo; for
special applications, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">OT</samp>&rsquo; for standard text encodings with 128
characters, and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">OM</samp>&rsquo; for standard math encodings with 128
characters (&lsquo;<samp class="samp">O</samp>&rsquo; stands for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">obsolete</samp>&rsquo;).
</p>
<p>This package provides a number of commands, detailed below.  Many of
them are encoding-specific, so if you have defined a command that works
for one encoding but the current encoding is different then the command
is not in effect.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\DeclareFontEncoding</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\DeclareTextAccent</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\DeclareTextAccentDefault</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommand</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCommandDefault</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommandDefault </code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextComposite" accesskey="6"><code class="code">\DeclareTextComposite</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand" accesskey="7"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol" accesskey="8"><code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbol</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault" accesskey="9"><code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cLastDeclaredEncoding"><code class="code">\LastDeclaredEncoding</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cUseTextSymbol-_0026-_005cUseTextAccent"><code class="code">\UseTextSymbol</code> &amp; <code class="code">\UseTextAccent</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\DeclareTextAccent</code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding-1">4.1.1 <code class="code">\DeclareFontEncoding</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-font-encoding_002c-declaring"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-encoding_002c-font"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-accents_002c-defining"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareFontEncoding"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareFontEncoding{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{<var class="var">text-settings</var>}{<var class="var">math-settings</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Declare the font encoding <var class="var">encoding</var>.  It also saves the value of
<var class="var">encoding</var> in <code class="code">\LastDeclaredEncoding</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cLastDeclaredEncoding"><code class="code">\LastDeclaredEncoding</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The file <samp class="file">t1enc.def</samp> contains this line (followed by many others).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareFontEncoding{T1}{}{}
</pre></div>

<p>The <var class="var">text-settings</var> are the commands that LaTeX will run every
time it switches from one encoding to another with the
<code class="code">\selectfont</code> and <code class="code">\fontencoding</code> commands.  The
<var class="var">math-settings</var> are the commands that LaTeX will use whenever the
font is accessed as a math alphabet.
</p>
<p>LaTeX ignores any space characters inside <var class="var">text-settings</var> and
<var class="var">math-settings</var>, to prevent unintended spaces in the output.
</p>
<p>If you invent an encoding you should pick a two or three letter name
starting with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">L</samp>&rsquo; for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">local</samp>&rsquo;, or &lsquo;<samp class="samp">E</samp>&rsquo; for
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">experimental</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>Note that output encoding files may be read several times by LaTeX so
using, e.g., <code class="code">\newcommand</code> may cause an error.  In addition, such
files should contain <code class="code">\ProvidesFile</code> line (see <a class="pxref" href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a>).
</p>
<p>Note also that you should use the <code class="code">\...Default</code> commands only in a
package, not in the encoding definition files, since those files
should only contain declarations specific to that encoding.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\DeclareTextAccentDefault</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\DeclareFontEncoding</code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent-1">4.1.2 <code class="code">\DeclareTextAccent</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-font-encoding-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-accents_002c-defining-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextAccent"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextAccent{<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{<var class="var">slot</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define an accent, to be put on top of other glyphs, in the encoding
<var class="var">encoding</var> at the location <var class="var">slot</var>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-slot_002c-font"></a>
<p>A <em class="dfn">slot</em> is the number identifying a glyph within a font.
</p>
<p>This line from <samp class="file">t1enc.def</samp> declares that to make a circumflex
accent as in <code class="code">\^A</code>, the system will put the accent in slot&nbsp;2
over the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">A</samp>&rsquo; character, which is represented in ASCII as&nbsp;65.
(This holds unless there is a relevant <code class="code">DeclareTextComposite</code> or
<code class="code">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand</code> declaration;
see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextComposite"><code class="code">\DeclareTextComposite</code></a>.)
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextAccent{\^}{T1}{2}
</pre></div>

<p>If <var class="var">cmd</var> has already been defined then <code class="code">\DeclareTextAccent</code>
does not give an error but it does log the redefinition in the
transcript file.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommand</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\DeclareTextAccent</code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault-1">4.1.3 <code class="code">\DeclareTextAccentDefault</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-accents_002c-defining-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextAccent-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextAccentDefault{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>If there is an encoding-specific accent command \<var class="var">cmd</var> but there is
no associated <code class="code">\DeclareTextAccent</code> for that encoding then this
command will pick up the slack, by saying to use it as described for
<var class="var">encoding</var>.
</p>
<p>For example, to make the encoding <code class="code">OT1</code> be the default encoding for
the accent <code class="code">\&quot;</code>, declare this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextAccentDefault{\&quot;}{OT1}
</pre></div>

<p>If you issue a <code class="code">\&quot;</code> when the current encoding does not have a
definition for that accent then LaTeX will use the definition from
<code class="code">OT1</code>
</p>
<p>That is, this command is equivalent to this call (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cUseTextSymbol-_0026-_005cUseTextAccent"><code class="code">\UseTextSymbol</code> &amp; <code class="code">\UseTextAccent</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextCommandDefault[1]{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}
   {\UseTextAccent{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{#1}}
</pre></div>

<p>Note that <code class="code">\DeclareTextAccentDefault</code> works for any one-argument
<samp class="file">fontenc</samp> command, not just the accent command.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCommandDefault</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommandDefault </code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\DeclareTextAccentDefault</code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand-1">4.1.4 <code class="code">\DeclareTextCommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommand</code></h4>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cProvideTextCommand"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextCommand"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cProvideTextCommand"></a>
<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextCommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\DeclareTextCommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">defn}</var>
\DeclareTextCommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\ProvideTextCommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\ProvideTextCommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\ProvideTextCommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define the command <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code>, which will be specific to one
encoding.  The command name <var class="var">cmd</var> must be preceded by a backslash,
<code class="code">\</code>.  These commands can only appear in the preamble.  Redefining
\<var class="var">cmd</var> does not cause an error. The defined command will be robust
even if the code in <var class="var">defn</var> is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>For example, the file <samp class="file">t1enc.def</samp> contains this line.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextCommand{\textperthousand}{T1}{\%\char 24 }
</pre></div>

<p>With that, you can express parts per thousand.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}  % in preamble
  ...
Legal limit is \( 0.8 \)\textperthousand.
</pre></div>

<p>If you change the font encoding to <code class="code">OT1</code> then you get an error like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Command \textperthousand unavailable in encoding
OT1</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextSymbol"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommand</code> variant does the same, except that it
does nothing if <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> is already defined.  The
<code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbol</code> command is faster than this one for simple
slot-to-glyph association (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol"><code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbol</code></a>)
</p>
<p>The optional <var class="var">nargs</var> and <var class="var">optargdefault</var> arguments play the same
role here as in <code class="code">\newcommand</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a>).  Briefly, <var class="var">nargs</var> is an integer from 0 to 9
specifying the number of arguments that the defined command
<code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> takes.  This number includes any optional argument.
Omitting this argument is the same as specifying 0, meaning that
<code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> will have no arguments.  And, if <var class="var">optargdefault</var>
is present then the first argument of <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> is optional,
with default value <var class="var">optargdefault</var> (which may be the empty string).
If <var class="var">optargdefault</var> is not present then <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> does not
take an optional argument.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextComposite" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\DeclareTextComposite</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommand</code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault-">4.1.5 <code class="code">\DeclareTextCommandDefault</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommandDefault </code></h4>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cProvideTextCommandDefault"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextCommandDefault{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">defn</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\ProvideTextCommandDefault{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">defn</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Give a default definition for <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code>, for when that command
is not defined in the encoding currently in force. This default should
only use encodings known to be available.
</p>
<p>This makes <code class="code">\copyright</code> available.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextCommandDefault{\copyright}{\textcircled{c}}
</pre></div>

<p>It uses only an encoding (OMS) that is always available.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\DeclareTextCommandDefault</code> should not occur in the encoding
definition files since those files should declare only commands for use
when you select that encoding. It should instead be in a package.
</p>
<p>As with the related non-default commands, the
<code class="code">\ProvideTextCommandDefault</code> has exactly the same behavior as
<code class="code">\DeclareTextCommandDefault</code> except that it does nothing if
<code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> is already defined (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommand</code></a>).  So, packages can use it to provide fallbacks
that other packages can improve upon.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextComposite">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCommandDefault</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommandDefault </code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextComposite-1">4.1.6 <code class="code">\DeclareTextComposite</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-accents_002c-defining-3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextComposite"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextComposite{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{<var class="var">simple_object</var>}{<var class="var">slot</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Access an accented glyph directly, that is, without having to put an
accent over a separate character.
</p>
<p>This line from <samp class="file">t1enc.def</samp> means that <code class="code">\^o</code> will cause
LaTeX to typeset lowercase&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp class="samp">o</samp>&rsquo; by taking the character
directly from slot 224 in the font.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextComposite{\^}{T1}{o}{244}
</pre></div>

<p>See <a class="xref" href="#fontenc-package"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a>, for a list of common encodings.  The
<var class="var">simple_object</var> should be a single character or a single command.
The <var class="var">slot</var> argument is usually a positive integer represented in
decimal (although octal or hexadecimal are possible).  Normally
\<var class="var">cmd</var> has already been declared for this encoding, either with
<code class="code">\DeclareTextAccent</code> or with a one-argument
<code class="code">\DeclareTextCommand</code>.  In <samp class="file">t1enc.def</samp>, the above line follows
the <code class="code">\DeclareTextAccent{\^}{T1}{2}</code> command.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbol</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextComposite" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\DeclareTextComposite</code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand-1">4.1.7 <code class="code">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-accents_002c-defining-4"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{<var class="var">arg</var>}{<var class="var">code</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>A more general version of <code class="code">\DeclareTextComposite</code> that runs
arbitrary code with <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code>.
</p>
<p>This allows accents on &lsquo;<samp class="samp">i</samp>&rsquo; to act like accents on dotless&nbsp;i,
<code class="code">\i</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand{\'}{OT1}{i}{\'\i}
</pre></div>

<p>See <a class="xref" href="#fontenc-package"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a>, for a list of common encodings.  Normally
<code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> will have already been declared with <code class="code">\DeclareTextAccent</code>
or as a one argument <code class="code">\DeclareTextCommand</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand</code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol-1">4.1.8 <code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbol</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-symbol_002c-defining"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextSymbol-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextSymbol{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{<var class="var">slot</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define a symbol in the encoding <var class="var">encoding</var> at the location
<var class="var">slot</var>.  Symbols defined in this way are for use in text, not
mathematics.
</p>
<p>For example, this line from <samp class="file">t1enc.def</samp> declares the number of the
glyph to use for &#x00AB;, the left guillemet.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextSymbol{\guillemotleft}{T1}{19}
</pre></div>

<p>The command <code class="code">\DeclareTextCommand{\guillemotleft}{T1}{\char
19}</code> has the same effect but is slower (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand"><code class="code">\DeclareTextCommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\ProvideTextCommand</code></a>).
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#fontenc-package"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a>, for a list of common encodings.  The <var class="var">slot</var>
can be specified in decimal, or octal (as in <code class="code">'023</code>), or
hexadecimal (as in <code class="code">&quot;13</code>), although decimal has the advantage that
single quote or double quote could be redefined by another package.
</p>
<p>If <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> has already been defined then
<code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbol</code> does not give an error but it does log the
redefinition in the transcript file.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cLastDeclaredEncoding" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\LastDeclaredEncoding</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbol</code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault-1">4.1.9 <code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-accents_002c-defining-5"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextSymbol-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">encoding</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>If there is an encoding-specific symbol command <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> but
there is no associated <code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbol</code> for that encoding, then
this command will pick up the slack, by saying to get the symbol as
described for <var class="var">encoding</var>.
</p>
<p>For example, to declare that if the current encoding has no meaning for
<code class="code">\textdollar</code> then use the one from <code class="code">OT1</code>, declare this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault{\textdollar}{OT1}
</pre></div>

<p>That is, this command is equivalent to this call (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cUseTextSymbol-_0026-_005cUseTextAccent"><code class="code">\UseTextSymbol</code> &amp; <code class="code">\UseTextAccent</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareTextCommandDefault{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}
   {\UseTextSymbol{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}}
</pre></div>

<p>Note that <code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</code> can be used to define a
default for any zero-argument <samp class="file">fontenc</samp> command.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cLastDeclaredEncoding">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cUseTextSymbol-_0026-_005cUseTextAccent" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\UseTextSymbol</code> &amp; <code class="code">\UseTextAccent</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cLastDeclaredEncoding-1">4.1.10 <code class="code">\LastDeclaredEncoding</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cLastDeclaredEncoding"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\LastDeclaredEncoding
</pre></div>

<p>Get the name of the most recently declared encoding.  The
<code class="code">\DeclareFontEncoding</code> command stores the name so that it can be
retrieved with this command (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding"><code class="code">\DeclareFontEncoding</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This relies on <code class="code">\LastDeclaredEncoding</code> rather than give the
name of the encoding explicitly.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareFontEncoding{JH1}{}{}
\DeclareTextAccent{\'}{\LastDeclaredEncoding}{0}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cUseTextSymbol-_0026-_005cUseTextAccent">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cLastDeclaredEncoding" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\LastDeclaredEncoding</code></a>, Up: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cUseTextSymbol-_0026-_005cUseTextAccent-1">4.1.11 <code class="code">\UseTextSymbol</code> &amp; <code class="code">\UseTextAccent</code></h4>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cUseTextSymbol"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cUseTextAccent"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cUseTextSymbol"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cUseTextAccent"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\UseTextSymbol{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\UseTextAccent{<var class="var">encoding</var>}{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Use a symbol or accent not from the current encoding.
</p>
<p>In general, to use a <samp class="file">fontenc</samp> command in an encoding where it is
not defined, and if the command has no arguments, then you can use it
like this:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\UseTextSymbol{OT1}{\ss}
</pre></div>

<p>which is equivalent to this (note the outer braces form a group, so LaTeX
reverts back to the prior encoding after the <code class="code">\ss</code>):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">{\fontencoding{OT1}\selectfont\ss}
</pre></div>

<p>Similarly, to use a <samp class="file">fontenc</samp> command in an encoding where it is
not defined, and if the command has one argument, you can use it like this:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\UseTextAccent{OT1}{\'}{a}
</pre></div>

<p>which is equivalent to this (again note the outer braces forming a group):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">{fontencoding{OT1}\selectfont\'{\fontencoding{<var class="var">enc_in_use</var>}\selectfont a}}
</pre></div>

<p>Here, <var class="var">enc_in_use</var> is the encoding in force before this sequence
of commands, so that &lsquo;<samp class="samp">a</samp>&rsquo; is typeset using the current encoding
and only the accent is taken from <code class="code">OT1</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Font-styles">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Font-sizes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Font sizes</a>, Previous: <a href="#fontenc-package" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">fontenc</code> package</a>, Up: <a href="#Fonts" accesskey="u" rel="up">Fonts</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Font-styles-1">4.2 Font styles</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-font-styles"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-type-styles"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-styles-of-text"></a>

<p>The following type style commands are supported by LaTeX.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-declaration-form-of-font-style-commands"></a>
<p>In the table below the listed commands, the <code class="code">\text...</code>  commands,
are used with an argument as in <code class="code">\textit{<var class="var">text</var>}</code>.  This is
the preferred form.  But shown after it in parenthesis is the
corresponding <em class="dfn">declaration form</em>, which is often useful.  This
form takes no arguments, as in <code class="code">{\itshape <var class="var">text</var>}</code>.  The
scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command
or the end of the current group.  In addition, each has an environment
form such as <code class="code">\begin{itshape}...\end{itshape}</code>, which we&rsquo;ll
describe further at the end of the section.
</p>
<p>These commands, in any of the three forms, are cumulative; for instance
you can get bold sans serif by saying either of
<code class="code">\sffamily\bfseries</code> or <code class="code">\bfseries\sffamily</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cnocorrlist"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cnocorr"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnocorrlist"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnocorr"></a>
<p>One advantage of these commands is that they automatically insert italic
corrections if needed (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_002f"><code class="code">\/</code></a>).  Specifically, they insert the
italic correction unless the following character is in the list
<code class="code">\nocorrlist</code>, which by default consists of period and comma.
To suppress the automatic insertion of italic correction, use
<code class="code">\nocorr</code> at the start or end of the command argument, such as
<code class="code">\textit{\nocorr text}</code> or <code class="code">\textsc{text \nocorr}</code>.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-_005ctextrm'><span><code class="code">\textrm (\rmfamily)</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextrm'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005crmfamily"></a>
<p>Roman.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextit'><span><code class="code">\textit (\itshape)</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextit'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005citshape"></a>
<p>Italics.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextmd'><span><code class="code">\textmd (\mdseries)</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextmd'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmdseries"></a>
<p>Medium weight (default).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextbf'><span><code class="code">\textbf (\bfseries)</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextbf'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbfseries"></a>
<p>Boldface.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextup'><span><code class="code">\textup (\upshape)</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextup'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cupshape"></a>
<p>Upright (default).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextsl'><span><code class="code">\textsl (\slshape)</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextsl'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cslshape"></a>
<p>Slanted.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextsf'><span><code class="code">\textsf (\sffamily)</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextsf'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csffamily"></a>
<p>Sans serif.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextsc'><span><code class="code">\textsc (\scshape)</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextsc'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cscshape"></a>
<p>Small caps.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctexttt'><span><code class="code">\texttt (\ttfamily)</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctexttt'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cttfamily"></a>
<p>Typewriter.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextnormal'><span><code class="code">\textnormal (\normalfont)</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextnormal'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnormalfont"></a>
<p>Main document font.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-emphasis"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cemph"></a>
<p>Although it also changes fonts, the <code class="code">\emph{<var class="var">text</var>}</code> command
is semantic, for <var class="var">text</var> to be emphasized, and should not be used as a
substitute for <code class="code">\textit</code>.  For example, <code class="code">\emph{<var class="var">start
text</var> \emph{<var class="var">middle text</var>} <var class="var">end text</var>}</code> will result in the
<var class="var">start text</var> and <var class="var">end text</var> in italics, but <var class="var">middle text</var>
will be in roman.
</p>
<p>LaTeX also provides the following commands, which unconditionally
switch to the given style, that is, are <em class="emph">not</em> cumulative.  They are
used as declarations: <code class="code">{\<var class="var">cmd</var>...}</code> instead of
<code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var>{...}</code>.
</p>
<p>(The unconditional commands below are an older version of font
switching. The earlier commands are an improvement in most
circumstances. But sometimes an unconditional font switch is what is
needed.)
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cbf'><span><code class="code">\bf</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbf'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bold-font"></a>
<p>Switch to bold face.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccal'><span><code class="code">\cal</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccal'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-script-letters-for-math"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-calligraphic-letters-for-math"></a>
<p>Switch to calligraphic letters for math.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cit'><span><code class="code">\it</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cit'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-italic-font"></a>
<p>Italics.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crm'><span><code class="code">\rm</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crm'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-roman-font"></a>
<p>Roman.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csc'><span><code class="code">\sc</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csc'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-small-caps-font"></a>
<p>Small caps.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csf'><span><code class="code">\sf</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csf'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-sans-serif-font"></a>
<p>Sans serif.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csl'><span><code class="code">\sl</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csl'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-slanted-font"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-oblique-font"></a>
<p>Slanted (oblique).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctt'><span><code class="code">\tt</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctt'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-typewriter-font"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-monospace-font"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fixed_002dwidth-font"></a>
<p>Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width).
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>The <code class="code">\em</code> command is the unconditional version of <code class="code">\emph</code>.
</p>
<p>The following commands are for use in math mode.  They are not
cumulative, so <code class="code">\mathbf{\mathit{<var class="var">symbol</var>}}</code> does not
create a boldface and italic <var class="var">symbol</var>; instead, it will just be in
italics.  This is because typically math symbols need consistent
typographic treatment, regardless of the surrounding environment.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-_005cmathrm'><span><code class="code">\mathrm</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathrm'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Roman, for use in math mode.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmathbf'><span><code class="code">\mathbf</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathbf'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Boldface, for use in math mode.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmathsf'><span><code class="code">\mathsf</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathsf'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Sans serif, for use in math mode.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmathtt'><span><code class="code">\mathtt</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathtt'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Typewriter, for use in math mode.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">\mathit</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">(\mit)</code></dt>
<dd><p>Italics, for use in math mode.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmathnormal'><span><code class="code">\mathnormal</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathnormal'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>For use in math mode, e.g., inside another type style declaration.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmathcal'><span><code class="code">\mathcal</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathcal'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Calligraphic letters, for use in math mode.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cmathversion"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmathversion"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math_002c-bold"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bold-math"></a>
<p>In addition, the command <code class="code">\mathversion{bold}</code> can be used for
switching to bold letters and symbols in
formulas. <code class="code">\mathversion{normal}</code> restores the default.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005coldstylenums"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005coldstylenums"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-numerals_002c-old_002dstyle"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-old_002dstyle-numerals"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lining-numerals"></a>
<p>Finally, the command <code class="code">\oldstylenums{<var class="var">numerals</var>}</code> will
typeset so-called &ldquo;old-style&rdquo; numerals, which have differing heights
and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard &ldquo;lining&rdquo;
numerals, which all have the same height as uppercase letters.
LaTeX&rsquo;s default fonts support this, and will respect <code class="code">\textbf</code>
(but not other styles; there are no italic old-style numerals in
Computer Modern).  Many other fonts have old-style numerals also;
sometimes package options are provided to make them the default.  FAQ
entry: <a class="url" href="https://www.texfaq.org/FAQ-osf">https://www.texfaq.org/FAQ-osf</a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Font-sizes">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands" accesskey="n" rel="next">Low-level font commands</a>, Previous: <a href="#Font-styles" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Font styles</a>, Up: <a href="#Fonts" accesskey="u" rel="up">Fonts</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Font-sizes-1">4.3 Font sizes</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-font-sizes"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-typeface-sizes"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-sizes-of-text"></a>

<p>The following standard type size commands are supported by LaTeX.
The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font
size used (in points) with the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10pt</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">11pt</samp>&rsquo;, and
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">12pt</samp>&rsquo; document size options, respectively (see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctiny"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cscriptsize"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfootnotesize"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csmall"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnormalsize"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clarge"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cLarge"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cLARGE"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005chuge"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cHuge"></a>

<table class="multitable">
<thead><tr><th>Command</th><th><code class="code">10pt</code></th><th><code class="code">11pt</code></th><th><code class="code">12pt</code></th></tr></thead>
<tbody><tr><td><code class="code">\tiny</code></td><td>5</td><td>6</td><td>6</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">\scriptsize</code></td><td>7</td><td>8</td><td>8</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">\footnotesize</code></td><td>8</td><td>9</td><td>10</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">\small</code></td><td>9</td><td>10</td><td>10.95</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">\normalsize</code> (default)</td><td>10</td><td>10.95</td><td>12</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">\large</code></td><td>12</td><td>12</td><td>14.4</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">\Large</code></td><td>14.4</td><td>14.4</td><td>17.28</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">\LARGE</code></td><td>17.28</td><td>17.28</td><td>20.74</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">\huge</code></td><td>20.74</td><td>20.74</td><td>24.88</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">\Huge</code></td><td>24.88</td><td>24.88</td><td>24.88</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-declaration-form-of-font-size-commands"></a>
<p>The commands are listed here in declaration (not environment) form,
since that is how they are typically used.  For example.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{quotation} \small
  The Tao that can be named is not the eternal Tao.
\end{quotation}
</pre></div>

<p>Here, the scope of the <code class="code">\small</code> lasts until the end of the
<code class="code">quotation</code> environment.  It would also end at the next type
style command or the end of the current group, so you could enclose it
in curly braces <code class="code">{\small This text is typeset in the small font.}</code>.
</p>
<p>Trying to use these commands in math, as with <code class="code">$\small mv^2/2$</code>,
results in &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Font Warning: Command \small
invalid in math mode</samp>&rsquo;, and the font size doesn&rsquo;t
change. To work with a too-large formula, often the best option is to
use the <code class="code">displaymath</code> environment (see <a class="pxref" href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a>), or
one of the environments from the <code class="code">amsmath</code> package.  For inline
mathematics, such as in a table of formulas, an alternative is something
like <code class="code">{\small $mv^2/2$}</code>.  (Sometimes <code class="code">\scriptsize</code> and
<code class="code">\scriptstyle</code> are confused.  Both change the font size, but the
latter also changes a number of other aspects of how mathematics is
typeset. See <a class="xref" href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a>.)
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment-form-of-font-size-commands"></a>
<p>An <em class="dfn">environment form</em> of each of these commands is also defined; for
instance, <code class="code">\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}</code>. However, in practice
this form can easily lead to unwanted spaces at the beginning and/or
end of the environment without careful consideration, so it&rsquo;s
generally less error-prone to stick to the declaration form.
</p>
<p>(Aside: Technically, due to the way LaTeX defines <code class="code">\begin</code> and
<code class="code">\end</code>, nearly every command that does not take an argument
technically has an environment form. But in almost all cases, it would
only cause confusion to use it. The reason for mentioning the
environment form of the font size declarations specifically is that
this particular use is not rare.)
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Low_002dlevel-font-commands">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Font-sizes" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Font sizes</a>, Up: <a href="#Fonts" accesskey="u" rel="up">Fonts</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Low_002dlevel-font-commands-1">4.4 Low-level font commands</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-low_002dlevel-font-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-font-commands_002c-low_002dlevel"></a>

<p>These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and
packages.  The commands listed here are only a subset of the available
ones.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="low-level-font-commands-fontencoding"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfontencoding'><span><code class="code">\fontencoding{<var class="var">encoding</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfontencoding'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Select the font encoding, the encoding of the output font. There are a
large number of valid encodings.  The most common are <code class="code">OT1</code>,
Knuth&rsquo;s original encoding for Computer Modern (the default), and
<code class="code">T1</code>, also known as the Cork encoding, which has support for the
accented characters used by the most widespread European languages
(German, French, Italian, Polish and others), which allows TeX to
hyphenate words containing accented letters. For more, see
<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/encguide">https://ctan.org/pkg/encguide</a>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="low-level-font-commands-fontfamily"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfontfamily'><span><code class="code">\fontfamily{<var class="var">family</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfontfamily'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-families_002c-of-fonts"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-font-catalogue"></a>
<p>Select the font family.  The web page
<a class="url" href="https://tug.org/FontCatalogue/">https://tug.org/FontCatalogue/</a> provides one way to browse
through many of the fonts easily used with LaTeX.  Here are
examples of some common families.
</p>
<table class="multitable">
<tbody><tr><td><code class="code">pag</code></td><td>Avant Garde</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">fvs</code></td><td>Bitstream Vera Sans</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">pbk</code></td><td>Bookman</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">bch</code></td><td>Charter</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">ccr</code></td><td>Computer Concrete</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">cmr</code></td><td>Computer Modern</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">cmss</code></td><td>Computer Modern Sans Serif</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">cmtt</code></td><td>Computer Modern Typewriter</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">pcr</code></td><td>Courier</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">phv</code></td><td>Helvetica</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">fi4</code></td><td>Inconsolata</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">lmr</code></td><td>Latin Modern</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">lmss</code></td><td>Latin Modern Sans</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">lmtt</code></td><td>Latin Modern Typewriter</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">pnc</code></td><td>New Century Schoolbook</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">ppl</code></td><td>Palatino</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">ptm</code></td><td>Times</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">uncl</code></td><td>Uncial</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">put</code></td><td>Utopia</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">pzc</code></td><td>Zapf Chancery</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>


<a class="anchor" id="low-level-font-commands-fontseries"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfontseries'><span><code class="code">\fontseries{<var class="var">series</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfontseries'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-series_002c-of-fonts"></a>
<p>Select the font series.  A <em class="dfn">series</em> combines a <em class="dfn">weight</em> and a
<em class="dfn">width</em>.  Typically, a font supports only a few of the possible
combinations.  Some common combined series values include:
</p>
<table class="multitable">
<tbody><tr><td><code class="code">m</code></td><td>Medium (normal)</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">b</code></td><td>Bold</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">c</code></td><td>Condensed</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">bc</code></td><td>Bold condensed</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">bx</code></td><td>Bold extended</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-weights_002c-of-fonts"></a>
<p>The possible values for weight, individually, are:
</p>
<table class="multitable">
<tbody><tr><td><code class="code">ul</code></td><td>Ultra light</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">el</code></td><td>Extra light</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">l</code></td><td>Light</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">sl</code></td><td>Semi light</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">m</code></td><td>Medium (normal)</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">sb</code></td><td>Semi bold</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">b</code></td><td>Bold</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">eb</code></td><td>Extra bold</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">ub</code></td><td>Ultra bold</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>
 
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-widths_002c-of-fonts"></a>
<p>The possible values for width, individually, are (the meaning and
relationship of these terms varies with individual typefaces):
</p>
<table class="multitable">
<tbody><tr><td><code class="code">uc</code></td><td>Ultra condensed</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">ec</code></td><td>Extra condensed</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">c</code></td><td>Condensed</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">sc</code></td><td>Semi condensed</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">m</code></td><td>Medium</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">sx</code></td><td>Semi expanded</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">x</code></td><td>Expanded</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">ex</code></td><td>Extra expanded</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">ux</code></td><td>Ultra expanded</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

<p>When forming the <var class="var">series</var> string from the weight and width, drop the
<code class="code">m</code> that stands for medium weight or medium width, unless both
weight and width are <code class="code">m</code>, in which case use just one
(&lsquo;<samp class="samp"><code class="code">m</code></samp>&rsquo;).
</p> 
<a class="anchor" id="low-level-font-commands-fontshape"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfontshape'><span><code class="code">\fontshape{<var class="var">shape</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfontshape'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-shapes_002c-of-fonts"></a>
<p>Select font shape. Valid shapes are:
</p>
<table class="multitable">
<tbody><tr><td><code class="code">n</code></td><td>Upright (normal)</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">it</code></td><td>Italic</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">sl</code></td><td>Slanted (oblique)</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">sc</code></td><td>Small caps</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">ui</code></td><td>Upright italics</td></tr>
<tr><td><code class="code">ol</code></td><td>Outline</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

<p>The two last shapes are not available for most font families, and
small caps are often missing as well.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="low-level-font-commands-fontsize"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfontsize'><span><code class="code">\fontsize{<var class="var">size</var>}{<var class="var">skip</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfontsize'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-font-size"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbaselineskip"></a>
<p>Set the font size and the line spacing.  The unit of both parameters
defaults to points (<code class="code">pt</code>).  The line spacing is the nominal
vertical space between lines, baseline to baseline.  It is stored in the
parameter <code class="code">\baselineskip</code>.  The default <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> for
the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the <code class="code">\fontsize</code>.
Changing <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> directly is inadvisable since its value is
reset every time a size change happens; instead use
<code class="code">\baselinestretch</code>.  (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch"><code class="code">\baselineskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\baselinestretch</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="low-level-font-commands-linespread"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005clinespread'><span><code class="code">\linespread{<var class="var">factor</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clinespread'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Equivalent to <code class="code">\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{<var class="var">factor</var>}</code>,
and therefore must be followed by <code class="code">\selectfont</code> to have any
effect. Best specified in the preamble. See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch"><code class="code">\baselineskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\baselinestretch</code></a>, for using <code class="code">setspace</code> package instead.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="low-level-font-commands-selectfont"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cselectfont'><span><code class="code">\selectfont</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cselectfont'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>The effects of the font commands described above do not happen until
<code class="code">\selectfont</code> is called, as in
<code class="code">\fontfamily{<var class="var">familyname</var>}\selectfont</code>.  It is often useful
to put this in a macro:<br>
<code class="code">\newcommand*{\myfont}{\fontfamily{<var class="var">familyname</var>}\selectfont}</code><br>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="low-level-font-commands-usefont"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cusefont'><span><code class="code">\usefont{<var class="var">enc</var>}{<var class="var">family</var>}{<var class="var">series</var>}{<var class="var">shape</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cusefont'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>The same as invoking <code class="code">\fontencoding</code>, <code class="code">\fontfamily</code>,
<code class="code">\fontseries</code> and <code class="code">\fontshape</code> with the given parameters,
followed by <code class="code">\selectfont</code>.  For example:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usefont{ot1}{cmr}{m}{n}
</pre></div>

</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Layout">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Sectioning" accesskey="n" rel="next">Sectioning</a>, Previous: <a href="#Fonts" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Fonts</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Layout-1">5 Layout</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-layout-commands"></a>

<p>Commands for controlling the general page layout.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005conecolumn" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\onecolumn</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\twocolumn</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cflushbottom" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\flushbottom</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005craggedbottom" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\raggedbottom</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#Page-layout-parameters" accesskey="5">Page layout parameters</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch" accesskey="6"><code class="code">\baselineskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\baselinestretch</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#Floats" accesskey="7">Floats</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005conecolumn">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\twocolumn</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Layout" accesskey="u" rel="up">Layout</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005conecolumn-1">5.1 <code class="code">\onecolumn</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005conecolumn"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-one_002dcolumn-output"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\onecolumn
</pre></div>

<p>Start a new page and produce single-column output.  If the document is
given the class option <code class="code">onecolumn</code> then this is the default
behavior (see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).  This command is fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005ctwocolumn">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cflushbottom" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\flushbottom</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005conecolumn" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\onecolumn</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Layout" accesskey="u" rel="up">Layout</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005ctwocolumn-1">5.2 <code class="code">\twocolumn</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctwocolumn"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-multicolumn-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-two_002dcolumn-output"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\twocolumn
\twocolumn[<var class="var">prelim one column text</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>Start a new page and produce two-column output. If the document is given
the class option <code class="code">twocolumn</code> then this is the default
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).  This command is fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>If the optional <var class="var">prelim one column text</var> argument
is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column
typesetting starts.
</p>
<p>These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005ccolumnsep'><span><code class="code">\columnsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccolumnsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="twocolumn-columnsep"></a><p>The distance between columns. The default is 35pt.  Change it with a
command such as <code class="code">\setlength{\columnsep}{40pt}</code>. You must change
it before the two column mode starts; in the preamble is a good
place.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccolumnseprule'><span><code class="code">\columnseprule</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccolumnseprule'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="twocolumn-columnseprule"></a><p>The width of the rule between columns. The default is 0pt, meaning that
there is no rule. Otherwise, the rule appears halfway between the two
columns.  Change it with a command such as
<code class="code">\setlength{\columnseprule}{0.4pt}</code>, before the two-column
mode starts.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccolumnwidth'><span><code class="code">\columnwidth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccolumnwidth'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="twocolumn-columnwidth"></a><p>The width of a single column.  In one-column mode this is equal to
<code class="code">\textwidth</code>.  In two-column mode by default LaTeX sets the
width of each of the two columns, <code class="code">\columnwidth</code>, to be half of
<code class="code">\textwidth</code> minus <code class="code">\columnsep</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>In a two-column document, the starred environments <code class="code">table*</code> and
<code class="code">figure*</code> are two columns wide, whereas the unstarred environments
<code class="code">table</code> and <code class="code">figure</code> take up only one column (see <a class="pxref" href="#figure"><code class="code">figure</code></a>
and see <a class="pxref" href="#table"><code class="code">table</code></a>). LaTeX places starred floats at the top of a page.
The following parameters control float behavior of two-column output.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="twocolumn-dbltopfraction"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdbltopfraction'><span><code class="code">\dbltopfraction</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdbltopfraction'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>The maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be
occupied by two-column wide floats.  The default is 0.7, meaning that
the height of a <code class="code">table*</code> or <code class="code">figure*</code> environment must not
exceed <code class="code">0.7\textheight</code>.  If the height of your starred float
environment exceeds this then you can take one of the following actions
to prevent it from floating all the way to the back of the document:
</p>
<ul class="itemize mark-bullet">
<li>Use the <code class="code">[tp]</code> location specifier to tell LaTeX to try to put
the bulky float on a page by itself, as well as at the top of a page.

</li><li>Use the <code class="code">[t!]</code> location specifier to override the effect of
<code class="code">\dbltopfraction</code> for this particular float.

</li><li>Increase the value of <code class="code">\dbltopfraction</code> to a suitably large number,
to avoid going to float pages so soon.
</li></ul>

<p>You can redefine it, as with
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\dbltopfraction}{0.9}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdblfloatpagefraction'><span><code class="code">\dblfloatpagefraction</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdblfloatpagefraction'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="twocolumn-dblfloatpagefraction"></a><p>For a float page of two-column wide floats, this is the minimum fraction
that must be occupied by floats, limiting the amount of blank space.
LaTeX&rsquo;s default is <code class="code">0.5</code>.  Change it with <code class="code">\renewcommand</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdblfloatsep'><span><code class="code">\dblfloatsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdblfloatsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="twocolumn-dblfloatsep"></a><p>On a float page of two-column wide floats, this length is the distance
between floats, at both the top and bottom of the page.  The default is
<code class="code">12pt plus2pt minus2pt</code> for a document set at <code class="code">10pt</code> or
<code class="code">11pt</code>, and <code class="code">14pt plus2pt minus4pt</code> for a document set at
<code class="code">12pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdbltextfloatsep'><span><code class="code">\dbltextfloatsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdbltextfloatsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="twocolumn-dbltextfloatsep"></a><p>This length is the distance between a multi-column float at the top or
bottom of a page and the main text.  The default is <code class="code">20pt plus2pt
minus4pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdbltopnumber'><span><code class="code">\dbltopnumber</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdbltopnumber'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="twocolumn-dbltopnumber"></a><p>On a float page of two-column wide floats, this counter gives the
maximum number of floats allowed at the top of the page.  The LaTeX
default is <code class="code">2</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>This example uses <code class="code">\twocolumn</code>&rsquo;s optional argument of to create a
title that spans the two-column article:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
\newcommand{\authormark}[1]{\textsuperscript{#1}}
\begin{document}
\twocolumn[{% inside this optional argument goes one-column text
  \centering
  \LARGE The Title \\[1.5em]
  \large Author One\authormark{1},
         Author Two\authormark{2},
         Author Three\authormark{1} \\[1em]
  \normalsize
  \begin{tabular}{p{.2\textwidth}@{\hspace{2em}}p{.2\textwidth}}
    \authormark{1}Department one  &amp;\authormark{2}Department two \\ 
     School one                   &amp;School two 
  \end{tabular}\\[3em] % space below title part
  }]

Two column text here.
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cflushbottom">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005craggedbottom" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\raggedbottom</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\twocolumn</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Layout" accesskey="u" rel="up">Layout</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cflushbottom-1">5.3 <code class="code">\flushbottom</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cflushbottom"></a>

<p>Make all pages in the document after this declaration have the same
height, by stretching the vertical space where necessary to fill out the
page.  This is most often used when making two-sided documents since the
differences in facing pages can be glaring.
</p>
<p>If TeX cannot satisfactorily stretch the vertical space in a page
then you get a message like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has
occurred while \output is active</samp>&rsquo;.  If you get that, one option is to
change to <code class="code">\raggedbottom</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005craggedbottom"><code class="code">\raggedbottom</code></a>).  Alternatively,
you can adjust the <code class="code">textheight</code> to make compatible pages, or you
can add some vertical stretch glue between lines or between paragraphs,
as in <code class="code">\setlength{\parskip}{0ex plus0.1ex}</code>.  Your last option
is to, in a final editing stage, adjust the height of individual pages
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cenlargethispage"><code class="code">\enlargethispage</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\flushbottom</code> state is the default only if you select the
<code class="code">twocolumn</code> document class option (see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>),
and for indexes made using <code class="code">makeidx</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005craggedbottom">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Page-layout-parameters" accesskey="n" rel="next">Page layout parameters</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cflushbottom" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\flushbottom</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Layout" accesskey="u" rel="up">Layout</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005craggedbottom-1">5.4 <code class="code">\raggedbottom</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005craggedbottom"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-stretch_002c-omitting-vertical"></a>

<p>Make all later pages the natural height of the material on that page; no
rubber vertical lengths will be stretched.  Thus, in a two-sided
document the facing pages may be different heights.  This command can go
at any point in the document body.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cflushbottom"><code class="code">\flushbottom</code></a>.
</p>
<p>This is the default unless you select the <code class="code">twocolumn</code> document class
option (see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Page-layout-parameters">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\baselineskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\baselinestretch</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005craggedbottom" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\raggedbottom</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Layout" accesskey="u" rel="up">Layout</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Page-layout-parameters-1">5.5 Page layout parameters</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-page-layout-parameters"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-parameters_002c-page-layout"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-layout_002c-page-parameters-for"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-header_002c-parameters-for"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footer_002c-parameters-for"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-running-header-and-footer"></a>

<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005ccolumnsep-1'><span><code class="code">\columnsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccolumnsep-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ccolumnseprule-1'><span><code class="code">\columnseprule</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccolumnseprule-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ccolumnwidth-1'><span><code class="code">\columnwidth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccolumnwidth-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccolumnsep-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccolumnseprule-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccolumnwidth-2"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-columnsep"></a><a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-columnseprule"></a><a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-columnwidth"></a><p>The distance between the two columns, the width of a rule between the
columns, and the width of the columns, when the document class option
<code class="code">twocolumn</code> is in effect (see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).
See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn"><code class="code">\twocolumn</code></a>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cheadheight'><span><code class="code">\headheight</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cheadheight'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cheadheight-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-headheight"></a><p>Height of the box that contains the running head.  The default in the
<code class="code">article</code>, <code class="code">report</code>, and <code class="code">book</code> classes is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">12pt</samp>&rsquo;,
at all type sizes.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cheadsep'><span><code class="code">\headsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cheadsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cheadsep-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-headsep"></a><p>Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of
the main text.  The default in the <code class="code">article</code> and <code class="code">report</code>
classes is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">25pt</samp>&rsquo;.  In the <code class="code">book</code> class the default is: if the
document is set at 10pt then it is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">0.25in</samp>&rsquo;, and at 11pt or 12pt
it is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">0.275in</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfootskip'><span><code class="code">\footskip</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfootskip'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfootskip-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-footskip"></a><p>Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of
the page footer.  The default in the <code class="code">article</code> and <code class="code">report</code>
classes is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">30pt</samp>&rsquo;.  In the <code class="code">book</code> class the default is: when
the type size is 10pt the default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">0.35in</samp>&rsquo;, while at 11pt it is
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">0.38in</samp>&rsquo;, and at 12pt it is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">30pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clinewidth'><span><code class="code">\linewidth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clinewidth'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clinewidth-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-linewidth"></a><p>Width of the current line, decreased for each nested <code class="code">list</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#list"><code class="code">list</code></a>).  That is, the nominal value for <code class="code">\linewidth</code> is to
equal <code class="code">\textwidth</code> but for each nested list the <code class="code">\linewidth</code>
is decreased by the sum of that list&rsquo;s <code class="code">\leftmargin</code> and
<code class="code">\rightmargin</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#itemize"><code class="code">itemize</code></a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmarginparpush'><span><code class="code">\marginparpush</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmarginparpush'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cmarginsep'><span><code class="code">\marginsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmarginsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cmarginparwidth'><span><code class="code">\marginparwidth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmarginparwidth'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmarginparpush-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmarginsep-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmarginparwidth-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-marginparpush"></a><a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-marginsep"></a><a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-marginparwidth"></a><p>The minimum vertical space between two marginal notes, the horizontal
space between the text body and the marginal notes, and the horizontal
width of the notes.
</p>
<p>Normally marginal notes appear on the outside of the page, but the
declaration <code class="code">\reversemarginpar</code> changes that (and
<code class="code">\normalmarginpar</code> changes it back).
</p>
<p>The defaults for <code class="code">\marginparpush</code> in both <code class="code">book</code> and
<code class="code">article</code> classes are: &lsquo;<samp class="samp">7pt</samp>&rsquo; if the document is set at 12pt,
and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">5pt</samp>&rsquo; if the document is set at 11pt or 10pt.
</p>
<p>For <code class="code">\marginsep</code>, in <code class="code">article</code> class the default is
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">10pt</samp>&rsquo; except if the document is set at 10pt and in two-column mode
where the default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">11pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>For <code class="code">\marginsep</code> in <code class="code">book</code> class the default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10pt</samp>&rsquo; in
two-column mode and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">7pt</samp>&rsquo; in one-column mode.  
</p>
<p>For <code class="code">\marginparwidth</code> in both <code class="code">book</code> and <code class="code">article</code>
classes, in two-column mode the default is 60% of <code class="code">\paperwidth
&minus; \textwidth</code>, while in one-column mode it is 50% of that
distance.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005coddsidemargin-1'><span><code class="code">\oddsidemargin</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005coddsidemargin-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cevensidemargin-1'><span><code class="code">\evensidemargin</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cevensidemargin-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005coddsidemargin-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cevensidemargin-2"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-oddsidemargin"></a><a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-evensidemargin"></a><p>The <code class="code">\oddsidemargin</code> length is the extra distance between the left side of
the page and the text&rsquo;s left margin, on odd-numbered pages when the
document class option <code class="code">twoside</code> is chosen and on all pages when
<code class="code">oneside</code> is in effect.  When <code class="code">twoside</code> is in effect, on
even-numbered pages the extra distance on the left is
<code class="code">\evensidemargin</code>.
</p>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s default is that <code class="code">\oddsidemargin</code> is 40% of the
difference between <code class="code">\paperwidth</code> and <code class="code">\textwidth</code>, and
<code class="code">\evensidemargin</code> is the remainder.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpaperheight'><span><code class="code">\paperheight</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpaperheight'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpaperheight-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-paperheight"></a><p>The height of the paper, as distinct from the height of the print area.
Normally set with a document class option, as in
<code class="code">\documentclass[a4paper]{article}</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpaperwidth'><span><code class="code">\paperwidth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpaperwidth'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpaperwidth-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-paperwidth"></a><p>The width of the paper, as distinct from the width of the print area.
Normally set with a document class option, as in
<code class="code">\documentclass[a4paper]{article}</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextheight'><span><code class="code">\textheight</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextheight'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctextheight-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-textheight"></a><p>The normal vertical height of the page body.  If the document is set at
a nominal type size of 10pt then for an <code class="code">article</code> or <code class="code">report</code>
the default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">43\baselineskip</samp>&rsquo;, while for a <code class="code">book</code> it is
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">41\baselineskip</samp>&rsquo;.  At a type size of 11pt the default is
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">38\baselineskip</samp>&rsquo; for all document classes.  At 12pt it is
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">36\baselineskip</samp>&rsquo; for all classes.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextwidth'><span><code class="code">\textwidth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextwidth'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctextwidth-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-textwidth"></a><p>The full horizontal width of the entire page body.  For an
<code class="code">article</code> or <code class="code">report</code> document, the default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">345pt</samp>&rsquo;
when the chosen type size is 10pt, the default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">360pt</samp>&rsquo; at 11pt,
and it is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">390pt</samp>&rsquo; at 12pt.  For a <code class="code">book</code> document, the default
is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">4.5in</samp>&rsquo; at a type size of 10pt, and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">5in</samp>&rsquo; at 11pt or 12pt.
</p>
<p>In multi-column output, <code class="code">\textwidth</code> remains the width of the
entire page body, while <code class="code">\columnwidth</code> is the width of one column
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn"><code class="code">\twocolumn</code></a>).
</p>
<p>In lists (see <a class="pxref" href="#list"><code class="code">list</code></a>), <code class="code">\textwidth</code> remains the width of the
entire page body (and <code class="code">\columnwidth</code> the width of the entire
column), while <code class="code">\linewidth</code> may decrease for nested lists.
</p>
<p>Inside a minipage (see <a class="pxref" href="#minipage"><code class="code">minipage</code></a>) or <code class="code">\parbox</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cparbox"><code class="code">\parbox</code></a>), all the width-related parameters are set to the
specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the
<code class="code">minipage</code> or <code class="code">\parbox</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005chsize'><span><code class="code">\hsize</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005chsize'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005chsize-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-hsize"></a><p>This entry is included for completeness: <code class="code">\hsize</code> is the TeX
primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines.  It should not
be used in normal LaTeX documents.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctopmargin'><span><code class="code">\topmargin</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctopmargin'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-topmargin"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-topmargin"></a><p>Space between the top of the TeX page (one inch from the top of the
paper, by default) and the top of the header.  The value is computed
based on many other parameters: <code class="code">\paperheight &minus; 2in &minus;
\headheight &minus; \headsep &minus; \textheight &minus; \footskip</code>,
and then divided by two.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctopskip'><span><code class="code">\topskip</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctopskip'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctopskip-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="page-layout-parameters-topskip"></a><p>Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of
the first line of text.  For the standard classes, the default is the
same as the font size, e.g., &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10pt</samp>&rsquo; at a type size of 10pt.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Floats" accesskey="n" rel="next">Floats</a>, Previous: <a href="#Page-layout-parameters" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Page layout parameters</a>, Up: <a href="#Layout" accesskey="u" rel="up">Layout</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch-1">5.6 <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\baselinestretch</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cbaselineskip"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cbaselinestretch"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbaselineskip-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbaselinestretch"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clinespread-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-space-between-lines"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-interline-space"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-leading"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-spacing"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> is a rubber length (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  It gives
the <em class="dfn">leading</em>, the normal distance between lines in a paragraph, from
baseline to baseline.
</p>
<p>Ordinarily document authors do not directly change <code class="code">\baselineskip</code>
while writing.  Instead, it is set by the low level font selection
command <code class="code">\fontsize</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#low-level-font-commands-fontsize">low level font commands fontsize</a>).
The <code class="code">\baselineskip</code>&rsquo;s value is reset every time a font change
happens and so any direct change to <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> would vanish
the next time there was a font switch.  For how to influence line
spacing, see the discussion of <code class="code">\baselinestretch</code> below.
</p>
<p>Usually, a font&rsquo;s size and baseline skip is assigned by the font
designer.  These numbers are nominal in the sense that if, for instance,
a font&rsquo;s style file has the command <code class="code">\fontsize{10pt}{12pt}</code>
then that does not mean that the characters in the font are 10<span class="dmn">pt</span> tall;
for instance, parentheses and accented capitals may be taller.  Nor does
it mean that if the lines are spaced less than 12<span class="dmn">pt</span> apart then they risk
touching.  Rather these numbers are typographic judgements.  (Often, the
<code class="code">\baselineskip</code> is about twenty percent larger than the font size.)
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> is not a property of each line but of the
entire paragraph.  As a result, large text in the middle of a paragraph,
such as a single <code class="code">{\Huge Q}</code>, will be squashed into its line.
TeX will make sure it doesn&rsquo;t scrape up against the line above but
won&rsquo;t change the <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> for that one line to make extra
room above.  For the fix, use a <code class="code">\strut</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cstrut"><code class="code">\strut</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The value of <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> that TeX uses for the paragraph is
the value in effect at the blank line or command that ends the paragraph
unit.  So if a document contains this paragraph then its lines will be
scrunched together, compared to lines in surrounding paragraphs.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Many people see a page break between text and a displayed equation as 
bad style, so in effect the display is part of the paragraph.
Because this display is in footnotesize, the entire paragraph has the
baseline spacing matching that size.
{\footnotesize $$a+b = c$$}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clineskip"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clineskiplimit"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cprevdepth"></a>
<p>The process for making paragraphs is that when a new line is added, if
the depth of the previous line plus the height of the new line is less
than <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> then TeX inserts vertical glue to make up
the difference.  There are two fine points.  The first is that if the
lines would be too close together, closer than <code class="code">\lineskiplimit</code>,
then TeX instead uses <code class="code">\lineskip</code> as the interline glue.  The
second is that TeX doesn&rsquo;t actually use the depth of the previous
line.  Instead it uses <code class="code">\prevdepth</code>, which usually contains that
depth.  But at the beginning of the paragraph (or any vertical list) or
just after a rule, <code class="code">\prevdepth</code> has the value -1000<span class="dmn">pt</span> and
this special value tells TeX not to insert any interline glue at the
paragraph start.
</p>
<p>In the standard classes <code class="code">\lineskiplimit</code> is 0<span class="dmn">pt</span> and
<code class="code">\lineskip</code> is 1<span class="dmn">pt</span>.  By the prior paragraph then, the distance
between lines can approach zero but if it becomes zero (or less than
zero) then the lines jump to 1<span class="dmn">pt</span> apart.
</p>
<p>Sometimes authors must, for editing purposes, put the document in
double space or one-and-a-half space.  The right way to influence the
interline distance is via <code class="code">\baselinestretch</code>.  It scales
<code class="code">\baselineskip</code>, and has a default value of 1.0.  It is a
command, not a length, and does not take effect until a font change
happens, so set the scale factor like this:
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{1.5}\selectfont</code>.
</p>
<p>The most straightforward way to change the line spacing for an entire
document is to put <code class="code">\linespread{<var class="var">factor</var>}</code> in the preamble.
For double spacing, take <var class="var">factor</var> to be 1.6 and for one-and-a-half
spacing use 1.3.  These numbers are rough: for instance, since the
<code class="code">\baselineskip</code> is about 1.2 times the font size, multiplying by
1.6 gives a baseline skip to font size ratio of about 2.  (The
<code class="code">\linespread</code> command is defined as
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{<var class="var">factor</var>}</code> so it also
won&rsquo;t take effect until a font setting happens. But that always takes
place at the start of a document, so there you don&rsquo;t need to follow it
with <code class="code">\selectfont</code>.)
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-setspace"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-setspace-package"></a>

<p>A simpler approach is the <code class="code">setspace</code> package.  The basic example:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{setspace}
\doublespacing  % or \onehalfspacing for 1.5
</pre></div>

<p>In the preamble these will start the document off with that sizing.
But you can also use these declarations in the document body to change
the spacing from that point forward, and consequently there is
<code class="code">\singlespacing</code> to return the spacing to normal.  In the
document body, a better practice than using the declarations is to use
environments, such as <code class="code">\begin{doublespace}
... \end{doublespace}</code>.  The package also has commands to do
arbitrary spacing: <code class="code">\setstretch{<var class="var">factor</var>}</code> and
<code class="code">\begin{spacing}{<var class="var">factor</var>} ... \end{spacing}</code>.
This package also keeps the line spacing single-spaced in places
where that is typically desirable, such as footnotes and figure
captions.  See the package documentation.
</p>
<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Floats">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\baselineskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\baselinestretch</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Layout" accesskey="u" rel="up">Layout</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Floats-1">5.7 Floats</h3>

<p>Some typographic elements, such as figures and tables, cannot be broken
across pages.  They must be typeset outside of the normal flow of text,
for instance floating to the top of a later page.
</p>
<p>LaTeX can have a number of different classes of floating material.
The default is the two classes, <code class="code">figure</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#figure"><code class="code">figure</code></a>) and
<code class="code">table</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#table"><code class="code">table</code></a>), but you can create a new class with the
package <code class="code">float</code>.
</p>
<p>Within any one float class LaTeX always respects the order, so that
the first figure in a document source must be typeset before the second
figure.  However, LaTeX may mix the classes, so it can happen that
while the first table appears in the source before the first figure, it
appears in the output after it.
</p>
<p>The placement of floats is subject to parameters, given below, that
limit the number of floats that can appear at the top of a page, and
the bottom, etc. If so many floats are queued that the limits prevent
them all from fitting on a page then LaTeX places what it can and
defers the rest to the next page.  In this way, floats may end up
being typeset far from their place in the source.  In particular, a
float that is big may migrate to the end of the document. In which
event, because all floats in a class must appear in sequential order,
every following float in that class also appears at the end.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-placement-of-floats"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-specifier_002c-float-placement"></a>
<p>In addition to changing the parameters, for each float you can tweak
where the float placement algorithm tries to place it by using its
<var class="var">placement</var> argument.  The possible values are a sequence of the
letters below. The default for both <code class="code">figure</code> and <code class="code">table</code>, in
both <code class="code">article</code> and <code class="code">book</code> classes, is <code class="code">tbp</code>.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">t</code></dt>
<dd><p>(Top)&mdash;at the top of a text page.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">b</code></dt>
<dd><p>(Bottom)&mdash;at the bottom of a text page.  (However, <code class="code">b</code> is not
allowed for full-width floats (<code class="code">figure*</code>) with double-column
output.  To ameliorate this, use the <samp class="file">stfloats</samp> or
<samp class="file">dblfloatfix</samp> package, but see the discussion at caveats in the
FAQ: <a class="url" href="https://www.texfaq.org/FAQ-2colfloat">https://www.texfaq.org/FAQ-2colfloat</a>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">h</code></dt>
<dd><p>(Here)&mdash;at the position in the text where the <code class="code">figure</code> environment
appears.  However, <code class="code">h</code> is not allowed by itself; <code class="code">t</code> is
automatically added.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-here_002c-putting-floats"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-float"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-float-package"></a>

<p>To absolutely force a float to appear &ldquo;here&rdquo;, you can
<code class="code">\usepackage{float}</code> and use the <code class="code">H</code> specifier which it
defines.  For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at
<a class="url" href="https://www.texfaq.org/FAQ-figurehere">https://www.texfaq.org/FAQ-figurehere</a>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-float-page'><span><code class="code">p</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-float-page'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>(Page of floats)&mdash;on a separate <em class="dfn">float page</em>, which is a page
containing no text, only floats.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">!</code></dt>
<dd><p>Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, LaTeX
ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear
and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page.
The <code class="code">!</code> specifier does <em class="emph">not</em> mean &ldquo;put the float here&rdquo;;
see above.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Note: the order in which letters appear in the <var class="var">placement</var> argument
does not change the order in which LaTeX tries to place the float;
for instance, <code class="code">btp</code> has the same effect as <code class="code">tbp</code>.  All that
<var class="var">placement</var> does is that if a letter is not present then the
algorithm does not try that location.  Thus, LaTeX&rsquo;s default of
<code class="code">tbp</code> is to try every location except placing the float where it
occurs in the source.
</p>
<p>To prevent LaTeX from moving floats to the end of the document or a
chapter you can use a <code class="code">\clearpage</code> command to start a new page and
insert all pending floats. If a pagebreak is undesirable then you can
use the <samp class="file">afterpage</samp> package and issue
<code class="code">\afterpage{\clearpage}</code>.  This will wait until the current page
is finished and then flush all outstanding floats.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-flafter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-flafter-package"></a>

<p>LaTeX can typeset a float before where it appears in the source
(although on the same output page) if there is a <code class="code">t</code> specifier in
the <var class="var">placement</var> parameter.  If this is not desired, and deleting
the <code class="code">t</code> is not acceptable as it keeps the float from being placed
at the top of the next page, then you can prevent it by either using
the <code class="code">flafter</code> package or using the command
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csuppressfloats"></a>
<code class="code">\suppressfloats[t]</code>, which causes floats for the top position on
this page to moved to the next page.
</p>
<p>Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and
non-float text (change them with
<code class="code">\renewcommand{<var class="var">parameter</var>}{<var class="var">decimal between 0 and 1</var>}</code>):
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cbottomfraction'><span><code class="code">\bottomfraction</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbottomfraction'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbottomfraction-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-bottomfraction"></a><p>The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occupied by floats at
the bottom; default &lsquo;<samp class="samp">.3</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfloatpagefraction'><span><code class="code">\floatpagefraction</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfloatpagefraction'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfloatpagefraction-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-floatpagefraction"></a><p>The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats;
default &lsquo;<samp class="samp">.5</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextfraction'><span><code class="code">\textfraction</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextfraction'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctextfraction-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-textfraction"></a><p>Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too
much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a
different page.  The default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">.2</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctopfraction'><span><code class="code">\topfraction</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctopfraction'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctopfraction-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-topfraction"></a><p>Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before
floats; default &lsquo;<samp class="samp">.7</samp>&rsquo;.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>Parameters relating to vertical space around floats (change them with a
command of the form <code class="code">\setlength{<var class="var">parameter</var>}{<var class="var">length
expression</var>}</code>):
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cfloatsep'><span><code class="code">\floatsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfloatsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfloatsep-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-floatsep"></a><p>Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">12pt plus2pt minus2pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cintextsep'><span><code class="code">\intextsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cintextsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cintextsep-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-intextsep"></a><p>Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">12pt plus2pt minus2pt</samp>&rsquo; for 10 point and 11 point documents,
and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">14pt plus4pt minus4pt</samp>&rsquo; for 12 point documents.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextfloatsep'><span><code class="code">\textfloatsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextfloatsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctextfloatsep-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-textfloatsep"></a><p>Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page;
default &lsquo;<samp class="samp">20pt plus2pt minus4pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>Counters relating to the number of floats on a page (change them with a
command of the form <code class="code">\setcounter{<var class="var">ctrname</var>}{<var class="var">natural
number</var>}</code>):
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-bottomnumber'><span><code class="code">bottomnumber</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-bottomnumber'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bottomnumber-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-bottomnumber"></a><p>Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page;
default 1.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-dbltopnumber'><span><code class="code">dbltopnumber</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-dbltopnumber'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dbltopnumber-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-dbltopnumber"></a><p>Maximum number of full-sized floats that can appear at the top of a
two-column page; default 2.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-topnumber'><span><code class="code">topnumber</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-topnumber'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-topnumber-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-topnumber"></a><p>Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page;
default 2.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-totalnumber'><span><code class="code">totalnumber</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-totalnumber'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-totalnumber-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="floats-totalnumber"></a><p>Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>The principal TeX&nbsp;FAQ entry relating to floats
<a class="url" href="https://www.texfaq.org/FAQ-floats">https://www.texfaq.org/FAQ-floats</a> contains
suggestions for relaxing LaTeX&rsquo;s default parameters to reduce the
problem of floats being pushed to the end.  A full explanation of the
float placement algorithm is in Frank Mittelbach&rsquo;s article &ldquo;How to
influence the position of float environments like figure and table in
LaTeX?&rdquo;
(<a class="url" href="https://www.latex-project.org/publications/2014-FMi-TUB-tb111mitt-float-placement.pdf">https://www.latex-project.org/publications/2014-FMi-TUB-tb111mitt-float-placement.pdf</a>).
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005ccaption" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\caption</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005ccaption">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Up: <a href="#Floats" accesskey="u" rel="up">Floats</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005ccaption-1">5.7.1 <code class="code">\caption</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccaption"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-captions"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\caption{<var class="var">caption-text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\caption[<var class="var">short-caption-text</var>]{<var class="var">caption-text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Make a caption for a floating environment, such as a <code class="code">figure</code> or
<code class="code">table</code> environment (see <a class="pxref" href="#figure"><code class="code">figure</code></a> or <a class="ref" href="#table"><code class="code">table</code></a>).
</p>
<p>In this example, LaTeX places a caption below the vertical blank
space that is left by the author for the later inclusion of a picture.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{figure}
  \vspace*{1cm}
  \caption{Alonzo Cushing, Battery A, 4th US Artillery.}
  \label{fig:CushingPic}
\end{figure}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">\caption</code> command will label the <var class="var">caption-text</var> with
something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Figure&nbsp;1:</samp>&rsquo; for an article or
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Figure&nbsp;1.1:</samp>&rsquo; for a book.  The text is centered if it is
shorter than the text width, or set as an unindented paragraph if it
takes more than one line.
</p>
<p>In addition to placing the <var class="var">caption-text</var> in the output, the
<code class="code">\caption</code> command also saves that information for use in a list of
figures or list of tables (see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>).
</p>
<p>Here the <code class="code">\caption</code> command uses the optional
<var class="var">short-caption-text</var>, so that the shorter text appears in the list
of tables, rather than the longer <var class="var">caption-text</var>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{table}
  \centering
  \begin{tabular}{|*{3}{c}|}
    \hline
    4  &amp;9  &amp;2 \\
    3  &amp;5  &amp;7 \\ 
    8  &amp;1  &amp;6 \\
    \hline
  \end{tabular}
  \caption[\textit{Lo Shu} magic square]{%
    The \textit{Lo Shu} magic square, which is unique among
    squares of order three up to rotation and reflection.}
  \label{tab:LoShu}
\end{table}
</pre></div>

<p>LaTeX will label the <var class="var">caption-text</var> with something like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Table&nbsp;1:</samp>&rsquo; for an article or &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Table&nbsp;1.1:</samp>&rsquo; for a
book.
</p>
<p>The caption can appear at the top of the <code class="code">figure</code> or <code class="code">table</code>.
For instance, that would happen in the prior example by putting the
<code class="code">\caption</code> between the <code class="code">\centering</code> and the
<code class="code">\begin{tabular}</code>.
</p>
<p>Different floating environments are numbered separately, by default.  It
is <code class="code">\caption</code> that updates the counter, and so any <code class="code">\label</code>
must come after the <code class="code">\caption</code>.  The counter for the <code class="code">figure</code>
environment is named <code class="code">figure</code>, and similarly the counter for the
<code class="code">table</code> environment is <code class="code">table</code>.
</p>
<p>The text that will be put in the list of figures or list of tables is
moving argument.  If you get the LaTeX error &lsquo;<samp class="samp">! Argument of
\@caption has an extra }</samp>&rsquo; then you must put <code class="code">\protect</code> in front
of any fragile commands. See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-caption"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-caption-package"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">caption</code> package has many options to adjust how the caption
appears, for example changing the font size, making the caption be
hanging text rather than set as a paragraph, or making the caption
always set as a paragraph rather than centered when it is short.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Sectioning">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Cross-references" accesskey="n" rel="next">Cross references</a>, Previous: <a href="#Layout" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Layout</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Sectioning-1">6 Sectioning</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-sectioning-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-part"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-chapter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-section"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-subsection"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-subsubsection"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-subparagraph"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpart"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cchapter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csection"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csubsection"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csubsubsection"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cparagraph"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csubparagraph"></a>

<p>Structure your text into divisions: parts, chapters, sections, etc.  All
sectioning commands have the same form, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"><var class="var">sectioning-command</var>{<var class="var">title</var>}
<var class="var">sectioning-command</var>*{<var class="var">title</var>}
<var class="var">sectioning-command</var>[<var class="var">toc-title</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>For instance, declare the start of a subsection as with
<code class="code">\subsection{Motivation}</code>.
</p>
<p>The table has each <var class="var">sectioning-command</var> in LaTeX.  All are
available in all of LaTeX&rsquo;s standard document classes <code class="code">book</code>,
<code class="code">report</code>, and&nbsp;<code class="code">article</code>, except that <code class="code">\chapter</code> is
not available in <code class="code">article</code>.
</p>
<table class="multitable">
<thead><tr><th width="25%">Sectioning unit</th><th width="25%">Command</th><th width="40%">Level</th></tr></thead>
<tbody><tr><td width="25%">Part</td><td width="25%"><code class="code">\part</code></td><td width="40%">-1 (<code class="code">book</code>, <code class="code">report</code>), 0 (<code class="code">article</code>)</td></tr>
<tr><td width="25%">Chapter</td><td width="25%"><code class="code">\chapter</code></td><td width="40%">0</td></tr>
<tr><td width="25%">Section</td><td width="25%"><code class="code">\section</code></td><td width="40%">1</td></tr>
<tr><td width="25%">Subsection</td><td width="25%"><code class="code">\subsection</code></td><td width="40%">2</td></tr>
<tr><td width="25%">Subsubsection</td><td width="25%"><code class="code">\subsubsection</code></td><td width="40%">3</td></tr>
<tr><td width="25%">Paragraph</td><td width="25%"><code class="code">\paragraph</code></td><td width="40%">4</td></tr>
<tr><td width="25%">Subparagraph</td><td width="25%"><code class="code">\subparagraph</code></td><td width="40%">5</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002a_002dform-of-sectioning-commands"></a>
<p>All these commands have a <code class="code">*</code>-form that prints <var class="var">title</var> as usual
but does not number it and does not make an entry in the table of contents.
An example of using this is for an appendix in an <code class="code">article</code>.  The
input <code class="code">\appendix\section{Appendix}</code> gives the output &lsquo;<samp class="samp">A
Appendix</samp>&rsquo; (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cappendix"><code class="code">\appendix</code></a>).  You can lose the numbering&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp class="samp">A</samp>&rsquo;
by instead entering <code class="code">\section*{Appendix}</code> (articles often omit a
table of contents and have simple page headers so the other differences
from the <code class="code">\section</code> command may not matter).
</p>
<p>The section title <var class="var">title</var> provides the heading in the main text, but
it may also appear in the table of contents and in the running head or
foot (see <a class="pxref" href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a>).  You may not want the same text in these
places as in the main text.  All of these commands have an optional
argument <var class="var">toc-title</var> for these other places.
</p>
<p>The level number in the table above determines which sectional units are
numbered, and which appear in the table of contents.  If the sectioning
command&rsquo;s <var class="var">level</var> is less than or equal to the value of the counter
<code class="code">secnumdepth</code> then the titles for this sectioning command will be
numbered (see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a>).  And, if <var class="var">level</var> is less
than or equal to the value of the counter <code class="code">tocdepth</code> then the table
of contents will have an entry for this sectioning unit
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
</p>
<p>LaTeX expects that before you have a <code class="code">\subsection</code> you will have
a <code class="code">\section</code> and, in a <code class="code">book</code> class document, that before a
<code class="code">\section</code> you will have a <code class="code">\chapter</code>.  Otherwise you can get
something like a subsection numbered &lsquo;<samp class="samp">3.0.1</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-titlesec"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-titlesec-package"></a>

<p>LaTeX lets you change the appearance of the sectional units.  As a
simple example, you can change the section numbering to uppercase
letters with this (in the preamble):<br>
<code class="code">\renewcommand\thesection{\Alph{section}}</code> .
(See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol"><code class="code">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</a>.)  CTAN
has many packages that make this adjustment easier, notably
<code class="code">titlesec</code>.
</p>
<p>Two counters relate to the appearance of headings made by sectioning commands.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-secnumdepth'><span><code class="code">secnumdepth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-secnumdepth'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-secnumdepth-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-section-numbers_002c-printing"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="sectioning-secnumdepth"></a><a class="anchor" id="Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth"></a><p>Controls which sectioning unit are numbered.  Setting the counter with
<code class="code">\setcounter{secnumdepth}{<var class="var">level</var>}</code> will suppress
numbering of sectioning at any depth greater than <var class="var">level</var>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csetcounter"><code class="code">\setcounter</code></a>).  See the above table for the level numbers.
For instance, if the <code class="code">secnumdepth</code> is 1 in an <code class="code">article</code> then
a <code class="code">\section{Introduction}</code> command will produce output like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">1 Introduction</samp>&rsquo; while <code class="code">\subsection{Discussion}</code> will
produce output like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Discussion</samp>&rsquo;, without the number. LaTeX&rsquo;s
default <code class="code">secnumdepth</code> is&nbsp;3 in <samp class="file">article</samp> class and
&nbsp;2 in the <samp class="file">book</samp> and <samp class="file">report</samp> classes.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-tocdepth'><span><code class="code">tocdepth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-tocdepth'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tocdepth-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-table-of-contents_002c-sectioning-numbers-printed"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="sectioning-tocdepth"></a><a class="anchor" id="Sectioning_002ftocdepth"></a><p>Controls which sectioning units are listed in the table of contents.
The setting <code class="code">\setcounter{tocdepth}{<var class="var">level</var>}</code> makes the
sectioning units at <var class="var">level</var> be the smallest ones listed
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csetcounter"><code class="code">\setcounter</code></a>).  See the above table for the level numbers.  For
instance, if <code class="code">tocdepth</code> is&nbsp;1 then the table of contents will
list sections but not subsections.  LaTeX&rsquo;s default
<code class="code">tocdepth</code> is&nbsp;3 in <samp class="file">article</samp> class and &nbsp;2 in the
<samp class="file">book</samp> and <samp class="file">report</samp> classes.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>



<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cpart" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\part</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cchapter" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\chapter</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csection" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\section</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csubsection" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\subsection</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\subsubsection</code>, <code class="code">\paragraph</code>, <code class="code">\subparagraph</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cappendix" accesskey="6"><code class="code">\appendix</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter" accesskey="7"><code class="code">\frontmatter</code>, <code class="code">\mainmatter</code>, <code class="code">\backmatter</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection" accesskey="8"><code class="code">\@startsection</code>, typesetting sectional unit headings</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cpart">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cchapter" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\chapter</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Sectioning" accesskey="u" rel="up">Sectioning</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cpart-1">6.1 <code class="code">\part</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpart-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-part-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-sectioning_002c-part"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\part{<var class="var">title</var>}
\part*{<var class="var">title</var>}
\part[<var class="var">toc-title</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Start a document part.  The standard LaTeX classes <code class="code">book</code>,
<code class="code">report</code>, and <code class="code">article</code>, all have this command.
</p>
<p>This produces a document part, in a book.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\part{VOLUME I \\
       PERSONAL MEMOIRS OF  U.\ S.\ GRANT}
\chapter{ANCESTRY--BIRTH--BOYHOOD.}
My family is American, and has been for generations,
in all its branches, direct and collateral.
</pre></div>

<p>In each standard class the <code class="code">\part</code> command outputs a part number
such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Part I</samp>&rsquo;, alone on its line, in boldface, and in large
type.  Then LaTeX outputs <var class="var">title</var>, also alone on its line, in
bold and in even larger type.  In class <code class="code">book</code>, the LaTeX
default puts each part alone on its own page. If the book is two-sided
then LaTeX will skip a page if needed to have the new part on an
odd-numbered page.  In <code class="code">report</code> it is again alone on a page, but
LaTeX won&rsquo;t force it onto an odd-numbered page.  In an <code class="code">article</code>
LaTeX does not put it on a fresh page, but instead outputs the part
number and part title onto the main document page.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">*</code>&nbsp;form shows <var class="var">title</var> 
but it does not show the part number, does not increment the
<code class="code">part</code> counter, and produces no table of contents entry.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">toc-title</var> will appear as the part title in
the table of contents (see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>) and in running
headers (see <a class="pxref" href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a>).  If it is not present then <var class="var">title</var>
will be there.  This example puts a line break in <var class="var">title</var> but omits
the break in the table of contents.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\part[Up from the bottom; my life]{Up from the bottom\\ my life}
</pre></div>

<p>For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in
the table of contents, the level number of a part is&nbsp;-1
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a>, and <a class="ref" href="#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-indentfirst"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-indentfirst-package"></a>

<p>In the class <code class="code">article</code>, if a paragraph immediately follows the part
title then it is not indented.  To get an indent you can use the package
<code class="code">indentfirst</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-titlesec-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-titlesec-package-1"></a>

<p>One package to change the behavior of <code class="code">\part</code> is <code class="code">titlesec</code>.
See its documentation on CTAN.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cchapter">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csection" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\section</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cpart" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\part</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Sectioning" accesskey="u" rel="up">Sectioning</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cchapter-1">6.2 <code class="code">\chapter</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cchapter-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-chapter-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\chapter{<var class="var">title</var>}
\chapter*{<var class="var">title</var>}
\chapter[<var class="var">toc-title</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Start a chapter.  The standard LaTeX classes <code class="code">book</code> and
<code class="code">report</code> have this command but <code class="code">article</code> does not.
</p>
<p>This produces a chapter.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\chapter{Loomings}
Call me Ishmael.
Some years ago---never mind how long precisely---having little or no
money in my purse, and nothing particular to interest me on shore, I
thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part of
the world.
</pre></div>

<p>The LaTeX default starts each chapter on a fresh page, an
odd-numbered page if the document is two-sided.  It produces a chapter
number such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Chapter 1</samp>&rsquo; in large boldface type (the size is
<code class="code">\huge</code>).  It then puts <var class="var">title</var> on a fresh line, in boldface
type that is still larger (size <code class="code">\Huge</code>).  It also increments the
<code class="code">chapter</code> counter, adds an entry to the table of contents
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>), and sets the running header
information (see <a class="pxref" href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a>).
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">*</code>&nbsp;form shows <var class="var">title</var> on a fresh line, in boldface.
But it does not show the chapter number, does not increment the
<code class="code">chapter</code> counter, produces no table of contents entry, and does
not affect the running header.  (If you use the page style
<code class="code">headings</code> in a two-sided document then the header will be from the
prior chapter.)  This example illustrates.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\chapter*{Preamble}
</pre></div>

<p>The optional argument <var class="var">toc-title</var> will appear as the chapter title
in the table of contents (see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>) and in
running headers (see <a class="pxref" href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a>).  If it is not present then
<var class="var">title</var> will be there.  This shows the full name in the chapter
title,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\chapter[Weyl]{Hermann Klaus Hugo (Peter) Weyl (1885--1955)}
</pre></div>

<p>but only &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Weyl</samp>&rsquo; on the contents page.  This puts a line break in
the title but that doesn&rsquo;t work well with running headers so it omits
the break in the contents
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\chapter[Given it all; my story]{Given it all\\ my story}
</pre></div>

<p>For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in
the table of contents, the level number of a chapter is&nbsp;0
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a> and see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-indentfirst-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-indentfirst-package-1"></a>

<p>The paragraph that follows the chapter title is not indented, as is a
standard typographical practice.  To get an indent use the package
<code class="code">indentfirst</code>.
</p>
<p>You can change what is shown for the chapter number.  To change it to
something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Lecture 1</samp>&rsquo;, put in the preamble either
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\chaptername}{Lecture}</code> or this
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother"><code class="code">\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makeatother</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\makeatletter
\renewcommand{\@chapapp}{Lecture}
\makeatother
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-babel"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-babel-package"></a>

<p>To make this change because of the primary language for
the document, see the package <code class="code">babel</code>.
</p>
<p>In a two-sided document LaTeX puts a chapter on odd-numbered page, if
necessary leaving an even-numbered page that is blank except for any
running headers.  To make that page completely blank,
see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage"><code class="code">\clearpage</code> &amp; <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code></a>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-titlesec-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-titlesec-package-2"></a>

<p>To change the behavior of the <code class="code">\chapter</code> command, you can copy its
definition from the LaTeX format file and make adjustments.  But
there are also many packages on CTAN that address this.  One is
<code class="code">titlesec</code>.  See its documentation, but the example below gives a
sense of what it can do.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{titlesec}   % in preamble
\titleformat{\chapter}
  {\Huge\bfseries}  % format of title
  {}                % label, such as 1.2 for a subsection
  {0pt}             % length of separation between label and title
  {}                % before-code hook
</pre></div>

<p>This omits the chapter number &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Chapter 1</samp>&rsquo; from the page but unlike
<code class="code">\chapter*</code> it keeps the chapter in the table of contents and the
running headers.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005csection">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csubsection" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\subsection</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cchapter" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\chapter</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Sectioning" accesskey="u" rel="up">Sectioning</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005csection-1">6.3 <code class="code">\section</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csection-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-section-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\section{<var class="var">title</var>}
\section*{<var class="var">title</var>}
\section[<var class="var">toc-title</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Start a section.  The standard LaTeX classes <code class="code">article</code>,
<code class="code">book</code>, and <code class="code">report</code> all have this command.
</p>
<p>This produces a section.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">In this Part we tend to be more interested in the function,
in the input-output behavior,
than in the details of implementing that behavior.

\section{Turing machines}
Despite this desire to downplay implementation,
we follow the approach of A~Turing that the
first step toward defining the set of computable functions
is to reflect on the details of what mechanisms can do.
</pre></div>

<p>For the standard LaTeX classes <code class="code">book</code> and <code class="code">report</code> the
default output is like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1.2 <var class="var">title</var></samp>&rsquo; (for chapter&nbsp;1,
section&nbsp;2), alone on its line and flush left, in boldface and a
larger type (the type size is <code class="code">\Large</code>).  The same holds in
<code class="code">article</code> except that there are no chapters in that class so it
looks like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">2 <var class="var">title</var></samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">*</code>&nbsp;form shows <var class="var">title</var>.
But it does not show the section number, does not increment the
<code class="code">section</code> counter, produces no table of contents entry, and does
not affect the running header.  (If you use the page style
<code class="code">headings</code> in a two-sided document then the header will be from the
prior section.)
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">toc-title</var> will appear as the section title
in the table of contents (see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>) and in
running headers (see <a class="pxref" href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a>).  If it is not present then
<var class="var">title</var> will be there.  This shows the full name in the title of the
section: 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\section[Elizabeth~II]{Elizabeth the Second,
  by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom,
  Canada and Her other Realms and Territories Queen,
  Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.}
</pre></div>

<p>but only &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Elizabeth II</samp>&rsquo; on the contents page and in the headers.
This has a line break in <var class="var">title</var> but that does not work with headers
so it is omitted from the contents and headers.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\section[Truth is, I cheated; my life story]{Truth is,
  I cheated\\my life story}
</pre></div>

<p>For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in
the table of contents, the level number of a section is&nbsp;1
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a> and see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-indentfirst-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-indentfirst-package-2"></a>

<p>The paragraph that follows the section title is not indented, as is a
standard typographical practice.  One way to get an indent is to use the
package <code class="code">indentfirst</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-titlesec-3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-titlesec-package-3"></a>

<p>In general, to change the behavior of the <code class="code">\section</code> command, there
are a number of options.  One is the <code class="code">\@startsection</code> command
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection"><code class="code">\@startsection</code>, typesetting sectional unit headings</a>).  There are also many packages on CTAN that
address this, including <code class="code">titlesec</code>.  See the documentation but the
example below gives a sense of what they can do.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{titlesec}   % in preamble
\titleformat{\section}
  {\normalfont\Large\bfseries}  % format of title
  {\makebox[1pc][r]{\thesection\hspace{1pc}}} % label
  {0pt}                   % length of separation between label and title
  {}                      % before-code hook
\titlespacing*{\section}
  {-1pc}{18pt}{10pt}[10pc]
</pre></div>

<p>That puts the section number in the margin.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005csubsection">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\subsubsection</code>, <code class="code">\paragraph</code>, <code class="code">\subparagraph</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csection" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\section</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Sectioning" accesskey="u" rel="up">Sectioning</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005csubsection-1">6.4 <code class="code">\subsection</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csubsection-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-subsection-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\subsection{<var class="var">title</var>}
\subsection*{<var class="var">title</var>}
\subsection[<var class="var">toc-title</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Start a subsection.  The standard LaTeX classes <code class="code">article</code>,
<code class="code">book</code>, and <code class="code">report</code> all have this command.
</p>
<p>This produces a subsection.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">We will show that there are more functions than Turing machines and that
therefore some functions have no associated machine.

\subsection{Cardinality} We will begin with two paradoxes that
dramatize the challenge to our intuition posed by comparing the sizes of
infinite sets.
</pre></div>

<p>For the standard LaTeX classes <code class="code">book</code> and <code class="code">report</code> the
default output is like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1.2.3 <var class="var">title</var></samp>&rsquo; (for chapter&nbsp;1,
section&nbsp;2, subsection&nbsp;3), alone on its line and flush left, in
boldface and a larger type (the type size is <code class="code">\large</code>).  The same
holds in <code class="code">article</code> except that there are no chapters in that class
so it looks like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">2.3 <var class="var">title</var></samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">*</code>&nbsp;form shows <var class="var">title</var>.
But it does not show the subsection number, does not increment the
<code class="code">subsection</code> counter, and produces no table of contents entry.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">toc-title</var> will appear as the subsection title
in the table of contents (see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>).  If it is
not present then <var class="var">title</var> will be there.  This
shows the full text in the title of the subsection:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\subsection[$\alpha,\beta,\gamma$ paper]{\textit{The Origin of
  Chemical Elements} by R.A.~Alpher, H.~Bethe, and G.~Gamow}
</pre></div>

<p>but only &lsquo;<samp class="samp">&#x03B1;,&#x03B2;,&#x03B3;
paper</samp>&rsquo; on the contents page.
</p>
<p>For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in
the table of contents, the level number of a subsection is&nbsp;2
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a> and see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-indentfirst-3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-indentfirst-package-3"></a>

<p>The paragraph that follows the subsection title is not indented, as is a
standard typographical practice.  One way to get an indent is to use the
package <code class="code">indentfirst</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-titlesec-4"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-titlesec-package-4"></a>

<p>There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the
<code class="code">\subsection</code> command.  One is the <code class="code">\@startsection</code> command
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection"><code class="code">\@startsection</code>, typesetting sectional unit headings</a>).  There are also many packages on CTAN that
address this, including <code class="code">titlesec</code>.  See the documentation but the
example below gives a sense of what they can do.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{titlesec}   % in preamble
\titleformat{\subsection}[runin]
  {\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries}  % format of the title
  {\thesubsection}                   % label
  {0.6em}                            % space between label and title
  {}                                 % before-code hook
</pre></div>

<p>That puts the subsection number and <var class="var">title</var> in the first line of
text.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cappendix" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\appendix</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csubsection" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\subsection</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Sectioning" accesskey="u" rel="up">Sectioning</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005csubsubsection_002c-_005cparagraph_002c-_005csubparagraph">6.5 <code class="code">\subsubsection</code>, <code class="code">\paragraph</code>, <code class="code">\subparagraph</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005csubsubsection"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csubsubsection-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-subsubsection-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cparagraph"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cparagraph-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph-1"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005csubparagraph"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csubparagraph-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-subparagraph-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\subsubsection{<var class="var">title</var>}
\subsubsection*{<var class="var">title</var>}
\subsubsection[<var class="var">toc-title</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\paragraph{<var class="var">title</var>}
\paragraph*{<var class="var">title</var>}
\paragraph[<var class="var">toc-title</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\subparagraph{<var class="var">title</var>}
\subparagraph*{<var class="var">title</var>}
\subparagraph[<var class="var">toc-title</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Start a subsubsection, paragraph, or subparagraph.  The standard
LaTeX classes <code class="code">article</code>, <code class="code">book</code>, and <code class="code">report</code> all have
these commands, although they are not commonly used.
</p>
<p>This produces a subsubsection.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\subsubsection{Piston ring compressors: structural performance}
Provide exterior/interior wall cladding assemblies
capable of withstanding the effects of load and stresses from 
consumer-grade gasoline engine piston rings.
</pre></div>

<p>The default output of each of the three does not change over the
standard LaTeX classes <code class="code">article</code>, <code class="code">book</code>, and
<code class="code">report</code>.  For <code class="code">\subsubsection</code> the <var class="var">title</var> is alone on
its line, in boldface and normal size type.  For <code class="code">\paragraph</code> the
<var class="var">title</var> is inline with the text, not indented, in boldface and
normal size type.  For <code class="code">\subparagraph</code> the <var class="var">title</var> is inline
with the text, with a paragraph indent, in boldface and normal size type
(Because an <code class="code">article</code> has no chapters its subsubsections are
numbered and so it looks like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1.2.3 <var class="var">title</var></samp>&rsquo;, for
section&nbsp;1, subsection&nbsp;2, and subsubsection&nbsp;3.  The other
two divisions are not numbered.)
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">*</code>&nbsp;form shows <var class="var">title</var>.  But it does not increment the
associated counter and produces no table of contents entry (and does not
show the number for <code class="code">\subsubsection</code>).
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">toc-title</var> will appear as the division title
in the table of contents (see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>).  If it is
not present then <var class="var">title</var> will be there.
</p>
<p>For determining which sectional units are numbered and which appear in
the table of contents, the level number of a subsubsection is&nbsp;3, of
a paragraph is&nbsp;4, and of a subparagraph is&nbsp;5
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a> and see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-indentfirst-4"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-indentfirst-package-4"></a>

<p>The paragraph that follows the subsubsection title is not indented, as is a
standard typographical practice.  One way to get an indent is to use the
package <code class="code">indentfirst</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-titlesec-5"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-titlesec-package-5"></a>

<p>There are a number of ways to change the behavior of the these commands.
One is the <code class="code">\@startsection</code> command (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection"><code class="code">\@startsection</code>, typesetting sectional unit headings</a>).
There are also many packages on CTAN that address this, including
<code class="code">titlesec</code>.  See the documentation on CTAN.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cappendix">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\frontmatter</code>, <code class="code">\mainmatter</code>, <code class="code">\backmatter</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\subsubsection</code>, <code class="code">\paragraph</code>, <code class="code">\subparagraph</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Sectioning" accesskey="u" rel="up">Sectioning</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>

<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cappendix-1">6.6 <code class="code">\appendix</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cappendix"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-appendix"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-appendices"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\appendix
</pre></div>

<p>This does not directly produce any output.  But in a <code class="code">book</code> or
<code class="code">report</code> document it declares that subsequent <code class="code">\chapter</code>
commands start an appendix.  In an article it does the same, for
<code class="code">\section</code> commands.  It also resets the <code class="code">chapter</code> and
<code class="code">section</code> counters to&nbsp;0 in a book or report, and in an article
resets the <code class="code">section</code> and <code class="code">subsection</code> counters.
</p>
<p>In this book
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\chapter{One}  ...
\chapter{Two}  ...
 ...
\appendix
\chapter{Three}  ...
\chapter{Four}  ...
</pre></div>

<p>the first two will generate output numbered &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Chapter 1</samp>&rsquo; and
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Chapter 2</samp>&rsquo;.  After the <code class="code">\appendix</code> the numbering will be
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Appendix A</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Appendix B</samp>&rsquo;.  See <a class="xref" href="#Larger-book-template">Larger <code class="code">book</code> template</a>,
for another example.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-appendix"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-appendix-package"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">appendix</code> package adds the command
<code class="code">\appendixpage</code> to put a separate &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Appendices</samp>&rsquo; in the document
body before the first appendix, and the command <code class="code">\addappheadtotoc</code>
to do the same in the table of contents.  You can reset the name
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Appendices</samp>&rsquo; with a command like
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\appendixname}{Specification}</code>, as well as a
number of other features.  See the documentation on CTAN.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\@startsection</code>, typesetting sectional unit headings</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cappendix" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\appendix</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Sectioning" accesskey="u" rel="up">Sectioning</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cfrontmatter_002c-_005cmainmatter_002c-_005cbackmatter">6.7 <code class="code">\frontmatter</code>, <code class="code">\mainmatter</code>, <code class="code">\backmatter</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cfrontmatter"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfrontmatter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-book_002c-front-matter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-front-matter-of-a-book"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cmainmatter"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmainmatter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-book_002c-main-matter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-main-matter-of-a-book"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cbackmatter"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbackmatter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-book_002c-back-matter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-book_002c-end-matter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-back-matter-of-a-book"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-end-matter-of-a-book"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one or more of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\frontmatter
...
\mainmatter
...
\backmatter
...
</pre></div>

<p>Format a <code class="code">book</code> class document differently according to which part
of the document is being produced.  All three commands are optional.
</p>
<p>Traditionally, a book&rsquo;s front matter contains such things as the title
page, an abstract, a table of contents, a preface, a list of notations,
a list of figures, and a list of tables.  (Some of these front matter
pages, such as the title page, are traditionally not numbered.)  The
back matter may contain such things as a glossary, notes, a
bibliography, and an index.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\frontmatter</code> command makes the pages numbered in lowercase
roman, and makes chapters not numbered, although each chapter&rsquo;s title
appears in the table of contents; if you use other sectioning commands
here, use the <code class="code">*</code>-version (see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a>).
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\mainmatter</code> command changes the behavior back to the expected
version, and resets the page number.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\backmatter</code> command leaves the page numbering alone but
switches the chapters back to being not numbered.
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Larger-book-template">Larger <code class="code">book</code> template</a>, for an example using these three commands.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005c_0040startsection">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\frontmatter</code>, <code class="code">\mainmatter</code>, <code class="code">\backmatter</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Sectioning" accesskey="u" rel="up">Sectioning</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002c-typesetting-sectional-unit-headings">6.8 <code class="code">\@startsection</code>, typesetting sectional unit headings</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0040startsection"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-section_002c-redefining"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\@startsection{<var class="var">name</var>}{<var class="var">level</var>}{<var class="var">indent</var>}{<var class="var">beforeskip</var>}{<var class="var">afterskip</var>}{<var class="var">style</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Used to help redefine the behavior of commands that start sectioning
divisions such as <code class="code">\section</code> or <code class="code">\subsection</code>.
</p>
<p>Note that the <code class="code">titlesec</code> package makes manipulation of sectioning
easier.  Further, while most requirements for sectioning commands can be
satisfied with <code class="code">\@startsection</code>, some cannot.  For instance, in
the standard LaTeX <code class="code">book</code> and <code class="code">report</code> classes the commands
<code class="code">\chapter</code> and <code class="code">\report</code> are not constructed in this way.  To
make such a command you may want to use the <code class="code">\secdef</code> command.
</p>
<p>Technically, <code class="code">\@startsection</code> has the form
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\@startsection{<var class="var">name</var>}
  {<var class="var">level</var>}
  {<var class="var">indent</var>}
  {<var class="var">beforeskip</var>}
  {<var class="var">afterskip</var>}
  {<var class="var">style</var>}*[<var class="var">toctitle</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>so that issuing
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand{\section}{\@startsection{<var class="var">name</var>}
  {<var class="var">level</var>}
  {<var class="var">indent</var>}
  {<var class="var">beforeskip</var>}
  {<var class="var">afterskip</var>}
  {<var class="var">style</var>}}
</pre></div>

<p>redefines <code class="code">\section</code> while keeping its standard calling form
<code class="code">\section*[<var class="var">toctitle</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}</code> (in which, for reminder,
the star&nbsp;<code class="code">*</code> is optional).  See <a class="xref" href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a>.  This implies
that when you write a command like
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\section}{...}</code>, the
<code class="code">\@startsection{...}</code> must come last in the definition.  See the
examples below.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><var class="var">name</var></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="startsection-name"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fname"></a><p>Name of the counter used to number the sectioning header.  This counter
must be defined separately.  Most commonly this is either
<code class="code">section</code>, <code class="code">subsection</code>, or <code class="code">paragraph</code>.  Although in
those cases the counter name is the same as the sectioning command
itself, you don&rsquo;t have to use the same name.
</p>
<p>Then <code class="code">\the</code><var class="var">name</var> displays the title number and
<code class="code">\</code><var class="var">name</var><code class="code">mark</code> is for the page headers.  See the third
example below.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">level</var></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="startsection-level"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002flevel"></a><p>An integer giving the depth of the sectioning command.
See <a class="xref" href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a>, for the list of standard level numbers.
</p>
<p>If <var class="var">level</var> is less than or equal to the value of the counter
<code class="code">secnumdepth</code> then titles for this sectioning command will be
numbered (see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002fsecnumdepth">Sectioning/secnumdepth</a>).  For instance, if
<code class="code">secnumdepth</code> is 1 in an <code class="code">article</code> then the command
<code class="code">\section{Introduction}</code> will produce output like &ldquo;1
Introduction&rdquo; while <code class="code">\subsection{Discussion}</code> will produce
output like &ldquo;Discussion&rdquo;, without the number prefix.
</p>
<p>If <var class="var">level</var> is less than or equal to the value of the counter
<var class="var">tocdepth</var> then the table of contents will have an entry for this
sectioning unit (see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>).  For instance, in an
<code class="code">article</code>, if <var class="var">tocdepth</var> is 1 then the table of contents will
list sections but not subsections.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">indent</var></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="startsection-indent"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002findent"></a><p>A length giving the indentation of all of the title lines with respect
to the left margin.  To have the title flush with the margin use
<code class="code">0pt</code>.  A negative indentation such as <code class="code">-\parindent</code> will move
the title into the left margin.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">beforeskip</var></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="startsection-beforeskip"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fbeforeskip"></a><p>The absolute value of this length is the amount of vertical space that
is inserted before this sectioning unit&rsquo;s title.  This space will be
discarded if the sectioning unit happens to start at the beginning of a
page.  If this number is negative then the first paragraph following the
header is not indented, if it is non-negative then the first paragraph
is indented.  (Note that the negative of <code class="code">1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt</code>
is <code class="code">-1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt</code>.)
</p>
<p>For example, if <var class="var">beforeskip</var> is <code class="code">-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex</code>
then to start the new sectioning unit, LaTeX will add about 3.5 times
the height of a letter x in vertical space, and the first paragraph in
the section will not be indented.  Using a rubber length, with
<code class="code">plus</code> and <code class="code">minus</code>, is good practice here since it gives
LaTeX more flexibility in making up the page (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
</p>
<p>The full accounting of the vertical space between the baseline of the
line prior to this sectioning unit&rsquo;s header and the baseline of the
header is that it is the sum of the <code class="code">\parskip</code> of the text font,
the <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> of the title font, and the absolute value of
the <var class="var">beforeskip</var>.  This space is typically rubber so it may stretch
or shrink.  (If the sectioning unit starts on a fresh page so that the
vertical space is discarded then the baseline of the header text will be
where LaTeX would put the baseline of the first text line on that
page.)
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">afterskip</var></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="startsection-afterskip"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fafterskip"></a><p>This is a length.  If <var class="var">afterskip</var> is non-negative then this is the
vertical space inserted after the sectioning unit&rsquo;s title header.  If it
is negative then the title header becomes a run-in header, so that it
becomes part of the next paragraph.  In this case the absolute value of
the length gives the horizontal space between the end of the title and
the beginning of the following paragraph.  (Note that the negative of
<code class="code">1pt plus 2pt minus 3pt</code> is <code class="code">-1pt plus -2pt minus -3pt</code>.)
</p>
<p>As with <var class="var">beforeskip</var>, using a rubber length, with <code class="code">plus</code> and
<code class="code">minus</code> components, is good practice here since it gives LaTeX
more flexibility in putting together the page.
</p>
<p>If <code class="code">afterskip</code> is non-negative then the full accounting of the
vertical space between the baseline of the sectioning unit&rsquo;s header and
the baseline of the first line of the following paragraph is that it is
the sum of the <code class="code">\parskip</code> of the title font, the
<code class="code">\baselineskip</code> of the text font, and the value of <var class="var">after</var>.
That space is typically rubber so it may stretch or shrink.  (Note that
because the sign of <code class="code">afterskip</code> changes the sectioning unit
header&rsquo;s from standalone to run-in, you cannot use a negative
<code class="code">afterskip</code> to cancel part of the <code class="code">\parskip</code>.)
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">style</var></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="startsection-style"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fstyle"></a><p>Controls the styling of the title.  See the examples below.  Typical
commands to use here are <code class="code">\centering</code>, <code class="code">\raggedright</code>,
<code class="code">\normalfont</code>, <code class="code">\hrule</code>, or <code class="code">\newpage</code>.  The last command
in <var class="var">style</var> may be one that takes one argument, such as
<code class="code">\MakeUppercase</code> or <code class="code">\fbox</code> that takes one argument.  The
section title will be supplied as the argument to this command. For
instance, setting <var class="var">style</var> to <code class="code">\bfseries\MakeUppercase</code> would
produce titles that are bold and uppercase.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>These are LaTeX&rsquo;s defaults for the first three sectioning units that
are defined with <code class="code">\@startsection</code>, for the <samp class="file">article</samp>,
<samp class="file">book</samp>, and <samp class="file">report</samp> classes.
</p>
<ul class="itemize mark-bullet">
<li>For <code class="code">section</code>: <var class="var">level</var> is 1, <var class="var">indent</var> is 0<span class="dmn">pt</span>,
<var class="var">beforeskip</var> is <code class="code">-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex</code>,
<var class="var">afterskip</var> is <code class="code">2.3ex plus 0.2ex</code>, and <var class="var">style</var> is
<code class="code">\normalfont\Large\bfseries</code>.

</li><li>For <code class="code">subsection</code>: <var class="var">level</var> is 2, <var class="var">indent</var> is 0<span class="dmn">pt</span>,
<var class="var">beforeskip</var> is <code class="code">-3.25ex plus -1ex minus <span class="w-nolinebreak-text">-0.2ex</span><!-- /@w --></code>,
<var class="var">afterskip</var> is <code class="code">1.5ex plus 0.2ex</code>, and <var class="var">style</var> is
<code class="code">\normalfont\large\bfseries</code>.

</li><li><div class="raggedright"><p class="raggedright-paragraph">For <code class="code">subsubsection</code>: <var class="var">level</var> is 3, <var class="var">indent</var> is 0<span class="dmn">pt</span>,
<var class="var">beforeskip</var> is <code class="code">-3.25ex plus -1ex minus -0.2ex</code>,
<var class="var">afterskip</var> is <code class="code">1.5ex plus 0.2ex</code>, and <var class="var">style</var> is
<code class="code">\normalfont\normalsize\bfseries</code>.
</p></div></li></ul>

<p>Some examples follow.  These go either in a package or class file or in the
preamble of a LaTeX document.  If you put them in the preamble they
must go between a <code class="code">\makeatletter</code> command and a
<code class="code">\makeatother</code>.  (Probably the error message <code class="code">You can't use
`\spacefactor' in vertical mode.</code>  means that you forgot this.)
See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother"><code class="code">\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makeatother</code></a>.
</p>
<p>This will put section titles in large boldface type, centered.  It says
<code class="code">\renewcommand</code> because LaTeX&rsquo;s standard classes have already
defined a <code class="code">\section</code>.  For the same reason it does not define a
<code class="code">section</code> counter, or the commands <code class="code">\thesection</code> and
<code class="code">\l@section</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand\section{%
  \@startsection{section}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fname"><var class="var">name</var></a>
    {1}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002flevel"><var class="var">level</var></a>
    {0pt}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002findent"><var class="var">indent</var></a>
    {-3.5ex plus -1ex minus -.2ex}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fbeforeskip"><var class="var">beforeskip</var></a>
    {2.3ex plus.2ex}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fafterskip"><var class="var">afterskip</var></a>
    {\centering\normalfont\Large\bfseries}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fstyle"><var class="var">style</var></a>
  }
</pre></div>

<p>This will put <code class="code">subsection</code> titles in small caps type, inline with the paragraph.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand\subsection{%
  \@startsection{subsection}%  <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fname"><var class="var">name</var></a>
    {2}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002flevel"><var class="var">level</var></a>
    {0em}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002findent"><var class="var">indent</var></a>
    {-1ex plus 0.1ex minus -0.05ex}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fbeforeskip"><var class="var">beforeskip</var></a>
    {-1em plus 0.2em}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fafterskip"><var class="var">afterskip</var></a>
    {\scshape}% <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection_002fstyle"><var class="var">style</var></a>
  }
</pre></div>

<p>The prior examples redefined existing sectional unit title commands.
This defines a new one, illustrating the needed counter and macros to
display that counter.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setcounter{secnumdepth}{6}% show counters this far down
\newcounter{subsubparagraph}[subparagraph]% counter for numbering
\renewcommand{\thesubsubparagraph}%               how to display 
  {\thesubparagraph.\@arabic\c@subsubparagraph}%  numbering
\newcommand{\subsubparagraph}{\@startsection
                         {subsubparagraph}%
                         {6}%
                         {0em}%
                         {\baselineskip}%
                         {0.5\baselineskip}%
                         {\normalfont\normalsize}}
\newcommand*\l@subsubparagraph{\@dottedtocline{6}{10em}{5em}}% for toc
\newcommand{\subsubparagraphmark}[1]{}% for page headers
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Cross-references">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="n" rel="next">Environments</a>, Previous: <a href="#Sectioning" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Sectioning</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Cross-references-1">7 Cross references</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cross-references"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-label"></a>
<p>We often want something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">See Theorem~31</samp>&rsquo;.  But by-hand typing
the 31 is poor practice.  Instead you should write a <em class="dfn">label</em> such as
<code class="code">\label{eq:GreensThm}</code> and then <em class="dfn">reference</em> it, as with
<code class="code">See equation~\ref{eq:GreensThm}</code>.  LaTeX will automatically
work out the number, put it into the output, and will change that number
later if needed.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">We will see this with Theorem~\ref{th:GreensThm}. % forward reference
...
\begin{theorem} \label{th:GreensThm}
  ...
\end{theorem}
...
See Theorem~\ref{th:GreensThm} on page~\pageref{th:GreensThm}.
</pre></div>

<p>LaTeX tracks cross reference information in a file having the
extension <samp class="file">.aux</samp> and with the same base name as the file containing
the <code class="code">\label</code>.  So if <code class="code">\label</code> is in <samp class="file">calculus.tex</samp> then
the information is in <samp class="file">calculus.aux</samp>.  LaTeX puts the
information in that file every time it runs across a <code class="code">\label</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-forward-reference"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-reference_002c-forward"></a>
<p>The behavior described in the prior paragraph results in a quirk that
happens when your document has a <em class="dfn">forward reference</em>, a <code class="code">\ref</code>
that appears before the associated <code class="code">\label</code>.  If this is the first
time that you are compiling the document then you will get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX
Warning: Label(s) may have changed. Rerun to get cross references right</samp>&rsquo;
and in the output the forward reference will appear as two question
marks&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp class="samp">??</samp>&rsquo;, in boldface.  A similar thing happens if you
change some things so the references changes; you get the same warning
and the output contains the old reference information.  In both cases,
resolve this by compiling the document a second time.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-cleveref"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cleveref-package"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">cleveref</code> package enhances LaTeX&rsquo;s
cross referencing features.  You can arrange that if you enter
<code class="code">\begin{thm}\label{th:Nerode}...\end{thm}</code> then
<code class="code">\cref{th:Nerode}</code> will output &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Theorem 3.21</samp>&rsquo;, without you
having to enter the &ldquo;Theorem.&rdquo;
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005clabel" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\label</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cpageref" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\pageref</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cref" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\ref</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#xr-package" accesskey="4"><code class="code">xr</code> package</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005clabel">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cpageref" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\pageref</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Cross-references" accesskey="u" rel="up">Cross references</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005clabel-1">7.1 <code class="code">\label</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clabel"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\label{<var class="var">key</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Assign a reference number to <var class="var">key</var>.  In ordinary text
<code class="code">\label{<var class="var">key</var>}</code> assigns to <var class="var">key</var> the number of the
current sectional unit. Inside an environment with numbering, such as a
<code class="code">table</code> or <code class="code">theorem</code> environment, <code class="code">\label{<var class="var">key</var>}</code>
assigns to <var class="var">key</var> the number of that environment.  Retrieve the
assigned number with the <code class="code">\ref{<var class="var">key</var>}</code> command
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cref"><code class="code">\ref</code></a>).
</p>
<p>A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or common
punctuation characters.  Upper and lowercase letters are
distinguished, as usual.
</p>
<p>A common convention is to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix
separated by a colon or period.  Thus, <code class="code">\label{fig:Post}</code> is a
label for a figure with a portrait of Emil Post.  This helps to avoid
accidentally creating two labels with the same name, and makes your
source more readable.  Some commonly-used prefixes:
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">ch</code></dt>
<dd><p>for chapters
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">sec</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">subsec</code></dt>
<dd><p>for lower-level sectioning commands
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">fig</code></dt>
<dd><p>for figures
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">tab</code></dt>
<dd><p>for tables
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">eq</code></dt>
<dd><p>for equations
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>In the auxiliary file the reference information is kept as the text of
a command of the form
<code class="code">\newlabel{<var class="var">label</var>}{{<var class="var">currentlabel</var>}{<var class="var">pagenumber</var>}}</code>.
Here <var class="var">currentlabel</var> is the current value of the macro
<code class="code">\@currentlabel</code> that is usually updated whenever you call
<code class="code">\refstepcounter{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code>.
</p>
<p>Below, the key <code class="code">sec:test</code> will get the number of the current
section and the key <code class="code">fig:test</code> will get the number of the figure.
(Incidentally, put labels after captions in figures and tables.)
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\section{section name}
\label{sec:test}
This is Section~\ref{sec:test}.
\begin{figure}
  ...
  \caption{caption text}
  \label{fig:test}
\end{figure}
See Figure~\ref{fig:test}.
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cpageref">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cref" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\ref</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005clabel" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\label</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Cross-references" accesskey="u" rel="up">Cross references</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cpageref-1">7.2 <code class="code">\pageref</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpageref"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cross-referencing-with-page-number"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-page-number_002c-cross-referencing"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\pageref{<var class="var">key</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding
<code class="code">\label</code>{<var class="var">key</var>} command appears.
</p>
<p>If there is no <code class="code">\label{<var class="var">key</var>}</code> then you get something like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Warning: Reference `th:GrensThm' on page 1 undefined on
input line 11.</samp>&rsquo;
</p>
<p>Below, the <code class="code">\label{eq:main}</code> is used both for the formula number
and for the page number.  (Note that the two references are forward
references so this document would need to be compiled twice to resolve
those.)
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The main result is formula~\ref{eq:main} on page~\pageref{eq:main}.
  ...
\begin{equation} \label{eq:main}
   \mathbf{P}=\mathbf{NP}
\end{equation}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cref">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#xr-package" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">xr</code> package</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cpageref" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\pageref</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Cross-references" accesskey="u" rel="up">Cross references</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cref-1">7.3 <code class="code">\ref</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cref"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cross-referencing_002c-symbolic"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-section-number_002c-cross-referencing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-equation-number_002c-cross-referencing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-figure-number_002c-cross-referencing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footnote-number_002c-cross-referencing"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\ref{<var class="var">key</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Produces the number of the sectional unit,
equation, footnote, figure, &hellip;, of the corresponding
<code class="code">\label</code> command (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005clabel"><code class="code">\label</code></a>).  It does not produce any text,
such as the word &lsquo;Section&rsquo; or &lsquo;Figure&rsquo;, just the bare number itself.
</p>
<p>If there is no <code class="code">\label{<var class="var">key</var>}</code> then you get something like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Warning: Reference `th:GrensThm' on page 1 undefined on
input line 11.</samp>&rsquo;
</p>
<p>In this example the <code class="code">\ref{popular}</code> produces &lsquo;<samp class="samp">2</samp>&rsquo;.  Note that
it is a forward reference since it comes before <code class="code">\label{popular}</code>
so this document would have to be compiled twice.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The most widely-used format is item number~\ref{popular}.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Plain \TeX
\item \label{popular} \LaTeX
\item Con\TeX t
\end{enumerate}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-cleveref-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cleveref-package-1"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">cleveref</code> package includes text such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Theorem</samp>&rsquo; in the
reference.  See the documentation on CTAN.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="xr-package">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cref" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\ref</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Cross-references" accesskey="u" rel="up">Cross references</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="xr-package-1">7.4 <code class="code">xr</code> package</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-xr"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-xr-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-xr_002dhyper"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-xr_002dhyper-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cexternaldocument"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cross-referencing_002c-across-documents"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{xr}
  \externaldocument{<var class="var">document-basename</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{xr}
  \externaldocument[<var class="var">reference-prefix</var>]{<var class="var">document-basename</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Make cross references to the external document
<samp class="file"><var class="var">document-basename</var>.tex</samp>.
</p>
<p>Here is an example. If <samp class="file">lectures.tex</samp> has this in the preamble
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{xr}
  \externaldocument{exercises}
  \externaldocument[H-]{hints} 
  \externaldocument{answers}
</pre></div>

<p>then it can use cross reference labels from the other three documents.
Suppose that <samp class="file">exercises.tex</samp> has an enumerated list containing
this,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\item \label{exer:EulersThm} What if every vertex has odd degree?
</pre></div>

<p>and <samp class="file">hints.tex</samp> has an enumerated list with this,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\item \label{exer:EulersThm} Distinguish the case of two vertices.
</pre></div>

<p>and <samp class="file">answers.tex</samp> has an enumerated list with this,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\item \label{ans:EulersThm} There is no Euler path, except if there
  are exactly two vertices.
</pre></div>

<p>After compiling the exercises, hints, and answers documents, entering
this in the body of <samp class="file">lectures.tex</samp> will result in the lectures
getting the reference numbers used in the other documents.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">See Exercise~\ref{exer:EulersThm}, with Hint~\ref{H-exer:EulersThm}.
The solution is Answer~\ref{ans:EulersThm}.
</pre></div>

<p>The prefix <code class="code">H-</code> for the reference from the hints file is needed
because the label in the hints file is the same as the label in the
exercises file.  Without that prefix, both references would get the
number from the later file.
</p>
<p>Note: if the document uses the <code class="code">hyperref</code> package then in place of
<code class="code">xr</code>, put <code class="code">\usepackage{xr-hyper}</code> before the
<code class="code">\usepackage{hyperref}</code>.  Also, if any of the multiple documents
uses <code class="code">hyperref</code> then they all must use it.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Environments">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Line-breaking" accesskey="n" rel="next">Line breaking</a>, Previous: <a href="#Cross-references" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Cross references</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Environments-1">8 Environments</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environments"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbegin"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cend"></a>

<p>LaTeX provides many environments for delimiting certain behavior.
An environment begins with <code class="code">\begin</code> and ends with <code class="code">\end</code>,
like this:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{<var class="var">environment-name</var>}
  ...
\end{<var class="var">environment-name</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>The <var class="var">environment-name</var> at the beginning must exactly match that at
the end. For instance, the input
<code class="code">\begin{table*}...\end{table}</code> will cause an error like:
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">! LaTeX Error: \begin{table*} on input line 5 ended by
\end{table}.</samp>&rsquo;
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-group_002c-and-environments"></a>
<p>Environments are executed within a group.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#abstract" accesskey="1"><code class="code">abstract</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#array" accesskey="2"><code class="code">array</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#center" accesskey="3"><code class="code">center</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#description" accesskey="4"><code class="code">description</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#displaymath" accesskey="5"><code class="code">displaymath</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#document" accesskey="6"><code class="code">document</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#enumerate" accesskey="7"><code class="code">enumerate</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#eqnarray" accesskey="8"><code class="code">eqnarray</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#equation" accesskey="9"><code class="code">equation</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#figure"><code class="code">figure</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#filecontents"><code class="code">filecontents</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#flushleft"><code class="code">flushleft</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#flushright"><code class="code">flushright</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#itemize"><code class="code">itemize</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#letter"><code class="code">letter</code> environment: writing letters</a></li>
<li><a href="#list"><code class="code">list</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#math"><code class="code">math</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#minipage"><code class="code">minipage</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#picture"><code class="code">picture</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote"><code class="code">quotation</code> &amp; <code class="code">quote</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#tabbing"><code class="code">tabbing</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#table"><code class="code">table</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#tabular"><code class="code">tabular</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#thebibliography"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#theorem"><code class="code">theorem</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#titlepage"><code class="code">titlepage</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#verbatim"><code class="code">verbatim</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#verse"><code class="code">verse</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="abstract">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#array" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">array</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="abstract-1">8.1 <code class="code">abstract</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-abstract"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-abstract-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-abstracts"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{abstract}
...
\end{abstract}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs.  This environment
is only defined in the <code class="code">article</code> and <code class="code">report</code> document classes
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-classes">Document classes</a>).
</p>
<p>Using the example below in the <code class="code">article</code> class produces a displayed
paragraph.  Document class option <code class="code">titlepage</code> causes the abstract
to be on a separate page (see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>); this is the
default only in the <code class="code">report</code> class.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{abstract}
  We compare all known accounts of the proposal made by Porter Alexander 
  to Robert E Lee at the Appomattox Court House that the army continue
  in a guerrilla war, which Lee refused.
\end{abstract}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-abstract"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-abstract-package"></a>

<p>The next example produces a one column abstract in a two column document (for
a more flexible solution, use the package <code class="code">abstract</code>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
  ...
\begin{document}
\title{Babe Ruth as Cultural Progenitor: a Atavistic Approach}
\author{Smith \\ Jones \\ Robinson\thanks{Railroad tracking grant.}}
\twocolumn[
  \begin{@twocolumnfalse}
     \maketitle
     \begin{abstract}
       Ruth was not just the Sultan of Swat, he was the entire swat
       team.   
     \end{abstract}
   \end{@twocolumnfalse}
   ]
{   % by-hand insert a footnote at page bottom
 \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}
 \footnotetext[1]{Thanks for all the fish.}
}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="array">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#center" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">center</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#abstract" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">abstract</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="array-1">8.2 <code class="code">array</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-array"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-array-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-arrays_002c-math"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{array}{<var class="var">cols</var>}
  <var class="var">column 1 entry</var> &amp;<var class="var">column 2 entry</var> ... &amp;<var class="var">column n entry</var> \\
  ...
\end{array}
</pre></div>

<p>or:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{array}[<var class="var">pos</var>]{<var class="var">cols</var>}
  <var class="var">column 1 entry</var> &amp;<var class="var">column 2 entry</var> ... &amp;<var class="var">column n entry</var> \\
  ...
\end{array}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a mathematical array.  This environment can only be used in math
mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>), and normally appears within a displayed
mathematics environment such as <code class="code">equation</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#equation"><code class="code">equation</code></a>).
Inside of each row the column entries are separated by an ampersand,
(<code class="code">&amp;</code>).  Rows are terminated with double-backslashes (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_005c"><code class="code">\\</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This example shows a three by three array.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation*}
  \chi(x) =
  \left|              % vertical bar fence
    \begin{array}{ccc}
      x-a  &amp;-b  &amp;-c  \\
      -d   &amp;x-e &amp;-f  \\
      -g   &amp;-h  &amp;x-i
    \end{array}
 \right|
\end{equation*}
</pre></div>

<p>The required argument <var class="var">cols</var> describes the number of columns, their
alignment, and the formatting of the intercolumn regions.  For instance,
<code class="code">\begin{array}{rcl}...\end{array}</code> gives three columns: the
first flush right, the second centered, and the third flush left.  See
<a class="ref" href="#tabular"><code class="code">tabular</code></a> for the complete description of <var class="var">cols</var> and of the
other common features of the two environments, including the optional
<var class="var">pos</var> argument.
</p>
<p>There are two ways that <code class="code">array</code> diverges from <code class="code">tabular</code>.  The
first is that <code class="code">array</code> entries are typeset in math mode, in
textstyle (see <a class="pxref" href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a>) except if the <var class="var">cols</var> definition specifies
the column with <code class="code">p{...}</code>, which causes the entry to be typeset in
text mode.  The second is that, instead of <code class="code">tabular</code>&rsquo;s parameter
<code class="code">\tabcolsep</code>, LaTeX&rsquo;s intercolumn space in an <code class="code">array</code> is
governed by
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005carraycolsep"></a>
<code class="code">\arraycolsep</code>, which gives half the width between columns. The
default for this is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">5pt</samp>&rsquo; so that between two columns comes
10<span class="dmn">pt</span> of space.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package"></a>

<p>To obtain arrays with braces the standard is to use the <code class="code">amsmath</code>
package.  It comes with environments <code class="code">pmatrix</code> for an array
surrounded by parentheses&nbsp;<code class="code">(...)</code>, <code class="code">bmatrix</code> for an array
surrounded by square brackets&nbsp;<code class="code">[...]</code>, <code class="code">Bmatrix</code> for an
array surrounded by curly braces&nbsp;<code class="code">{...}</code>, <code class="code">vmatrix</code> for
an array surrounded by vertical bars&nbsp;<code class="code">|...|</code>, and
<code class="code">Vmatrix</code> for an array surrounded by double vertical
bars&nbsp;<code class="code">||...||</code>, along with a number of other array constructs.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-1"></a>

<p>The next example uses the <code class="code">amsmath</code> package.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{amsmath}  % in preamble

\begin{equation}    
  \begin{vmatrix}{cc}  % array with vert lines
    a  &amp;b \\
    c  &amp;d       
  \end{vmatrix}=ad-bc
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-array"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-array-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-dcolumn"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dcolumn-package"></a>

<p>There are many packages concerning arrays.  The <code class="code">array</code> package has
many useful extensions, including more column types.  The <code class="code">dcolumn</code>
package adds a column type to center on a decimal point.  For both see
the documentation on CTAN.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="center">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#description" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">description</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#array" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">array</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="center-1">8.3 <code class="code">center</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-center"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-center-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-centering-text_002c-environment-for"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center}
  <var class="var">line1</var> \\
  <var class="var">line2</var> \\
  ...
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a new paragraph consisting of a sequence of lines that are
centered within the left and right margins.  Use
double-backslash, <code class="code">\\</code>, to get a line break (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_005c"><code class="code">\\</code></a>).
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-center_0029"></a>
If some text is too long to fit on a line then LaTeX will insert line
breaks that avoid hyphenation and avoid stretching or shrinking any
interword space.
</p>
<p>This environment inserts space above and below the text body.  See
<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005ccentering"><code class="code">\centering</code></a> to avoid such space, for example inside a <code class="code">figure</code>
environment.
</p>
<p>This example produces three centered lines.  There is extra vertical
space between the last two lines.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center}
  A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fufillment \\
  of the Requirements of \\[0.5ex]
  the School of Environmental Engineering
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>In this example, depending on the page&rsquo;s line width, LaTeX may choose
a line break for the part before the double backslash.  If so, it will
center each of the two lines and if not it will center the single line.
Then LaTeX will break at the double backslash, and will center the
ending.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center}
  My father considered that anyone who went to chapel and didn't drink 
  alcohol was not to be tolerated.\\ 
  I grew up in that belief.  ---Richard Burton 
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>A double backslash after the final line is optional.  If present it
doesn&rsquo;t add any vertical space.
</p>
<p>In a two-column document the text is centered in a column, not in the
entire page.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005ccentering" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\centering</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005ccentering">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Up: <a href="#center" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">center</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005ccentering-1">8.3.1 <code class="code">\centering</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccentering"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-centering-text_002c-declaration-for"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">{\centering ... }
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{group}
  \centering ...
\end{group}
</pre></div>

<p>Center the material in its scope.  It is most often used inside an
environment such as <code class="code">figure</code>, or in a <code class="code">parbox</code>.
</p>
<p>This example&rsquo;s <code class="code">\centering</code> declaration causes the graphic to be
horizontally centered.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{figure}
  \centering
  \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{ctan_lion.png}
  \caption{CTAN Lion}  \label{fig:CTANLion}
\end{figure}
</pre></div>

<p>The scope of this <code class="code">\centering</code> ends with the <code class="code">\end{figure}</code>.
</p>
<p>Unlike the <code class="code">center</code> environment, the <code class="code">\centering</code> command does
not add vertical space above and below the text.  That&rsquo;s its advantage
in the above example; there is not an excess of space.
</p>
<p>It also does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units.  If <code class="code">ww {\centering xx \\ yy} zz</code> is
surrounded by blank lines then LaTeX will create a paragraph whose
first line &lsquo;<samp class="samp">ww xx</samp>&rsquo; is centered and whose second line, not centered,
contains &lsquo;<samp class="samp">yy zz</samp>&rsquo;.  Usually what is desired is for the scope of the
declaration to contain a blank line or the <code class="code">\end</code> command of an
environment such as <code class="code">figure</code> or <code class="code">table</code> that ends the
paragraph unit.  Thus, if <code class="code">{\centering xx \\ yy\par} zz</code> is
surrounded by blank lines then it makes a new paragraph with two
centered lines &lsquo;<samp class="samp">xx</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">yy</samp>&rsquo;, followed by a new paragraph with
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">zz</samp>&rsquo; that is formatted as usual.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="description">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#displaymath" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">displaymath</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#center" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">center</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="description-1">8.4 <code class="code">description</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-description"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-description-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-labelled-lists_002c-creating"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-description-lists_002c-creating"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{description}
  \item[<var class="var">label of first item</var>] <var class="var">text of first item</var>
  \item[<var class="var">label of second item</var>] <var class="var">text of second item</var>
   ...
\end{description}
</pre></div>

<p>Environment to make a list of labeled items.  Each item&rsquo;s <var class="var">label</var> is
typeset in bold and is flush left, so that long labels continue into the
first line of the item text.  There must be at least one item; having
none causes the LaTeX error &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Something's wrong--perhaps a
missing \item</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This example shows the environment used for a sequence of definitions.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{description}
  \item[lama] A priest.
  \item[llama] A beast.
\end{description}
</pre></div>

<p>The labels &lsquo;<samp class="samp">lama</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">llama</samp>&rsquo; are output in boldface, with the
left edge on the left margin.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005citem"></a>
<p>Start list items with the <code class="code">\item</code> command (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005citem"><code class="code">\item</code>: An entry in a list</a>).  Use the
optional labels, as in <code class="code">\item[Main point]</code>, because there is
no sensible default.  Following the <code class="code">\item</code> is optional text, which
may contain multiple paragraphs.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bold-typewriter_002c-avoiding"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-typewriter-labels-in-lists"></a>
<p>Since the labels are in bold style, if the label text calls for a font
change given in argument style (see <a class="ref" href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a>) then it will come
out bold.  For instance, if the label text calls for typewriter with
<code class="code">\item[\texttt{label text}]</code> then it will appear in bold
typewriter, if that is available. The simplest way around this, in this
example to get non-bold typewriter, is to use declarative style:
<code class="code">\item[{\tt label text}]</code>.  Similarly, get the standard roman
font with <code class="code">\item[{\rm label text}]</code>.
</p>
<p>For other major LaTeX labelled list environments, see <a class="ref" href="#itemize"><code class="code">itemize</code></a>
and <a class="ref" href="#enumerate"><code class="code">enumerate</code></a>.  Unlike those environments, nesting
<code class="code">description</code> environments does not change the default label; it is
boldface and flush left at all levels.
</p>
<p>For information about list layout parameters, including the default
values, and for information about customizing list layout, see
<a class="ref" href="#list"><code class="code">list</code></a>.  The package <code class="code">enumitem</code> is useful for customizing
lists.
</p>
<p>This example changes the description labels to small caps.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand{\descriptionlabel}[1]{%
  {\hspace{\labelsep}\textsc{#1}}}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="displaymath">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#document" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">document</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#description" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">description</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="displaymath-1">8.5 <code class="code">displaymath</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-displaymath"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-displaymath-environment"></a>
        

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{displaymath}
  <var class="var">mathematical text</var>
\end{displaymath}
</pre></div>

<p>Environment to typeset the <var class="var">mathematical text</var> on its own line, in
display style and centered.  To make the text be flush-left use the
global option <code class="code">fleqn</code>; see <a class="ref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>.
</p>
<p>In the <code class="code">displaymath</code> environment no equation number is added to the
math text. One way to get an equation number is to use the
<code class="code">equation</code> environment (see <a class="pxref" href="#equation"><code class="code">equation</code></a>).
</p>
<p>LaTeX will not break the <var class="var">math text</var> across lines.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-2"></a>

<p>Note that the <code class="code">amsmath</code> package has significantly more extensive
displayed equation facilities.  For example, there are a number of
ways in that package for having math text broken across lines.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005b_002e_002e_002e_005c_005d-display-math"></a>
<p>The construct <code class="code">\[<var class="var">math</var>\]</code> is a synonym for the environment
<code class="code">\begin{displaymath} <var class="var">math</var> \end{displaymath}</code> but the
latter is easier to work with in the source; for instance,
searching for a square bracket may get false positives but the word
<code class="code">displaymath</code> will likely be unique.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_0024_0024_002e_002e_002e_0024_0024-plain-TeX-display-math"></a>
<p>(Aside: The construct <code class="code">$$<var class="var">math</var>$$</code> from Plain&nbsp;TeX is
sometimes mistakenly used as a synonym for <code class="code">displaymath</code>.  It is
not a synonym, and is not officially supported in LaTeX at all;
<code class="code">$$</code> doesn&rsquo;t support the <code class="code">fleqn</code> option (see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>), has different vertical spacing, and doesn&rsquo;t perform
consistency checks.)
</p>
<p>The output from this example is centered and alone on its line. 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{displaymath}
  \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3
\end{displaymath}
</pre></div>

<p>Also, the integral sign is larger than the inline version  
<code class="code">\( \int_1^2 x^2\,dx=7/3 \)</code> produces.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="document">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#enumerate" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">enumerate</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#displaymath" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">displaymath</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="document-1">8.6 <code class="code">document</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-document"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-document-environment"></a>
        

<p>The <code class="code">document</code> environment encloses the entire body of a document.
It is required in every LaTeX document.  See <a class="xref" href="#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a>.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cAtBeginDocument" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\AtBeginDocument</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cAtEndDocument" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\AtEndDocument</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cAtBeginDocument">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cAtEndDocument" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\AtEndDocument</code></a>, Up: <a href="#document" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">document</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cAtBeginDocument-1">8.6.1 <code class="code">\AtBeginDocument</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cAtBeginDocument"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-beginning-of-document-hook"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\AtBeginDocument{<var class="var">code</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Save <var class="var">code</var> and execute it when <code class="code">\begin{document}</code> is
executed, at the very end of the preamble.  The code is executed after
the font selection tables have been set up, so the normal font for the
document is the current font.  However, the code is executed as part of
the preamble so you cannot do any typesetting with it.
</p>
<p>You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines
will be executed in the order that you gave them.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cAtEndDocument">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cAtBeginDocument" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\AtBeginDocument</code></a>, Up: <a href="#document" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">document</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cAtEndDocument-1">8.6.2 <code class="code">\AtEndDocument</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cAtEndDocument"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-end-of-document-hook"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\AtEndDocument{<var class="var">code</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Save <var class="var">code</var> and execute it near the end of the document.
Specifically, it is executed when <code class="code">\end{document}</code> is executed,
before the final page is finished and before any leftover floating
environments are processed. If you want some of the code to be executed
after these two processes then include a <code class="code">\clearpage</code> at the
appropriate point in <var class="var">code</var>.
</p>
<p>You can issue this command more than once; the successive code lines
will be executed in the order that you gave them.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="enumerate">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#eqnarray" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">eqnarray</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#document" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">document</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="enumerate-1">8.7 <code class="code">enumerate</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-enumerate"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-enumerate-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lists-of-items_002c-numbered"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{enumerate}
  \item[<var class="var">optional label of first item</var>] <var class="var">text of first item</var>
  \item[<var class="var">optional label of second item</var>] <var class="var">text of second item</var>
  ...
\end{enumerate}
</pre></div>

<p>Environment to produce a numbered list of items.  The format of the
label numbering depends on the nesting level of this environment; see
below. The default top-level numbering is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1.</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">2.</samp>&rsquo;,
etc. Each <code class="code">enumerate</code> list environment must have at least one item;
having none causes the LaTeX error &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Something's wrong--perhaps a
missing \item</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This example gives the first two finishers in the 1908 Olympic marathon.
As a top-level list the labels would come out as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1.</samp>&rsquo; and
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">2.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{enumerate}
 \item Johnny Hayes (USA)
 \item Charles Hefferon (RSA) 
\end{enumerate}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005citem-1"></a>
<p>Start list items with the <code class="code">\item</code> command (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005citem"><code class="code">\item</code>: An entry in a list</a>).  If you
give <code class="code">\item</code> an optional argument by following it with square
brackets, as in <code class="code">\item[Interstitial label]</code>, then the next item
will continue the interrupted sequence (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005citem"><code class="code">\item</code>: An entry in a list</a>).  That is, you
will get labels like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1.</samp>&rsquo;, then &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Interstitial label</samp>&rsquo;, then
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">2.</samp>&rsquo;.  Following the <code class="code">\item</code> is optional text, which may
contain multiple paragraphs.
</p>
<p>Enumerations may be nested within other <code class="code">enumerate</code> environments,
or within any paragraph-making environment such as <code class="code">itemize</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#itemize"><code class="code">itemize</code></a>), up to four levels deep.  This gives LaTeX&rsquo;s
default for the format at each nesting level, where 1 is the top level,
the outermost level.
</p>
<ol class="enumerate">
<li> arabic number followed by a period: &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1.</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">2.</samp>&rsquo;,&nbsp;&hellip;
</li><li> lowercase letter inside parentheses: &lsquo;<samp class="samp">(a)</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">(b)</samp>&rsquo;&nbsp;&hellip;
</li><li> lowercase roman numeral followed by a period: &lsquo;<samp class="samp">i.</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">ii.</samp>&rsquo;,&nbsp;&hellip;
</li><li> uppercase letter followed by a period: &lsquo;<samp class="samp">A.</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">B.</samp>&rsquo;,&nbsp;&hellip;
</li></ol>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cenumi"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cenumii"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cenumiii"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cenumiv"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="enumerate-enumi"></a><a class="anchor" id="enumerate-enumii"></a><a class="anchor" id="enumerate-enumiii"></a><a class="anchor" id="enumerate-enumiv"></a><p>The <code class="code">enumerate</code> environment uses the counters <code class="code">\enumi</code> through
<code class="code">\enumiv</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Counters">Counters</a>).
</p>
<p>For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see
<a class="ref" href="#description"><code class="code">description</code></a> and <a class="ref" href="#itemize"><code class="code">itemize</code></a>.  For information about list layout
parameters, including the default values, and for information about
customizing list layout, see <a class="ref" href="#list"><code class="code">list</code></a>.  The package <code class="code">enumitem</code> is
useful for customizing lists.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clabelenumi"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clabelenumii"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clabelenumiii"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clabelenumiv"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="enumerate-labelenumi"></a><a class="anchor" id="enumerate-labelenumii"></a><a class="anchor" id="enumerate-labelenumiii"></a><a class="anchor" id="enumerate-labelenumiv"></a><p>To change the format of the label use <code class="code">\renewcommand</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a>) on the commands <code class="code">\labelenumi</code>
through <code class="code">\labelenumiv</code>. For instance, this first level list will be
labelled with uppercase letters, in boldface, and without a trailing
period.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cAlph-example"></a>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textbf{\Alph{enumi}}}
\begin{enumerate}
  \item Shows as boldface A
  \item Shows as boldface B
\end{enumerate}
</pre></div>

<p>For a list of counter-labeling commands see <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol"><code class="code">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="eqnarray">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#equation" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">equation</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#enumerate" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">enumerate</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="eqnarray-1">8.8 <code class="code">eqnarray</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-eqnarray"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-eqnarray-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-equations_002c-aligning"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-aligning-equations"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-align-environment_002c-from-amsmath"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package_002c-replacing-eqnarray"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Madsen_002c-Lars"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">eqnarray</code> environment is obsolete.  It has infelicities,
including spacing that is inconsistent with other mathematics elements.
(See &ldquo;Avoid eqnarray!&rdquo; by Lars Madsen
<a class="url" href="https://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf">https://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf</a>).  New documents
should include the <code class="code">amsmath</code> package and use the displayed
mathematics environments provided there, such as the <code class="code">align</code>
environment.  We include a description only for completeness and for
working with old documents.
</p>
<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{eqnarray} 
  <var class="var">first formula left</var>  &amp;<var class="var">first formula middle</var>  &amp;<var class="var">first formula right</var> \\
  ...
\end{eqnarray}
</pre></div>

<p>or 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{eqnarray*} 
  <var class="var">first formula left</var>  &amp;<var class="var">first formula middle</var>  &amp;<var class="var">first formula right</var> \\
  ...
\end{eqnarray*}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-eqnarray_0029"></a>
<p>Display a sequence of equations or inequalities.  The left and right
sides are typeset in display mode, while the middle is typeset in text
mode.
</p>
<p>It is similar to a three-column <code class="code">array</code> environment, with items
within a row separated by an ampersand&nbsp;(<code class="code">&amp;</code>), and with rows
separated by double backslash&nbsp; <code class="code">\\</code>).
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c_002a-_0028for-eqnarray_0029"></a>
The starred form of line break (<code class="code">\\*</code>) can also be used to separate
equations, and will disallow a page break there (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_005c"><code class="code">\\</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnonumber"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-equation-numbers_002c-omitting"></a>
<p>The unstarred form <code class="code">eqnarray</code> places an equation number on every
line (using the <code class="code">equation</code> counter), unless that line contains a
<code class="code">\nonumber</code> command.  The starred form <code class="code">eqnarray*</code> omits
equation numbering, while otherwise being the same.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clefteqn"></a>
<p>The command <code class="code">\lefteqn</code> is used for splitting long formulas across
lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of
zero width.
</p>
<p>This example shows three lines.  The first two lines make an inequality,
while the third line has not entry on the left side.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{eqnarray*}
  \lefteqn{x_1+x_2+\cdots+x_n}     \\
    &amp;\leq &amp;y_1+y_2+\cdots+y_n      \\
    &amp;=    &amp;z+y_3+\cdots+y_n
\end{eqnarray*}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="equation">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#figure" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">figure</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#eqnarray" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">eqnarray</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="equation-1">8.9 <code class="code">equation</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-equation"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-equation-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-equations_002c-environment-for"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-formulas_002c-environment-for"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  <var class="var">mathematical text</var>
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>The same as a <code class="code">displaymath</code> environment (see <a class="pxref" href="#displaymath"><code class="code">displaymath</code></a>)
except that LaTeX puts an equation number flush to the right margin.
The equation number is generated using the <code class="code">equation</code> counter.
</p>
<p>You should have no blank lines between <code class="code">\begin{equation}</code> and
<code class="code">\begin{equation}</code>, or LaTeX will tell you that there is a
missing dollar sign.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-3"></a>

<p>The package <code class="code">amsmath</code> package has extensive displayed equation
facilities.  New documents should include this package.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="figure">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#filecontents" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">filecontents</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#equation" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">equation</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="figure-1">8.10 <code class="code">figure</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-figure"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-figure-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-inserting-figures"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-figures_002c-inserting"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{figure}[<var class="var">placement</var>]
  <var class="var">figure body</var>
  \caption[<var class="var">loftitle</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}  % optional
  \label{<var class="var">label}</var>              % optional
\end{figure}
</pre></div>

<p>or:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{figure*}[<var class="var">placement</var>]
  <var class="var">figure body</var>
  \caption[<var class="var">loftitle</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}  % optional
  \label{<var class="var">label}</var>              % optional  
\end{figure*}
</pre></div>

<p>Figures are for material that is not part of the normal text.  An
example is material that you cannot have split between two pages, such
as a graphic.  Because of this, LaTeX does not typeset figures in
sequence with normal text but instead &ldquo;floats&rdquo; them to a convenient
place, such as the top of a following page (see <a class="pxref" href="#Floats">Floats</a>).
</p>
<p>The <var class="var">figure body</var> can consist of imported graphics
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Graphics">Graphics</a>), or text, LaTeX commands, etc.  It is typeset in a
<code class="code">parbox</code> of width <code class="code">\textwidth</code>.
</p>
<p>The possible values of <var class="var">placement</var> are <code class="code">h</code> for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">here</samp>&rsquo;,
<code class="code">t</code> for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">top</samp>&rsquo;, <code class="code">b</code> for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">bottom</samp>&rsquo;, and <code class="code">p</code> for
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">on a separate page of floats</samp>&rsquo;.  For the effect of these options on
the float placement algorithm, see <a class="ref" href="#Floats">Floats</a>.
</p>
<p>The starred form <code class="code">figure*</code> is used when a document is in
double-column mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn"><code class="code">\twocolumn</code></a>).  It produces a figure that
spans both columns, at the top of the page.  To add the possibility of
placing at a page bottom see the discussion of <var class="var">placement</var> <code class="code">b</code>
in <a class="ref" href="#Floats">Floats</a>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccaption-1"></a>
<p>The label is optional; it is used for cross references (see <a class="pxref" href="#Cross-references">Cross references</a>).  The optional <code class="code">\caption</code> command specifies caption
text for the figure (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ccaption"><code class="code">\caption</code></a>).  By default it is numbered.
If <var class="var">loftitle</var> is present, it is used in the list of figures
instead of <var class="var">title</var> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>).
</p>
<p>This example makes a figure out of a graphic.  LaTeX will place that
graphic and its caption at the top of a page or, if it is pushed to the
end of the document, on a page of floats.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{graphicx}  % in preamble
  ...
\begin{figure}[t]
  \centering
  \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{CTANlion.png}
  \caption{The CTAN lion, by Duane Bibby}
\end{figure}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="filecontents">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#flushleft" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">flushleft</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#figure" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">figure</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="filecontents-1">8.11 <code class="code">filecontents</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-filecontents"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-filecontents-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-filecontents_002a"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-filecontents_002a-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-external-files_002c-writing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-writing-external-files"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{filecontents}[<var class="var">option</var>]{<var class="var">filename</var>}
  <var class="var">text</var>
\end{filecontents}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{filecontents*}[<var class="var">option</var>]{<var class="var">filename</var>}
  <var class="var">text</var>
\end{filecontents*}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a file named <var class="var">filename</var> in the current directory (or the
output directory, if specified; see <a class="pxref" href="#output-directory">output directory</a>) and write
<var class="var">text</var> to it.  By default, an existing file is not overwritten.
</p>
<p>The unstarred version of the environment
<code class="code">filecontents</code> prefixes the content of the created file with a
header of TeX comments; see the example below.  The starred
version <code class="code">filecontents*</code> does not include the header.
</p>
<p>The possible options are:
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-force-option-for-filecontents'><span><code class="code">force</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-force-option-for-filecontents'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">overwrite</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-overwrite-option-for-filecontents"></a>
<p>Overwrite an existing file.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-noheader-option-for-filecontents'><span><code class="code">noheader</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-noheader-option-for-filecontents'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Omit the header. Equivalent to using <code class="code">filecontents*</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-nosearch-option-for-filecontents'><span><code class="code">nosearch</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-nosearch-option-for-filecontents'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Only check the current directory (and the output directory, if
specified) for an existing file, not the entire search path.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>These options were added in a 2019 release of LaTeX.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-self_002dcontained-sources"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-source-files_002c-making-self_002dcontained"></a>
<p>This environment can be used anywhere in the preamble, although it
often appears before the <code class="code">\documentclass</code> command.  It is
commonly used to create a <code class="code">.bib</code> or other such data file from the
main document source, to make the source file self-contained.
Similarly, it can be used to create a custom style or class file,
again making the source self-contained.
</p>
<p>For example, this document:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{article}
\begin{filecontents}{JH.sty}
\newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
\end{filecontents}
\usepackage{JH}
\begin{document}
Article by \myname.
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>produces this file <samp class="file">JH.sty</samp>:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">%% LaTeX2e file `JH.sty'
%% generated by the `filecontents' environment
%% from source `test' on 2015/10/12.
%%
\newcommand{\myname}{Jim Hef{}feron}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="flushleft">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#flushright" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">flushright</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#filecontents" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">filecontents</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="flushleft-1">8.12 <code class="code">flushleft</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-flushleft"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-flushleft-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-left_002djustifying-text_002c-environment-for"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ragged-right-text_002c-environment-for"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{flushleft}
  <var class="var">line1</var> \\
  <var class="var">line2</var> \\
  ...
\end{flushleft}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-flushleft_0029"></a>
<p>An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the
left-hand margin, and ragged right. If you have lines that are too long
then LaTeX will linebreak them in a way that avoids hyphenation and
stretching or shrinking interword spaces.  To force a new line use a double
backslash, <code class="code">\\</code>.  For the declaration form
see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005craggedright"><code class="code">\raggedright</code></a>.
</p>
<p>This creates a box of text that is at most 3 inches wide, with the text
flush left and ragged right.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\noindent\begin{minipage}{3in}
\begin{flushleft}
  A long sentence that will be broken by \LaTeX{}
    at a convenient spot. \\
  And, a fresh line forced by the double backslash.
\end{flushleft}
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>




<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005craggedright" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\raggedright</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005craggedright">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Up: <a href="#flushleft" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">flushleft</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005craggedright-1">8.12.1 <code class="code">\raggedright</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005craggedright"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ragged-right-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-left_002djustifying-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-justification_002c-ragged-right"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">{\raggedright  ... }
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{<var class="var">environment</var>} \raggedright
  ...
\end{<var class="var">environment</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the left margin and
ragged right. It can be used inside an <var class="var">environment</var> such as <code class="code">quote</code>
or in a <code class="code">parbox</code>.  For the environment form
see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#flushleft"><code class="code">flushleft</code></a>.
</p>
<p>Unlike the <code class="code">flushleft</code> environment, the <code class="code">\raggedright</code>
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units.  To affect a paragraph unit&rsquo;s format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or <code class="code">\end</code>
command that ends the paragraph unit.
</p>
<p>Here <code class="code">\raggedright</code> in each second column keeps LaTeX from
doing awkward typesetting to fit the text into the narrow column.
Note that <code class="code">\raggedright</code> is inside the curly braces
<code class="code">{...}</code> to delimit its effect.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{rp{2in}}
  Team alpha  &amp;{\raggedright This team does all the real work.} \\
  Team beta   &amp;{\raggedright This team ensures that the water
                cooler is never empty.}                         \\
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="flushright">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#itemize" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">itemize</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#flushleft" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">flushleft</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="flushright-1">8.13 <code class="code">flushright</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-flushright"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-flushright-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ragged-left-text_002c-environment-for"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-right_002djustifying-text_002c-environment-for"></a>

<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{flushright}
  <var class="var">line1</var> \\
  <var class="var">line2</var> \\
  ...
\end{flushright}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-flushright_0029"></a>
<p>An environment that creates a paragraph whose lines are flush to the
right-hand margin and ragged left. If you have lines that are too long
to fit the margins then LaTeX will linebreak them in a way that
avoids hyphenation and stretching or shrinking inter-word spaces.  To force a new
line use a double backslash, <code class="code">\\</code>.  For the declaration form
see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005craggedleft"><code class="code">\raggedleft</code></a>.
</p>
<p>For an example related to this environment, see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#flushleft"><code class="code">flushleft</code></a>,
where one just have mutatis mutandis to replace <code class="code">flushleft</code> by
<code class="code">flushright</code>.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005craggedleft" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\raggedleft</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005craggedleft">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Up: <a href="#flushright" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">flushright</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005craggedleft-1">8.13.1 <code class="code">\raggedleft</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005craggedleft"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ragged-left-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-justification_002c-ragged-left"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-right_002djustifying-text"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">{\raggedleft  ... }
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{<var class="var">environment</var>} \raggedleft
  ...
\end{<var class="var">environment</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>A declaration which causes lines to be flush to the right margin and
ragged left. It can be used inside an <var class="var">environment</var> such as <code class="code">quote</code>
or in a <code class="code">parbox</code>.  For the environment form
see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#flushright"><code class="code">flushright</code></a>.
</p>
<p>Unlike the <code class="code">flushright</code> environment, the <code class="code">\raggedleft</code>
command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how LaTeX
formats paragraph units.  To affect a paragraph unit&rsquo;s format, the
scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or <code class="code">\end</code>
command that ends the paragraph unit.
</p>
<p>For an example related to this environment, see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005craggedright"><code class="code">\raggedright</code></a>,
where one just have mutatis mutandis to replace <code class="code">\raggedright</code> by
<code class="code">\raggedleft</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="itemize">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#letter" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">letter</code> environment: writing letters</a>, Previous: <a href="#flushright" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">flushright</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="itemize-1">8.14 <code class="code">itemize</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-itemize"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-itemize-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005citem-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lists-of-items"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-unordered-lists"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bulleted-lists"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bullet-lists"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{itemize}
  \item[<var class="var">optional label of first item</var>] <var class="var">text of first item</var>
  \item[<var class="var">optional label of second item</var>] <var class="var">text of second item</var>
  ...
\end{itemize}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce an <em class="dfn">unordered list</em>, sometimes called a bullet list.  There
must be at least one <code class="code">\item</code> within the environment; having none causes the
LaTeX error &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This gives a two-item list.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{itemize}
 \item Pencil and watercolor sketch by Cassandra
 \item Rice portrait 
\end{itemize}
</pre></div>

<p>With the default locale&mdash;without loading e.g. <code class="code">babel</code> package
with another language than USenglish&mdash;as a top-level list each label
would come out as a bullet, &bull;.  The format of the labeling
depends on the nesting level; see below.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005citem-3"></a>
<p>Start list items with the <code class="code">\item</code> command (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005citem"><code class="code">\item</code>: An entry in a list</a>).  If you
give <code class="code">\item</code> an optional argument by following it with square
brackets, as in <code class="code">\item[<var class="var">Optional label</var>]</code>, then by default
<var class="var">Optional label</var> will appear in bold and be flush right, so it could
extend into the left margin.  For labels that are flush left see the
<a class="ref" href="#description"><code class="code">description</code></a> environment. Following the <code class="code">\item</code> is the text of
the item, which may be empty or contain multiple paragraphs.
</p>
<p>Unordered lists can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep.
They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such
as <code class="code">enumerate</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#enumerate"><code class="code">enumerate</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clabelitemi"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clabelitemii"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clabelitemiii"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clabelitemiv"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="itemize-labelitemi"></a><a class="anchor" id="itemize-labelitemii"></a><a class="anchor" id="itemize-labelitemiii"></a><a class="anchor" id="itemize-labelitemiv"></a><p>The <code class="code">itemize</code> environment uses the commands <code class="code">\labelitemi</code>
through <code class="code">\labelitemiv</code> to produce the default label (note the
convention of lowercase roman numerals at the end of the command names
that signify the nesting level).  These are the default marks at each
level.
</p>
<ol class="enumerate">
<li> &bull; (bullet, from <code class="code">\textbullet</code>)
</li><li> <b class="b">-<span class="w-nolinebreak-text">-</span><!-- /@w --></b> (bold en-dash, from <code class="code">\normalfont\bfseries\textendash</code>)
</li><li> * (asterisk, from <code class="code">\textasteriskcentered</code>)
</li><li> . (vertically centered dot, rendered here as a period, from <code class="code">\textperiodcentered</code>)
</li></ol>

<p>Change the labels with <code class="code">\renewcommand</code>.  For instance, this makes
the first level use diamonds.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cleftmargin"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cleftmargini"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cleftmarginii"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cleftmarginiii"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cleftmarginiv"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cleftmarginv"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cleftmarginvi"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="itemize-leftmargin"></a><a class="anchor" id="itemize-leftmargini"></a><a class="anchor" id="itemize-leftmarginii"></a><a class="anchor" id="itemize-leftmarginiii"></a><a class="anchor" id="itemize-leftmarginiv"></a><a class="anchor" id="itemize-leftmarginv"></a><a class="anchor" id="itemize-leftmarginvi"></a><p>The distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and
the left margin of the <code class="code">itemize</code> list is determined by the
parameters <code class="code">\leftmargini</code> through <code class="code">\leftmarginvi</code>.  (This also
uses the convention of using lowercase roman numerals a the end of the
command name to denote the nesting level.)  The defaults are:
<code class="code">2.5em</code> in level 1 (<code class="code">2em</code> in two-column mode), <code class="code">2.2em</code> in
level 2, <code class="code">1.87em</code> in level 3, and <code class="code">1.7em</code> in level 4, with
smaller values for more deeply nested levels.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-enumitem"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-enumitem-package"></a>

<p>For other major LaTeX labeled list environments, see
<a class="ref" href="#description"><code class="code">description</code></a> and <a class="ref" href="#enumerate"><code class="code">enumerate</code></a>.  The <code class="code">itemize</code>,
<code class="code">enumerate</code> and <code class="code">description</code> environment use the same list
layout parameters. For a description, including the default values, and
for information about customizing list layout, see <a class="ref" href="#list"><code class="code">list</code></a>.  The
package <code class="code">enumitem</code> is useful for customizing lists.
</p>
<p>This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost itemized
lists.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cparskip-example"></a>
<p>Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide
space between items.  Here is an example defining an <code class="code">itemize*</code>
environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs
within a single item (<code class="code">\parskip</code> is not list-specific,
see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip"><code class="code">\parindent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\parskip</code></a>):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newenvironment{itemize*}%
  {\begin{itemize}%
    \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
    \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
    \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
  {\end{itemize}}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="letter">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#list" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">list</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#itemize" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">itemize</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="letter-environment_003a-writing-letters">8.15 <code class="code">letter</code> environment: writing letters</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-letter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-letter-environment"></a>
        

<p>This environment is used for creating letters.  See <a class="xref" href="#Letters">Letters</a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="list">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#math" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">math</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#letter" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">letter</code> environment: writing letters</a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="list-1">8.16 <code class="code">list</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-list"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-list-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lists-of-items_002c-generic"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{list}{<var class="var">labeling</var>}{<var class="var">spacing</var>}
  \item[<var class="var">optional label of first item</var>] <var class="var">text of first item</var>
  \item[<var class="var">optional label of second item</var>] <var class="var">text of second item</var>
  ...
\end{list}
</pre></div>

<p>An environment for constructing lists.
</p>
<p>Note that this environment does not typically appear in the document
body.  Most lists created by LaTeX authors are the ones that come
standard: the <code class="code">description</code>, <code class="code">enumerate</code>, and <code class="code">itemize</code>
environments (see <a class="pxref" href="#description"><code class="code">description</code></a>, <a class="ref" href="#enumerate"><code class="code">enumerate</code></a>, and <a class="ref" href="#itemize"><code class="code">itemize</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Instead, the <code class="code">list</code> environment is most often used in macros.  For
example, many standard LaTeX environments that do not immediately
appear to be lists are in fact constructed using <code class="code">list</code>, including
<code class="code">quotation</code>, <code class="code">quote</code>, and <code class="code">center</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#quotation-_0026-quote"><code class="code">quotation</code> &amp; <code class="code">quote</code></a>, see <a class="pxref" href="#center"><code class="code">center</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This uses the <code class="code">list</code> environment to define a new custom
environment.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcounter{namedlistcounter}  % number the items
\newenvironment{named}
  {\begin{list}
     {Item~\Roman{namedlistcounter}.} % labeling 
     {\usecounter{namedlistcounter}   % set counter
      \setlength{\leftmargin}{3.5em}} % set spacing 
  }
  {\end{list}}

\begin{named}
  \item Shows as ``Item~I.''
  \item[Special label.] Shows as ``Special label.''
  \item Shows as ``Item~II.''
\end{named}
</pre></div>

<p>The mandatory first argument <var class="var">labeling</var> specifies the default
labeling of list items.  It can contain text and LaTeX commands, as
above where it contains both &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Item</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">\Roman{&hellip;}</samp>&rsquo;.
LaTeX forms the label by putting the <var class="var">labeling</var> argument in a box
of width <code class="code">\labelwidth</code>.  If the label is wider than that, the
additional material extends to the right.  When making an instance of a
<code class="code">list</code> you can override the default labeling by giving <code class="code">\item</code> an
optional argument by including square braces and the text, as in the
above <code class="code">\item[Special label.]</code>; see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005citem"><code class="code">\item</code>: An entry in a list</a>.
</p>
<p>The mandatory second argument <var class="var">spacing</var> has a list of commands.
This list can be empty.  A command that can go in here is
<code class="code">\usecounter{<var class="var">countername</var>}</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cusecounter"><code class="code">\usecounter</code></a>).  Use this
to tell LaTeX to number the items using the given counter.  The
counter will be reset to zero each time LaTeX enters the environment,
and the counter is incremented by one each time LaTeX encounters an
<code class="code">\item</code> that does not have an optional argument.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmakelabel"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="list-makelabel"></a><p>Another command that can go in <var class="var">spacing</var> is
<code class="code">\makelabel</code>, which constructs the label box.  By default it puts
the contents flush right.  Its only argument is the label, which it
typesets in LR mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>). One example of changing its
definition is that to the above <code class="code">named</code> example, before the
definition of the environment add
<code class="code">\newcommand{\namedmakelabel}[1]{\textsc{#1}}</code>, and between
the <code class="code">\setlength</code> command and the parenthesis that closes the
<var class="var">spacing</var> argument also add <code class="code">\let\makelabel\namedmakelabel</code>.
Then the labels will be typeset in small caps.  Similarly, changing the
second code line to <code class="code">\let\makelabel\fbox</code> puts the labels inside a
framed box.  Another example of the <code class="code">\makelabel</code> command is below,
in the definition of the <code class="code">redlabel</code> environment.
</p>
<p>Also often in <var class="var">spacing</var> are commands to redefine the spacing for the
list.  Below are the spacing parameters with their default values.
(Default values for derived environments such as <code class="code">itemize</code> can be
different than the values shown here.) See also the figure that follows
the list.  Each is a length (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  The vertical spaces are
normally rubber lengths, with <code class="code">plus</code> and <code class="code">minus</code> components,
to give TeX flexibility in setting the page.  Change each with a
command such as <code class="code">\setlength{itemsep}{2pt plus1pt minus1pt}</code>.
For some effects these lengths should be zero or negative.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005citemindent'><span><code class="code">\itemindent</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005citemindent'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-itemindent"></a><p>Extra horizontal space indentation, beyond <code class="code">leftmargin</code>, of the
first line each item.  Its default value is <code class="code">0pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005citemsep'><span><code class="code">\itemsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005citemsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-itemsep"></a><p>Vertical space between items, beyond the <code class="code">\parsep</code>.  The defaults
for the first three levels in LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp class="samp">article</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">book</samp>&rsquo;,
and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">report</samp>&rsquo; classes at 10 point size are: <code class="code">4pt plus2pt
minus1pt</code>, <code class="code">\parsep</code> (that is, <code class="code">2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>), and
<code class="code">\topsep</code> (that is, <code class="code">2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>).  The defaults at
11 point are: <code class="code">4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt</code>, <code class="code">\parsep</code> (that is,
<code class="code">2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>), and <code class="code">\topsep</code> (that is, <code class="code">2pt
plus1pt minus1pt</code>).  The defaults at 12 point are: <code class="code">5pt plus2.5pt
minus1pt</code>, <code class="code">\parsep</code> (that is, <code class="code">2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>), and
<code class="code">\topsep</code> (that is, <code class="code">2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clabelsep'><span><code class="code">\labelsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clabelsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-labelsep"></a><p>Horizontal space between the label and text of an item.
The default for LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp class="samp">article</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">book</samp>&rsquo;,
and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">report</samp>&rsquo; classes is <code class="code">0.5em</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clabelwidth'><span><code class="code">\labelwidth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clabelwidth'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-labelwidth"></a><p>Horizontal width.  The box containing the label is nominally this wide.
If <code class="code">\makelabel</code> returns text that is wider than this then the first
line of the item will be indented to make room for this extra material.
If <code class="code">\makelabel</code> returns text of width less than or equal to
<code class="code">\labelwidth</code> then LaTeX&rsquo;s default is that the label is typeset
flush right in a box of this width.
</p>
<p>The left edge of the label box is
<code class="code">\leftmargin</code>+<code class="code">\itemindent</code>-<code class="code">\labelsep</code>-<code class="code">\labelwidth</code>
from the left margin of the enclosing environment.
</p>
<p>The default for LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp class="samp">article</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">book</samp>&rsquo;, and
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">report</samp>&rsquo; classes at the top level is
<code class="code">\leftmargini</code>-<code class="code">\labelsep</code>, (which is <code class="code">2em</code> in one column
mode and <code class="code">1.5em</code> in two column mode).  At the second level it is
<code class="code">\leftmarginii</code>-<code class="code">\labelsep</code>, and at the third level it is
<code class="code">\leftmarginiii</code>-<code class="code">\labelsep</code>.  These definitions make the
label&rsquo;s left edge coincide with the left margin of the enclosing
environment.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cleftmargin-1'><span><code class="code">\leftmargin</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cleftmargin-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-leftmargin"></a><p>Horizontal space between the left margin of the enclosing environment
(or the left margin of the page if this is a top-level list), and the
left margin of this list.  It must be non-negative.
</p>
<p>In the standard LaTeX document classes, a top-level list has this set
to the value of <code class="code">\leftmargini</code>, while a list that is nested inside
a top-level list has this margin set to <code class="code">\leftmarginii</code>.  More
deeply nested lists get the values of <code class="code">\leftmarginiii</code> through
<code class="code">\leftmarginvi</code>.  (Nesting greater than level five generates the
error message &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Too deeply nested</samp>&rsquo;.)
</p>
<p>The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp class="samp">article</samp>&rsquo;,
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">book</samp>&rsquo;, and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">report</samp>&rsquo; classes are: <code class="code">\leftmargini</code> is
<code class="code">2.5em</code> (in two column mode, <code class="code">2em</code>), <code class="code">\leftmarginii</code> is
<code class="code">2.2em</code>, and <code class="code">\leftmarginiii</code> is <code class="code">1.87em</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clistparindent'><span><code class="code">\listparindent</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clistparindent'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-listparindent"></a><p>Horizontal space of additional line indentation, beyond
<code class="code">\leftmargin</code>, for second and subsequent paragraphs within a list
item.  A negative value makes this an &ldquo;outdent&rdquo;.  Its default value
is <code class="code">0pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cparsep'><span><code class="code">\parsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cparsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-parsep"></a><p>Vertical space between paragraphs within an item.
The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp class="samp">article</samp>&rsquo;,
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">book</samp>&rsquo;, and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">report</samp>&rsquo; classes at 10 point size are: <code class="code">4pt
plus2pt minus1pt</code>, <code class="code">2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and <code class="code">0pt</code>.  The
defaults at 11 point size are: <code class="code">4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt</code>,
<code class="code">2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and <code class="code">0pt</code>.  The defaults at 12 point
size are: <code class="code">5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt</code>, <code class="code">2.5pt plus1pt
minus1pt</code>, and <code class="code">0pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpartopsep'><span><code class="code">\partopsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpartopsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-partopsep"></a><p>Vertical space added, beyond <code class="code">\topsep</code>+<code class="code">\parskip</code>, to the top
and bottom of the entire environment if the list instance is preceded by
a blank line.  (A blank line in the LaTeX source before the list
changes spacing at both the top and bottom of the list; whether the line
following the list is blank does not matter.)
</p>
<p>The defaults for the first three levels in LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp class="samp">article</samp>&rsquo;,
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">book</samp>&rsquo;, and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">report</samp>&rsquo; classes at 10 point size are: <code class="code">2pt
plus1 minus1pt</code>, <code class="code">2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and <code class="code">1pt plus0pt
minus1pt</code>.  The defaults at 11 point are: <code class="code">3pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>,
<code class="code">3pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>, and <code class="code">1pt plus0pt minus1pt</code>).  The
defaults at 12 point are: <code class="code">3pt plus2pt minus3pt</code>, <code class="code">3pt plus2pt
minus2pt</code>, and <code class="code">1pt plus0pt minus1pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crightmargin'><span><code class="code">\rightmargin</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crightmargin'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-rightmargin"></a><p>Horizontal space between the right margin of the list and the right
margin of the enclosing environment.  Its default value is <code class="code">0pt</code>.
It must be non-negative.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctopsep'><span><code class="code">\topsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctopsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-topsep"></a><p>Vertical space added to both the top and bottom of the list, in addition
to <code class="code">\parskip</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip"><code class="code">\parindent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\parskip</code></a>).  The defaults for
the first three levels in LaTeX&rsquo;s &lsquo;<samp class="samp">article</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">book</samp>&rsquo;, and
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">report</samp>&rsquo; classes at 10 point size are: <code class="code">8pt plus2pt minus4pt</code>,
<code class="code">4pt plus2pt minus1pt</code>, and <code class="code">2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>.  The
defaults at 11 point are: <code class="code">9pt plus3pt minus5pt</code>, <code class="code">4.5pt
plus2pt minus1pt</code>, and <code class="code">2pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>.  The defaults at 12
point are: <code class="code">10pt plus4pt minus6pt</code>, <code class="code">5pt plus2.5pt minus1pt</code>,
and <code class="code">2.5pt plus1pt minus1pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>This shows the horizontal and vertical distances.
</p>
<div class="float">
<img class="image" src="latex2e-figures/list.png" alt="latex2e-figures/list">
</div>
<p>The lengths shown are listed below.  The key relationship is that the
right edge of the bracket for <var class="var">h1</var> equals the right edge of the
bracket for <var class="var">h4</var>, so that the left edge of the label box is at
<var class="var">h3</var>+<var class="var">h4</var>-(<var class="var">h0</var>+<var class="var">h1</var>).
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><var class="var">v0</var></dt>
<dd><p><em class="math"><code class="code">\topsep</code> + <code class="code">\parskip</code></em> if
the list environment does not start a new paragraph, and
<code class="code">\topsep</code>+<code class="code">\parskip</code>+<code class="code">\partopsep</code> if it does
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">v1</var></dt>
<dd><p><code class="code">\parsep</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">v2</var></dt>
<dd><p><code class="code">\itemsep</code>+<code class="code">\parsep</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">v3</var></dt>
<dd><p>Same as <var class="var">v0</var>.  (This space is affected by whether a blank line
appears in the source above the environment; whether a blank line
appears in the source below the environment does not matter.)
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">h0</var></dt>
<dd><p><code class="code">\labelwidth</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">h1</var></dt>
<dd><p><code class="code">\labelsep</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">h2</var></dt>
<dd><p><code class="code">\listparindent</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">h3</var></dt>
<dd><p><code class="code">\leftmargin</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">h4</var></dt>
<dd><p><code class="code">\itemindent</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">h5</var></dt>
<dd><p><code class="code">\rightmargin</code>
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>The list&rsquo;s left and right margins, shown above as <var class="var">h3</var> and <var class="var">h5</var>,
are with respect to the ones provided by the surrounding environment, or
with respect to the page margins for a top-level list.  The line width
used for typesetting the list items is <code class="code">\linewidth</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a>).  For instance, set the list&rsquo;s left margin to be one
quarter of the distance between the left and right margins of the
enclosing environment with
<code class="code">\setlength{\leftmargin}{0.25\linewidth}</code>.
</p>
<p>Page breaking in a list structure is controlled by the three
parameters below. For each, the LaTeX default is
<code class="code">-\@lowpenalty</code>, that is, <code class="code">-51</code>.  Because it is negative,
it somewhat encourages a page break at each spot.  Change it with,
e.g., <code class="code">\@beginparpenalty=9999</code>; a value of 10000 prohibits a
page break.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005c_0040beginparpenalty'><span><code class="code">\@beginparpenalty</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_0040beginparpenalty'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-beginparpenalty"></a><p>The page breaking penalty for breaking before the list (default <code class="code">-51</code>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_0040itempenalty'><span><code class="code">\@itempenalty</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_0040itempenalty'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-itempenalty"></a><p>The page breaking penalty for breaking before a list item (default <code class="code">-51</code>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_0040endparpenalty'><span><code class="code">\@endparpenalty</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_0040endparpenalty'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="list-endparpenalty"></a><p>The page breaking penalty for breaking after a list (default <code class="code">-51</code>).
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-enumitem-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-enumitem-package-1"></a>

<p>The package <code class="code">enumitem</code> is useful for customizing lists.
</p>
<p>This example has the labels in red.  They are numbered, and the left
edge of the label lines up with the left edge of the item text.
See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cusecounter"><code class="code">\usecounter</code></a>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{color}
\newcounter{cnt}  
\newcommand{\makeredlabel}[1]{\textcolor{red}{#1.}}
\newenvironment{redlabel}
  {\begin{list}
    {\arabic{cnt}}
    {\usecounter{cnt}
     \setlength{\labelwidth}{0em}
     \setlength{\labelsep}{0.5em}
     \setlength{\leftmargin}{1.5em}
     \setlength{\itemindent}{0.5em} % equals \labelwidth+\labelsep
     \let\makelabel=\makeredlabel
    }
  }
{\end{list}}
</pre></div>



<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005citem" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\item</code>: An entry in a list</a></li>
<li><a href="#trivlist" accesskey="2"><code class="code">trivlist</code>: A restricted form of <code class="code">list</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005citem">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#trivlist" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">trivlist</code>: A restricted form of <code class="code">list</code></a>, Up: <a href="#list" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">list</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005citem_003a-An-entry-in-a-list">8.16.1 <code class="code">\item</code>: An entry in a list</h4>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\item text of item
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\item[<var class="var">optional-label</var>] text of item
</pre></div>

<p>An entry in a list.  The entries are prefixed by a label, whose default
depends on the list type.
</p>
<p>Because the optional label is surrounded by square brackets
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">[...]</samp>&rsquo;, if you have an item whose text starts with [, you
have to hide the bracket inside curly braces, as in: <code class="code">\item
{[} is an open square bracket</code>; otherwise, LaTeX will think it
marks the start of an optional label.
</p>
<p>Similarly, if the item does have the optional label and you need a
close square bracket inside that label, you must hide it in the same
way: <code class="code">\item[Close square bracket, {]}]</code>.  See <a class="xref" href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a>.
</p>
<p>In this example the enumerate list has two items that use the default
label and one that uses the optional label.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{enumerate}
  \item Moe
  \item[sometimes] Shemp
  \item Larry
\end{enumerate}
</pre></div>

<p>The first item is labelled &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1.</samp>&rsquo;, the second item is labelled
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">sometimes</samp>&rsquo;, and the third item is labelled &lsquo;<samp class="samp">2.</samp>&rsquo;.  Because
of the optional label in the second item, the third item is not
labelled&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp class="samp">3.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>   

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="trivlist">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005citem" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\item</code>: An entry in a list</a>, Up: <a href="#list" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">list</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="trivlist_003a-A-restricted-form-of-list">8.16.2 <code class="code">trivlist</code>: A restricted form of <code class="code">list</code></h4>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{trivlist}
  ...
\end{trivlist}
</pre></div>

<p>A restricted version of the list environment, in which margins are not
indented and an <code class="code">\item</code> without an optional argument produces no
text.  It is most often used in macros, to define an environment where
the <code class="code">\item</code> command is part of the environment&rsquo;s definition.  For
instance, the <code class="code">center</code> environment is defined essentially like
this:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newenvironment{center}
  {\begin{trivlist}\centering\item\relax}
  {\end{trivlist}}
</pre></div>

<p>Using <code class="code">trivlist</code> in this way allows the macro to inherit some
common code: combining vertical space of two adjacent environments;
detecting whether the text following the environment should be
considered a new paragraph or a continuation of the previous one;
adjusting the left and right margins for possible nested list
environments.
</p>
<p>Specifically, <code class="code">trivlist</code> uses the current values of the list
parameters (see <a class="pxref" href="#list"><code class="code">list</code></a>), except that <code class="code">\parsep</code> is set to the
value of <code class="code">\parskip</code>, and <code class="code">\leftmargin</code>, <code class="code">\labelwidth</code>,
and <code class="code">\itemindent</code> are set to zero.
</p>
<p>This example outputs the items as two paragraphs, except that (by
default) they have no paragraph indent and are vertically separated.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{trivlist}
\item The \textit{Surprise} is not old; no one would call her old.
\item She has a bluff bow, lovely lines.
\end{trivlist}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="math">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#minipage" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">minipage</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#list" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">list</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="math-1">8.17 <code class="code">math</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-math"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-inline-formulas"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{math}
<var class="var">math</var>
\end{math}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_0024-inline-math"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0028_002e_002e_002e_005c_0029-inline-math"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">math</code> environment inserts given <var class="var">math</var> material within
the running text.  <code class="code">\(...\)</code> and <code class="code">$...$</code> are synonyms.
See <a class="xref" href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="minipage">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#picture" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">picture</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#math" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">math</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="minipage-1">8.18 <code class="code">minipage</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-minipage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-minipage-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-minipage_002c-creating-a"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{minipage}{<var class="var">width</var>}
  <var class="var">contents</var>
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{minipage}[<var class="var">position</var>][<var class="var">height</var>][<var class="var">inner-pos</var>]{<var class="var">width</var>}
  <var class="var">contents</var>
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>

<p>Put <var class="var">contents</var> into a box that is <var class="var">width</var> wide.  This is like a
small version of a page; it can contain its own footnotes, itemized
lists, etc. (There are some restrictions, including that it cannot have
floats.)  This box will not be broken across pages.  So <code class="code">minipage</code>
is similar to <code class="code">\parbox</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cparbox"><code class="code">\parbox</code></a>) but here you can have
paragraphs.
</p>
<p>This example will be 3&nbsp;inches wide, and has two paragraphs.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{minipage}{3in}
  Stephen Kleene was a founder of the Theory of Computation.

  He was a student of Church, wrote three influential texts,
  was President of the Association for Symbolic Logic,
  and won the National Medal of Science.
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>

<p>See below for a discussion of the paragraph indent inside a
<code class="code">minipage</code>.
</p>
<p>The required argument <var class="var">width</var> is a rigid length (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
It gives the width of the box into which <var class="var">contents</var> are typeset.
</p>
<p>There are three optional arguments, <var class="var">position</var>, <var class="var">height</var>, and
<var class="var">inner-pos</var>.  You need not include all three. For example, get the
default <var class="var">position</var> and set the <var class="var">height</var> with
<code class="code">\begin{minipage}[c][2.54cm]{\columnwidth} <var class="var">contents</var>
\end{minipage}</code>.  (Get the natural height with an empty argument,
<code class="code">[]</code>.)
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">position</var> governs how the <code class="code">minipage</code>
vertically aligns with the surrounding material.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">c</code></dt>
<dd><p>(synonym <code class="code">m</code>) Default.  Positions the <code class="code">minipage</code> so its
vertical center lines up with the center of the adjacent text line.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvtop-plain-TeX'><span><code class="code">t</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvtop-plain-TeX'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Align the baseline of the top line in the <code class="code">minipage</code> with the
baseline of the surrounding text (plain TeX&rsquo;s <code class="code">\vtop</code>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvbox-_0028plain-TeX_0029'><span><code class="code">b</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvbox-_0028plain-TeX_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Align the baseline of the bottom line in the <code class="code">minipage</code> with the
baseline of the surrounding text (plain TeX&rsquo;s <code class="code">\vbox</code>).
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>To see the effects of these, contrast running this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">---\begin{minipage}[c]{0.25in}
  first\\ second\\ third
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>

<p>with the results of changing <code class="code">c</code> to <code class="code">b</code> or&nbsp;<code class="code">t</code>.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">height</var> is a rigid length (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
It sets the height of the <code class="code">minipage</code>.  You can enter any value
larger than, or equal to, or smaller than the <code class="code">minipage</code>&rsquo;s natural
height and LaTeX will not give an error or warning.  You can also set
it to a height of zero or a negative value.
</p>
<p>The final optional argument <var class="var">inner-pos</var> controls the placement of
<var class="var">contents</var> inside the box. These are the possible values are (the
default is the value of <var class="var">position</var>).
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">t</code></dt>
<dd><p>Place <var class="var">contents</var> at the top of the box.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">c</code></dt>
<dd><p>Place it in the vertical center.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">b</code></dt>
<dd><p>Place it at the box bottom.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">s</code></dt>
<dd><p>Stretch <var class="var">contents</var> out vertically; it must contain vertically
stretchable space.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>The <var class="var">inner-pos</var> argument makes sense when the <var class="var">height</var> option
is set to a value larger than the <code class="code">minipage</code>&rsquo;s natural height.  To
see the effect of the options, run this example with the various choices
in place of <code class="code">b</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Text before
\begin{center}
  ---\begin{minipage}[c][3in][b]{0.25\textwidth}
       first\\ second\\ third
  \end{minipage}              
\end{center}
Text after  
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-indentation-of-paragraphs_002c-in-minipage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph-indentation_002c-in-minipage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cparindent"></a>
<p>By default paragraphs are not indented in a <code class="code">minipage</code>.  Change
that with a command such as <code class="code">\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}</code> at
the start of <var class="var">contents</var>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footnotes-in-figures"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-figures_002c-footnotes-in"></a>
<p>Footnotes in a <code class="code">minipage</code> environment are handled in a way that is
particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables.  A
<code class="code">\footnote</code> or <code class="code">\footnotetext</code> command puts the footnote at
the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it
uses the <code class="code">\mpfootnote</code> counter instead of the ordinary
<code class="code">footnote</code> counter (see <a class="pxref" href="#Counters">Counters</a>).
</p>
<p>This puts the footnote at the bottom of the table, not the bottom of the
page.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center}           % center the minipage on the line
\begin{minipage}{2.5in}
  \begin{center}         % center the table inside the minipage
    \begin{tabular}{ll}
      \textsc{Monarch}  &amp;\textsc{Reign}             \\ \hline
      Elizabeth II      &amp;63 years\footnote{to date} \\
      Victoria          &amp;63 years                   \\
      George III        &amp;59 years
    \end{tabular}
  \end{center}  
\end{minipage}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>If you nest minipages then there is an oddness when using footnotes.
Footnotes appear at the bottom of the text ended by the next
<code class="code">\end{minipage}</code> which may not be their logical place.
</p>
<p>This puts a table containing data side by side with a map graphic.  They
are vertically centered.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-siunitx"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-siunitx-package"></a>

<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">% siunitx to have the S column specifier,
% which aligns numbers on their decimal point.
\usepackage{siunitx}
\newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}}
  ...
\begin{center}
  \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.3\textwidth]{nyc.png}}
  \hspace{0.1\textwidth}
  \begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
    \begin{tabular}{r|S}
      % \multicolumn to remove vertical bar between column headers
      \multicolumn{1}{r}{Borough} &amp;
      % braces to prevent siunitx from misinterpreting the
      % period as a decimal separator
      {Pop. (million)}  \\ \hline
      The Bronx      &amp;1.5  \\
      Brooklyn       &amp;2.6  \\
      Manhattan      &amp;1.6  \\
      Queens         &amp;2.3  \\
      Staten Island  &amp;0.5  
    \end{tabular}
  \end{minipage}              
\end{center}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="picture">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#quotation-_0026-quote" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">quotation</code> &amp; <code class="code">quote</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#minipage" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">minipage</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="picture-1">8.19 <code class="code">picture</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-picture"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-picture-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-creating-pictures"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-pictures_002c-creating"></a>

<p>Synopses: 
</p><div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{picture}(<var class="var">width</var>,<var class="var">height</var>)
   <var class="var">picture command</var>
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{picture}(<var class="var">width</var>,<var class="var">height</var>)(<var class="var">xoffset</var>,<var class="var">yoffset</var>)
  <var class="var">picture command</var>
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>Where there may be any number of <var class="var">picture command</var>&rsquo;s.
</p>
<p>An environment to create simple pictures containing lines, arrows,
boxes, circles, and text.  This environment is not obsolete, but new
documents typically use much more powerful graphics creation systems,
such as TikZ, PSTricks, MetaPost, or Asymptote.  None of these are
covered in this document; see CTAN.
</p>
<p>To start, here&rsquo;s an example showing the parallelogram law for adding vectors.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cunitlength"></a>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
\begin{picture}(6,6)      % picture box will be 6cm wide by 6cm tall
  \put(0,0){\vector(2,1){4}}  % for every 2 over this vector goes 1 up
    \put(2,1){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ first leg}}
  \put(4,2){\vector(1,2){2}}
    \put(5,4){\makebox(0,0)[l]{\ second leg}}  
  \put(0,0){\vector(1,1){6}}
    \put(3,3){\makebox(0,0)[r]{sum\ }}  
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">picture</code> environment has one required argument, a pair of
positive real numbers (<var class="var">width</var>,<var class="var">height</var>).  Multiply these by the
value <code class="code">\unitlength</code> to get the nominal size of the output, i.e.
the space that LaTeX reserves on the output page.  This nominal size
need not be how large the picture really is; LaTeX will draw things
from the picture outside the picture&rsquo;s box.
</p>
<p>This environment also has an optional argument
(<var class="var">xoffset</var>,<var class="var">yoffset</var>).  It is used to shift the origin.  Unlike
most optional arguments, this one is not contained in square brackets.
As with the required argument, it consists of a pair of two real
numbers, but these may also be negative or null.  Multiply these
by <code class="code">\unitlength</code> to get the coordinates of the point at the
lower-left corner of the picture.
</p>
<p>For example, if <code class="code">\unitlength</code> has been set to <code class="code">1mm</code>, the
command
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)
</pre></div>

<p>produces a box of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters.  The
picture&rsquo;s origin is the point (10mm,20mm) and so the lower-left corner
is there, and the upper-right corner is at (110mm,220mm).  When you
first draw a picture you typically omit the optional argument, leaving
the origin at the lower-left corner.  If you then want to modify your
picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate
optional argument.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-position_002c-in-picture"></a>
<p>Each <var class="var">picture command</var> tells LaTeX where to put something by
providing its position.  A <em class="dfn">position</em> is a pair such as <code class="code">(2.4,-5)</code>
giving the x- and y-coordinates.  A <em class="dfn">coordinate</em> is a not a length,
it is a real number (it may have a decimal point or a minus sign).  It
specifies a length in multiples of the unit length <code class="code">\unitlength</code>,
so if <code class="code">\unitlength</code> has been set to <code class="code">1cm</code>, then the coordinate
<code class="code">2.54</code> specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters.
</p>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s default for <code class="code">\unitlength</code> is <code class="code">1pt</code>.  It is a rigid
length (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  Change it with the <code class="code">\setlength</code> command
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csetlength"><code class="code">\setlength</code></a>).  Make this change only outside of a <code class="code">picture</code>
environment.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">picture</code> environment supports using standard arithmetic
expressions as well as numbers.
</p>
<p>Coordinates are given with respect to an origin, which is by default at
the lower-left corner of the picture.  Note that when a position appears
as an argument, as with <code class="code">\put(1,2){...}</code>, it is not enclosed in
braces since the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.  Also,
unlike in some computer graphics systems, larger y-coordinates are
further up the page, for example, <em class="math">y = 1</em> is <em class="emph">above</em> <em class="math">y = 0</em>.
</p>
<p>There are four ways to put things in a picture: <code class="code">\put</code>,
<code class="code">\multiput</code>, <code class="code">\qbezier</code>, and <code class="code">\graphpaper</code>.  The most
often used is <code class="code">\put</code>. This
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\put(11.3,-0.3){...}
</pre></div>

<p>places the object with its reference point at coordinates
<em class="math">(11.3,-0.3)</em>.  The reference points for various objects will be
described below.
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LR-box"></a>
The <code class="code">\put</code> command creates an <em class="dfn">LR box</em> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).
Anything that can go in an <code class="code">\mbox</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>) can
go in the text argument of the <code class="code">\put</code> command.  The reference point
will be the lower left corner of the box.  In this picture
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
...\begin{picture}(1,1)
  \put(0,0){\line(1,0){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(1,1){1}}
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>the three dots are just slightly left of the point of the angle formed
by the two lines.  (Also, <code class="code">\line(1,1){1}</code> does not call for a
line of length one; rather the line has a change in the x coordinate of
1.)
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\multiput</code>, <code class="code">qbezier</code>, and <code class="code">graphpaper</code> commands are
described below.
</p>
<p>You can also use this environment to place arbitrary material at an
exact location. For example:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{color,graphicx}  % in preamble
  ...
\begin{center}
\setlength{\unitlength}{\textwidth} 
\begin{picture}(1,1)      % leave space, \textwidth wide and tall
  \put(0,0){\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{desertedisland.jpg}}
  \put(0.25,0.35){\textcolor{red}{X Treasure here}}
\end{picture}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>The red&nbsp;X will be precisely a quarter of the <code class="code">\textwidth</code> from
the left margin, and <code class="code">0.35\textwidth</code> up from the bottom of the
picture.  Another example of this usage is to put similar code in the
page header to get repeat material on each of a document&rsquo;s pages.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cput" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\put</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cmultiput" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\multiput</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cqbezier" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\qbezier</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cgraphpaper" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\graphpaper</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cline" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\line</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005clinethickness" accesskey="6"><code class="code">\linethickness</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cthinlines" accesskey="7"><code class="code">\thinlines</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cthicklines" accesskey="8"><code class="code">\thicklines</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005ccircle" accesskey="9"><code class="code">\circle</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005coval"><code class="code">\oval</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cshortstack"><code class="code">\shortstack</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cvector"><code class="code">\vector</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029"><code class="code">\makebox</code> (picture)</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029"><code class="code">\framebox</code> (picture)</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cframe"><code class="code">\frame</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cdashbox"><code class="code">\dashbox</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cput">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cmultiput" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\multiput</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cput-1">8.19.1 <code class="code">\put</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cput"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\put(<var class="var">xcoord</var>,<var class="var">ycoord</var>){<var class="var">content</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Place <var class="var">content</var> at the coordinate (<var class="var">xcoord</var>,<var class="var">ycoord</var>).  See
the discussion of coordinates and <code class="code">\unitlength</code> in <a class="ref" href="#picture"><code class="code">picture</code></a>.
The <var class="var">content</var> is processed in LR mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>) so it cannot
contain line breaks.
</p>
<p>This includes the text into the <code class="code">picture</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\put(4.5,2.5){Apply the \textit{unpoke} move}
</pre></div>

<p>The reference point, the location (4.5,2.5), is the lower left of the
text, at the bottom left of the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">A</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cmultiput">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cqbezier" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\qbezier</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cput" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\put</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cmultiput-1">8.19.2 <code class="code">\multiput</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmultiput"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\multiput(<var class="var">x</var>,<var class="var">y</var>)(<var class="var">delta_x</var>,<var class="var">delta_y</var>){<var class="var">num-copies</var>}{<var class="var">obj</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Copy <var class="var">obj</var> a total of <var class="var">num-copies</var> times, with an increment of
<var class="var">delta_x,delta_y</var>.  The <var class="var">obj</var> first appears at position
<em class="math">(x,y)</em>, then at <em class="math">(x+\delta_x,y+\delta_y)</em>, and so on.
</p>
<p>This draws a simple grid with every fifth line in bold (see also
<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cgraphpaper"><code class="code">\graphpaper</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{picture}(10,10)
  \linethickness{0.05mm}
  \multiput(0,0)(1,0){10}{\line(0,1){10}} 
  \multiput(0,0)(0,1){10}{\line(1,0){10}}
  \linethickness{0.5mm}
  \multiput(0,0)(5,0){3}{\line(0,1){10}}
  \multiput(0,0)(0,5){3}{\line(1,0){10}}
\end{picture}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cqbezier">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cgraphpaper" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\graphpaper</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cmultiput" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\multiput</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cqbezier-1">8.19.3 <code class="code">\qbezier</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cqbezier"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\qbezier(<var class="var">x1</var>,<var class="var">y1</var>)(<var class="var">x2</var>,<var class="var">y2</var>)(<var class="var">x3</var>,<var class="var">y3</var>)
\qbezier[<var class="var">num</var>](<var class="var">x1</var>,<var class="var">y1</var>)(<var class="var">x2</var>,<var class="var">y2</var>)(<var class="var">x3</var>,<var class="var">y3</var>)
</pre></div>

<p>Draw a quadratic Bezier curve whose control points are given by the
three required arguments <code class="code">(<var class="var">x1</var>,<var class="var">y1</var>)</code>,
<code class="code">(<var class="var">x2</var>,<var class="var">y2</var>)</code>, and <code class="code">(<var class="var">x3</var>,<var class="var">y3</var>)</code>.  That is,
the curve runs from <var class="var">(x1,y1)</var> to <var class="var">(x3,y3)</var>, is quadratic, and is
such that the tangent line at <var class="var">(x1,y1)</var> passes through
<var class="var">(x2,y2)</var>, as does the tangent line at <var class="var">(x3,y3)</var>.
</p>
<p>This draws a curve from the coordinate (1,1) to (1,0).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\qbezier(1,1)(1.25,0.75)(1,0)  
</pre></div>

<p>The curve&rsquo;s tangent line at (1,1) contains (1.25,0.75), as does the
curve&rsquo;s tangent line at (1,0).
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">num</var> gives the number of calculated
intermediate points.  The default is to draw a smooth curve whose
maximum number of points is <code class="code">\qbeziermax</code> (change this value with
<code class="code">\renewcommand</code>).
</p>
<p>This draws a rectangle with a wavy top, using <code class="code">\qbezier</code> for
that curve.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{picture}(8,4)
  \put(0,0){\vector(1,0){8}}  % x axis
  \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){4}}  % y axis
  \put(2,0){\line(0,1){3}}       % left side
  \put(4,0){\line(0,1){3.5}}     % right side
  \qbezier(2,3)(2.5,2.9)(3,3.25)
    \qbezier(3,3.25)(3.5,3.6)(4,3.5)
  \thicklines                 % below here, lines are twice as thick
  \put(2,3){\line(4,1){2}}
  \put(4.5,2.5){\framebox{Trapezoidal Rule}}
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cgraphpaper">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cline" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\line</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cqbezier" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\qbezier</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cgraphpaper-1">8.19.4 <code class="code">\graphpaper</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cgraphpaper"></a>
<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\graphpaper(<var class="var">x_init</var>,<var class="var">y_init</var>)(<var class="var">x_dimen</var>,<var class="var">y_dimen</var>)
\graphpaper[<var class="var">spacing</var>](<var class="var">x_init</var>,<var class="var">y_init</var>)(<var class="var">x_dimen</var>,<var class="var">y_dimen</var>)
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-graphpap"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphpap-package"></a>

<p>Draw a coordinate grid.  Requires the <code class="code">graphpap</code> package.
The grid&rsquo;s origin is <code class="code">(<var class="var">x_init</var>,<var class="var">y_init</var>)</code>.
Grid lines come every <var class="var">spacing</var> units (the default is 10).
The grid extends <var class="var">x_dimen</var> units to the right and <var class="var">y_dimen</var> units up.
All arguments must be positive integers.
</p>
<p>This make a grid with seven vertical lines and eleven horizontal lines.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{graphpap}    % in preamble
  ...
\begin{picture}(6,20)    % in document body
  \graphpaper[2](0,0)(12,20)
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>The lines are numbered every ten units.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cline">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005clinethickness" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\linethickness</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cgraphpaper" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\graphpaper</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cline-1">8.19.5 <code class="code">\line</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cline"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\line(<var class="var">x_run</var>,<var class="var">y_rise</var>){<var class="var">travel</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Draw a line.  It slopes such that it vertically rises <var class="var">y_rise</var> for
every horizontal <var class="var">x_run</var>.  The <var class="var">travel</var> is the total horizontal
change&mdash;it is not the length of the vector, it is the change in
<em class="math">x</em>.  In the special case of vertical lines, where
(<var class="var">x_run</var>,<var class="var">y_rise</var>)=(0,1), the <var class="var">travel</var> gives the change in
<em class="math">y</em>.
</p>
<p>This draws a line starting at coordinates (1,3).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\put(1,3){\line(2,5){4}}
</pre></div>

<p>For every over 2, this line will go up 5.  Because <var class="var">travel</var>
specifies that this goes over 4, it must go up&nbsp;10.  Thus its
endpoint is <em class="math">(1,3)+(4,10)=(5,13)</em>.  In particular, note that
<em class="math"><var class="var">travel</var>=4</em> is not the length of the line, it is the change in
<em class="math">x</em>.
</p>
<p>The arguments <var class="var">x_run</var> and <var class="var">y_rise</var> are integers that can be
positive, negative, or zero. (If both are 0 then LaTeX treats the
second as 1.)  With
<code class="code">\put(<var class="var">x_init</var>,<var class="var">y_init</var>){\line(<var class="var">x_run</var>,<var class="var">y_rise</var>){<var class="var">travel</var>}}</code>,
if <var class="var">x_run</var> is negative then the line&rsquo;s ending point has a first
coordinate that is less than <var class="var">x_init</var>.  If <var class="var">y_rise</var> is negative
then the line&rsquo;s ending point has a second coordinate that is less than
<var class="var">y_init</var>.
</p>
<p>If <var class="var">travel</var> is negative then you get <code class="code">LaTeX Error: Bad \line or
\vector argument.</code>
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics-packages"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-pict2e"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-pict2e-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-TikZ"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-TikZ-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-PSTricks"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-PSTricks-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-MetaPost"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-MetaPost-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-Asymptote"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Asymptote-package"></a>

<p>Standard LaTeX can only draw lines with a limited range of slopes
because these lines are made by putting together line segments from
pre-made fonts.  The two numbers <var class="var">x_run</var> and <var class="var">y_rise</var> must have
integer values from &minus;6 through&nbsp;6.  Also, they must be
relatively prime, so that <var class="var">(x_run,y_rise)</var> can be (2,1) but not
(4,2) (if you choose the latter then instead of lines you get sequences
of arrowheads; the solution is to switch to the former).  To get lines
of arbitrary slope and plenty of other shapes in a system like
<code class="code">picture</code>, see the package <code class="code">pict2e</code>
(<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/pict2e">https://ctan.org/pkg/pict2e</a>).  Another solution
is to use a full-featured graphics system such as TikZ, PSTricks,
MetaPost, or Asymptote.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005clinethickness">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cthinlines" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\thinlines</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cline" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\line</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005clinethickness-1">8.19.6 <code class="code">\linethickness</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clinethickness"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\linethickness{<var class="var">dim</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Declares the thickness of subsequent horizontal and vertical lines in a
picture to be <var class="var">dim</var>, which must be a positive length
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  It differs from <code class="code">\thinlines</code> and
<code class="code">\thicklines</code> in that it does not affect the thickness of slanted
lines, circles, or ovals (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005coval"><code class="code">\oval</code></a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cthinlines">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cthicklines" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\thicklines</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005clinethickness" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\linethickness</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cthinlines-1">8.19.7 <code class="code">\thinlines</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cthinlines"></a>

<p>Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals
in a picture environment to be 0.4<span class="dmn">pt</span>.  This is the default
thickness, so this command is unnecessary unless the thickness has been
changed with either <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005clinethickness"><code class="code">\linethickness</code></a> or <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cthicklines"><code class="code">\thicklines</code></a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cthicklines">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005ccircle" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\circle</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cthinlines" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\thinlines</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cthicklines-1">8.19.8 <code class="code">\thicklines</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cthicklines"></a>

<p>Declaration to set the thickness of subsequent lines, circles, and ovals
in a picture environment to be 0.8<span class="dmn">pt</span>.  See also
<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005clinethickness"><code class="code">\linethickness</code></a> and <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cthinlines"><code class="code">\thinlines</code></a>.  This command is illustrated
in the Trapezoidal Rule example of <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cqbezier"><code class="code">\qbezier</code></a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005ccircle">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005coval" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\oval</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cthicklines" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\thicklines</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005ccircle-1">8.19.9 <code class="code">\circle</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccircle"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\circle{<var class="var">diameter</var>}
\circle*{<var class="var">diameter</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Produces a circle with a diameter as close as possible to the specified
one.  The <code class="code">*</code>&nbsp;form produces a filled-in circle.
</p>
<p>This draws a circle of radius 6, centered at <code class="code">(5,7)</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\put(5,7){\circle{6}}
</pre></div>

<p>The available radii for <code class="code">\circle</code> are, in points, the even
numbers from 2 to 20, inclusive.  For <code class="code">\circle*</code> they are all the
integers from 1 to 15.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005coval">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cshortstack" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\shortstack</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005ccircle" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\circle</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005coval-1">8.19.10 <code class="code">\oval</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005coval"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\oval(<var class="var">width</var>,<var class="var">height</var>)
\oval(<var class="var">width</var>,<var class="var">height</var>)[<var class="var">portion</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a rectangle with rounded corners, hereinafter referred to as an
<em class="dfn">oval</em>.  The optional argument <var class="var">portion</var> allows you to produce
only half or a quarter of the oval.  For half an oval take <var class="var">portion</var>
to be one of these.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">t</code></dt>
<dd><p>top half
</p></dd>
<dt><code class="code">b</code></dt>
<dd><p>bottom half
</p></dd>
<dt><code class="code">r</code></dt>
<dd><p>right half
</p></dd>
<dt><code class="code">l</code></dt>
<dd><p>left half
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>Produce only one quarter of the oval by setting <var class="var">portion</var> to
<code class="code">tr</code>, <code class="code">br</code>, <code class="code">bl</code>, or <code class="code">tl</code>.
</p>
<p>This draws the top half of an oval that is 3 wide and 7 tall.  
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\put(5,7){\oval(3,7)[t]}
</pre></div>

<p>The (5,7) is the center of the entire oval, not just the center of the
top half.
</p>
<p>These shapes are not ellipses.  They are rectangles whose corners are
made with quarter circles.  These circles have a maximum radius of
20<span class="dmn">pt</span> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ccircle"><code class="code">\circle</code></a> for the sizes).  Thus large ovals are just
frames with a small amount of corner rounding.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cshortstack">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cvector" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\vector</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005coval" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\oval</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cshortstack-1">8.19.11 <code class="code">\shortstack</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cshortstack"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\shortstack[<var class="var">position</var>]{<var class="var">line 1</var> \\ ... }
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a vertical stack of objects.
</p>
<p>This labels the <em class="math">y</em> axis by writing the word &lsquo;<samp class="samp"><em class="math">y</em></samp>&rsquo; above
the word &lsquo;<samp class="samp">axis</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
\begin{picture}(5,2.5)(-0.75,0)
   \put(0,0){\vector(1,0){4}}   % x axis
   \put(0,0){\vector(0,1){2}}   % y
   \put(-0.2,2){\makebox(0,0)[r]{\shortstack[r]{$y$\\ axis}}}
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>For a short stack, the reference point is the lower left of the stack.
In the above example the <code class="code">\makebox</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>) puts
the stack flush right in a zero width box so in total the short stack
sits slightly to the left of the <em class="math">y</em>&nbsp;axis.
</p>
<p>The valid positions are:
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">r</code></dt>
<dd><p>Make objects flush right
</p></dd>
<dt><code class="code">l</code></dt>
<dd><p>Make objects flush left
</p></dd>
<dt><code class="code">c</code></dt>
<dd><p>Center objects (default)
</p></dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-_005cshortstack-objects_0029"></a>
<p>Separate objects into lines with <code class="code">\\</code>.  These stacks are short in
that, unlike in a <code class="code">tabular</code> or <code class="code">array</code> environment, here the
rows are not spaced out to be of even baseline skips.  Thus, in
<code class="code">\shortstack{X\\o\\o\\X}</code> the first and last rows are taller than
the middle two, and therefore the baseline skip between the two middle
rows is smaller than that between the third and last row.  You can
adjust row heights and depths either by putting in the usual interline
spacing with <code class="code">\shortstack{X\\ \strut o\\o\\X}</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cstrut"><code class="code">\strut</code></a>),
or explicitly, via an zero-width box <code class="code">\shortstack{X \\
\rule{0pt}{12pt} o\\o\\X}</code> or by using <code class="code">\\</code>&rsquo;s optional
argument <code class="code">\shortstack{X\\[2pt] o\\o\\X}</code>.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\shortstack</code> command is also available outside the
<code class="code">picture</code> environment.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cvector">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\makebox</code> (picture)</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cshortstack" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\shortstack</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cvector-1">8.19.12 <code class="code">\vector</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cvector"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\vector(<var class="var">x_run</var>,<var class="var">y_rise</var>){<var class="var">travel</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Draw a line ending in an arrow.  The slope of that line is: it
vertically rises <var class="var">y_rise</var> for every horizontal <var class="var">x_run</var>.  The
<var class="var">travel</var> is the total horizontal change&mdash;it is not the
length of the vector, it is the change in <em class="math">x</em>.  In the special case
of vertical vectors, if (<var class="var">x_run</var>,<var class="var">y_rise</var>)=(0,1), then
<var class="var">travel</var> gives the change in <em class="math">y</em>.
</p>
<p>For an example see <a class="ref" href="#picture"><code class="code">picture</code></a>.
</p>
<p>For elaboration on <var class="var">x_run</var> and <var class="var">y_rise</var> see <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cline"><code class="code">\line</code></a>.  As
there, the values of <var class="var">x_run</var> and <var class="var">y_rise</var> are limited.  For
<code class="code">\vector</code> you must chooses integers between &minus;4 and 4,
inclusive.  Also, the two you choose must be relatively prime.  Thus,
<code class="code">\vector(2,1){4}</code> is acceptable but <code class="code">\vector(4,2){4}</code> is
not (if you use the latter then you get a sequence of arrowheads).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\framebox</code> (picture)</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cvector" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\vector</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029-1">8.19.13 <code class="code">\makebox</code> (picture)</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmakebox-_0028for-picture_0029"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\makebox(<var class="var">rec-width</var>,<var class="var">rec-height</var>){<var class="var">text</var>}
\makebox(<var class="var">rec-width</var>,<var class="var">rec-height</var>)[<var class="var">position</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Make a box to hold <var class="var">text</var>.  This command fits with the
<code class="code">picture</code> environment, although you can use it outside of there,
because <var class="var">rec-width</var> and <var class="var">rec-height</var> are numbers specifying
distances in terms of the <code class="code">\unitlength</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#picture"><code class="code">picture</code></a>).  This
command is similar to the normal <code class="code">\makebox</code> command (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>) except here that you must specify the width and height.  This
command is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This makes a box of length 3.5 times <code class="code">\unitlength</code> and height 4
times <code class="code">\unitlength</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\put(1,2){\makebox(3.5,4){...}}
</pre></div>

<p>The optional argument <code class="code"><var class="var">position</var></code> specifies where in the box
the <var class="var">text</var> appears.  The default is to center it, both horizontally
and vertically.  To place it somewhere else, use a string with one or
two of these letters.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">t</code></dt>
<dd><p>Puts <var class="var">text</var> the top of the box.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">b</code></dt>
<dd><p>Put <var class="var">text</var> at the bottom.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">l</code></dt>
<dd><p>Put <var class="var">text</var> on the left.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">r</code></dt>
<dd><p>Put <var class="var">text</var> on the right.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cframe" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\frame</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\makebox</code> (picture)</a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029-1">8.19.14 <code class="code">\framebox</code> (picture)</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cframebox"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\framebox(<var class="var">rec-width</var>,<var class="var">rec-height</var>){<var class="var">text</var>}
\framebox(<var class="var">rec-width</var>,<var class="var">rec-height</var>)[<var class="var">position</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>This is the same as <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029"><code class="code">\makebox</code> (picture)</a> except that it puts a frame
around the outside of the box that it creates.  The reference point is
the bottom left corner of the frame.  This command fits with the
<code class="code">picture</code> environment, although you can use it outside of there,
because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the
<code class="code">\unitlength</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#picture"><code class="code">picture</code></a>).  This command is fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This example creates a frame 2.5&nbsp;inches by 3&nbsp;inches and puts
the text in the center.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\unitlength}{1in}
\framebox(2.5,3){test text}
</pre></div>

<p>The required arguments are that the rectangle has overall width
<var class="var">rect-width</var> units and height <var class="var">rect-height</var> units.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">position</var> specifies the position of
<var class="var">text</var>; see <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029"><code class="code">\makebox</code> (picture)</a> for the values that it can
take.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfboxrule-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfboxsep-1"></a>
<p>The rule has thickness <code class="code">\fboxrule</code> and there is a blank space
<code class="code">\fboxsep</code> between the frame and the contents of the box.
</p>
<p>For this command, you must specify the <var class="var">width</var> and <var class="var">height</var>.  If
you want to just put a frame around some contents whose dimension is
determined in some other way then either use <code class="code">\fbox</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox"><code class="code">\fbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\framebox</code></a>) or <code class="code">\frame</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cframe"><code class="code">\frame</code></a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cframe">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cdashbox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\dashbox</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\framebox</code> (picture)</a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cframe-1">8.19.15 <code class="code">\frame</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cframe"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\frame{<var class="var">contents</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Puts a rectangular frame around <var class="var">contents</var>.  The reference point
is the bottom left corner of the frame.  In contrast to
<code class="code">\framebox</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029"><code class="code">\framebox</code> (picture)</a>), this command puts no
extra space between the frame and the object.  It is fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cdashbox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cframe" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\frame</code></a>, Up: <a href="#picture" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">picture</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cdashbox-1">8.19.16 <code class="code">\dashbox</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cdashbox"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\dashbox{<var class="var">dash-len</var>}(<var class="var">rect-width</var>,<var class="var">rect-height</var>){<var class="var">text</var>}
\dashbox{<var class="var">dash-len</var>}(<var class="var">rect-width</var>,<var class="var">rect-height</var>)[<var class="var">position</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a dashed rectangle around <var class="var">text</var>.  This command fits with the
<code class="code">picture</code> environment, although you can use it outside of there,
because lengths are numbers specifying the distance in terms of the
<code class="code">\unitlength</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#picture"><code class="code">picture</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The required arguments are: dashes are <var class="var">dash-len</var> units long, with
the same length gap, and the rectangle has overall width
<var class="var">rect-width</var> units and height <var class="var">rect-height</var> units.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">position</var> specifies the position of
<var class="var">text</var>; see <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029"><code class="code">\makebox</code> (picture)</a> for the values that it can
take.
</p>
<p>This shows that you can use non-integer value for <var class="var">dash-len</var>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\put(0,0){\dashbox{0.1}(5,0.5){My hovercraft is full of eels.}}
</pre></div>

<p>Each dash will be <code class="code">0.1\unitlength</code> long, the box&rsquo;s width is
<code class="code">5\unitlength</code> and its height is <code class="code">0.5\unitlength</code>.
</p>
<p>As in that example, a dashed box looks best when <var class="var">rect-width</var> and
<var class="var">rect-height</var> are multiples of the <var class="var">dash-len</var>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="quotation-_0026-quote">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#tabbing" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">tabbing</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#picture" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">picture</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="quotation-_0026-quote-1">8.20 <code class="code">quotation</code> &amp; <code class="code">quote</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="quotation"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-quotation"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-quotation-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-quoted-text-with-paragraph-indentation_002c-displaying"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-displaying-quoted-text-with-paragraph-indentation"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph-indentations-in-quoted-text"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="quote"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-quote"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-quote-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-quoted-text-without-paragraph-indentation_002c-displaying"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-displaying-quoted-text-without-paragraph-indentation"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph-indentations-in-quoted-text_002c-omitting"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{quotation}
  <var class="var">text</var>
\end{quotation}
</pre></div>

<p>or 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{quote}
  <var class="var">text</var>
\end{quote}
</pre></div>

<p>Include a quotation. Both environments indent margins on both sides by
<code class="code">\leftmargin</code> and the text is right-justified.
</p>
<p>They differ in how they treat paragraphs. In the <code class="code">quotation</code>
environment, paragraphs are indented by 1.5<span class="dmn">em</span> and the space
between paragraphs is small, <code class="code">0pt plus 1pt</code>.  In the <code class="code">quote</code>
environment, paragraphs are not indented and there is vertical space
between paragraphs (it is the rubber length <code class="code">\parsep</code>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{quotation} \small\it
  Four score and seven years ago
  ... shall not perish from the earth.
  \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---Abraham Lincoln
\end{quotation}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="tabbing">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#table" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">table</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#quotation-_0026-quote" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">quotation</code> &amp; <code class="code">quote</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="tabbing-1">8.21 <code class="code">tabbing</code></h3>


<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-tabbing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tabbing-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tab-stops_002c-using"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lining-text-up-using-tab-stops"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-alignment-via-tabbing"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabbing}
<var class="var">row1col1</var> \= <var class="var">row1col2</var> ...  \\
<var class="var">row2col1</var> \&gt; <var class="var">row2col2</var> ...  \\
...
\end{tabbing}
</pre></div>

<p>Align text in columns, by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as
was done on a typewriter.  This is less often used than the environments
<code class="code">tabular</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#tabular"><code class="code">tabular</code></a>) or <code class="code">array</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#array"><code class="code">array</code></a>) because
in those the width of each column need not be constant and need not be
known in advance.
</p>
<p>This example has a first line where the tab stops are set to explicit
widths, ended by a <code class="code">\kill</code> command (which is described below):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabbing}
\hspace{1.2in}\=\hspace{1in}\=\kill
Ship                \&gt;Guns             \&gt;Year    \\ 
\textit{Sophie}     \&gt;14               \&gt;1800    \\
\textit{Polychrest} \&gt;24               \&gt;1803    \\
\textit{Lively}     \&gt;38               \&gt;1804    \\
\textit{Surprise}   \&gt;28               \&gt;1805    \\
\end{tabbing}
</pre></div>

<p>Both the <code class="code">tabbing</code> environment and the more widely-used
<code class="code">tabular</code> environment put text in columns.  The most important
distinction is that in <code class="code">tabular</code> the width of columns is
determined automatically by LaTeX, while in <code class="code">tabbing</code> the user
sets the tab stops.  Another distinction is that <code class="code">tabular</code>
generates a box, but <code class="code">tabbing</code> can be broken across pages.
Finally, while <code class="code">tabular</code> can be used in any mode, <code class="code">tabbing</code>
can be used only in paragraph mode and it always starts a new paragraph,
without indentation.
</p>
<p>Moreover, as shown in the example above, there is no need
to use the starred form of the <code class="code">\hspace</code> command at the beginning
of a tabbed row.  The right margin of the <code class="code">tabbing</code> environment is
the end of line, so that the width of the environment is
<code class="code">\linewidth</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-row_002c-tabbing"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">tabbing</code> environment contains a sequence of <em class="dfn">tabbed
rows</em>.  The first tabbed row begins immediately after
<code class="code">\begin{tabbing}</code> and each row ends with <code class="code">\\</code> or
<code class="code">\kill</code>. The last row may omit the <code class="code">\\</code> and end with just
<code class="code">\end{tabbing}</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-pattern_002c-current-tab-stops_002c-tabbing"></a>
<p>At any point the <code class="code">tabbing</code> environment has a <em class="dfn">current tab stop
pattern</em>, a sequence of <em class="math"><var class="var">n</var> &gt; 0</em> tab stops, numbered 0, 1,
etc.  These create <var class="var">n</var> corresponding columns.  Tab stop&nbsp;0 is
always the left margin, defined by the enclosing environment.  Tab
stop number&nbsp;<var class="var">i</var> is set if it is assigned a horizontal
position on the page.  Tab stop number&nbsp;<var class="var">i</var> can only be set if
all the stops 0, &hellip;, <em class="math">i-1</em> have already been set; normally
later stops are to the right of earlier ones.
</p>
<p>By default any text typeset in a <code class="code">tabbing</code> environment is typeset
ragged right and left-aligned on the current tab stop. Typesetting is
done in LR mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).
</p>
<p>The following commands can be used inside a <code class="code">tabbing</code> environment.
They are all fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005c_005c-_0028tabbing_0029'><span><code class="code">\\ <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_005c-_0028tabbing_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>End a tabbed line and typeset it.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_003d-_0028tabbing_0029'><span><code class="code">\= <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_003d-_0028tabbing_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Sets a tab stop at the current position.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_003e-_0028tabbing_0029'><span><code class="code">\&gt; <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_003e-_0028tabbing_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_003e"></a>
<p>Advances to the next tab stop.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_003c'><span><code class="code">\&lt;</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_003c'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing
the margin).  Can only be used at the start of the line.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_002b'><span><code class="code">\+</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_002b'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Moves the left margin of the next and all the
following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if
necessary.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_002d'><span><code class="code">\-</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_002d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Moves the left margin of the next and all the
following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if
necessary.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_0027-_0028tabbing_0029'><span><code class="code">\' <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_0027-_0028tabbing_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e.,
everything from the most recent <code class="code">\&gt;</code>, <code class="code">\&lt;</code>, <code class="code">\'</code>,
<code class="code">\\</code>, or <code class="code">\kill</code> command, to the previous column and aligned
to the right, flush against the current column&rsquo;s tab stop.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_0060-_0028tabbing_0029'><span><code class="code">\` <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_0060-_0028tabbing_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab
stop&nbsp;0.  However, it can&rsquo;t move text to the right of the last
column because there&rsquo;s no tab stop there.  The <code class="code">\`</code> command moves
all the text that follows it, up to the <code class="code">\\</code> or
<code class="code">\end{tabbing}</code> command that ends the line, to the right margin
of the <code class="code">tabbing</code> environment.  There must be no <code class="code">\&gt;</code> or
<code class="code">\'</code> command between the <code class="code">\`</code> and the <code class="code">\\</code> or
<code class="code">\end{tabbing}</code> command that ends the line.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ca-_0028tabbing_0029'><span><code class="code">\a <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ca-_0028tabbing_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ca_0027-_0028acute-accent-in-tabbing_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ca_0060-_0028grave-accent-in-tabbing_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ca_003d-_0028macron-accent-in-tabbing_0029"></a>
<p>In a <code class="code">tabbing</code> environment, the commands <code class="code">\=</code>, <code class="code">\'</code> and
<code class="code">\`</code> do not produce accents as usual (see <a class="pxref" href="#Accents">Accents</a>).  Instead,
use the commands <code class="code">\a=</code>, <code class="code">\a'</code> and <code class="code">\a`</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ckill'><span><code class="code">\kill</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ckill'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Sets tab stops without producing text.  Works just like <code class="code">\\</code> except
that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it.
Any <code class="code">\=</code>, <code class="code">\+</code> or <code class="code">\-</code> commands in that line remain in
effect.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpoptabs'><span><code class="code">\poptabs</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpoptabs'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpoptabs-1"></a>
<p>Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last <code class="code">\pushtabs</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpushtabs'><span><code class="code">\pushtabs</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpushtabs'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing
tab stop positions in the middle of a <code class="code">tabbing</code> environment.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctabbingsep'><span><code class="code">\tabbingsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctabbingsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Distance of the text moved by <code class="code">\'</code> to left of current tab stop.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>This example typesets a Pascal function:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabbing}
function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
         \&gt; begin \= \+ \\
               \&gt; if \= n &gt; 1 then \+ \\
                        fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
                  else \+ \\
                        fact := 1; \-\- \\
            end;\\
\end{tabbing}
</pre></div>

<p>The output looks like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">function fact(n : integer) : integer;
         begin
               if n &gt; 1 then
                  fact := n * fact(n-1);
               else
                  fact := 1;
         end;
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-algorithm2e"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-algorithm2e-package"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-listings"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-listings-package"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-minted"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-minted-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-fancyvrb"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fancyvrb-package"></a>

<p>This example is just for illustration of the environment.  To actually
typeset computer code in typewriter like this, a verbatim environment
(see <a class="pxref" href="#verbatim"><code class="code">verbatim</code></a>) would normally be best.  For pretty-printed code,
there are quite a few packages, including <code class="code">algorithm2e</code>,
<code class="code">fancyvrb</code>, <code class="code">listings</code>, and <code class="code">minted</code>.
</p>
        
<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="table">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#tabular" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">tabular</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#tabbing" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">tabbing</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="table-1">8.22 <code class="code">table</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-table"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-table-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tables_002c-creating"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-creating-tables"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{table}[<var class="var">placement</var>]
  <var class="var">table body</var>
  \caption[<var class="var">loftitle</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}  % optional
  \label{<var class="var">label}</var>              % also optional
\end{table}
</pre></div>

<p>A class of floats (see <a class="pxref" href="#Floats">Floats</a>).  They cannot be split across pages
and so they are not typeset in sequence with the normal text but instead
are floated to a convenient place, such as the top of a following page.
</p>
<p>This example <code class="code">table</code> environment contains a <code class="code">tabular</code>
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{table}
  \centering\small
  \begin{tabular}{ll}
    \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Author}}
      &amp;\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textit{Piece}}  \\ \hline
    Bach            &amp;Cello Suite Number 1  \\
    Beethoven       &amp;Cello Sonata Number 3 \\
    Brahms          &amp;Cello Sonata Number 1
  \end{tabular}
  \caption{Top cello pieces}
  \label{tab:cello}
\end{table}
</pre></div>

<p>but you can put many different kinds of content in a <code class="code">table</code>:
the <var class="var">table body</var> may contain text, LaTeX commands, graphics, etc. It is
typeset in a <code class="code">parbox</code> of width <code class="code">\textwidth</code>.
</p>
<p>For the possible values of <var class="var">placement</var> and their effect on the 
float placement algorithm, see <a class="ref" href="#Floats">Floats</a>.
</p>
<p>The label is optional; it is used for cross references (see <a class="pxref" href="#Cross-references">Cross references</a>).  
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccaption-2"></a>
The <code class="code">\caption</code> command is also optional.  It specifies caption
text <var class="var">title</var> for the table (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ccaption"><code class="code">\caption</code></a>).  By default it is
numbered.  If its optional <var class="var">lottitle</var> is present then that text is
used in the list of tables instead of <var class="var">title</var> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>).
</p>
<p>In this example the table and caption will float to the bottom of a page,
unless it is pushed to a float page at the end.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{table}[b]
  \centering
  \begin{tabular}{r|p{2in}} \hline
    One &amp;The loneliest number \\
    Two &amp;Can be as sad as one.
         It's the loneliest number since the number one.
  \end{tabular}
  \caption{Cardinal virtues}
  \label{tab:CardinalVirtues}
\end{table}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="tabular">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#thebibliography" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#table" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">table</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="tabular-1">8.23 <code class="code">tabular</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-tabular"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tabular-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lines-in-tables"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lining-text-up-in-tables"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}[<var class="var">pos</var>]{<var class="var">cols</var>}
  <var class="var">column 1 entry</var>  &amp;<var class="var">column 2 entry</var>  ...  &amp;<var class="var">column n entry</var> \\
  ...
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular*}{<var class="var">width</var>}[<var class="var">pos</var>]{<var class="var">cols</var>}
  <var class="var">column 1 entry</var>  &amp;<var class="var">column 2 entry</var>  ...  &amp;<var class="var">column n entry</var> \\
  ...
\end{tabular*}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a table, a box consisting of a sequence of horizontal rows.
Each row consists of items that are aligned vertically in columns.  This
illustrates many of the features.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{l|l}
  \textit{Player name}  &amp;\textit{Career home runs}  \\ 
  \hline
  Hank Aaron  &amp;755 \\
  Babe Ruth   &amp;714
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>The output will have two left-aligned columns with a vertical bar
between them.  This is specified in <code class="code">tabular</code>&rsquo;s argument
<code class="code">{l|l}</code>.
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_0026-_0028for-table-cells_0029"></a>
Put the entries into different columns by separating them with an
ampersand, <code class="code">&amp;</code>.  The end of each row is marked with a double
backslash, <code class="code">\\</code>.  Put a horizontal rule below a row, after a double
backslash, with <code class="code">\hline</code>.
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-tabular_0029"></a>
After the last row the <code class="code">\\</code> is optional, unless an <code class="code">\hline</code>
command follows to put a rule below the table.
</p>
<p>The required and optional arguments to <code class="code">tabular</code> consist of:
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><var class="var">pos</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional.  Specifies the table&rsquo;s vertical position.  The default is to
align the table so its vertical center matches the baseline of the
surrounding text.  There are two other possible alignments: <code class="code">t</code>
aligns the table so its top row matches the baseline of the surrounding
text, and <code class="code">b</code> aligns on the bottom row.
</p>
<p>This only has an effect if there is other text.  In the common case of a
<code class="code">tabular</code> alone in a <code class="code">center</code> environment this option makes
no difference.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">cols</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required.  Specifies the formatting of columns.  It consists of a
sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the types of
column and intercolumn material.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">l</code></dt>
<dd><p>A column of left-aligned items.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">r</code></dt>
<dd><p>A column of right-aligned items.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">c</code></dt>
<dd><p>A column of centered items.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">|</code></dt>
<dd><p>A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">@{<var class="var">text or space</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><p>Insert <var class="var">text or space</var> at this location in every row.  The <var class="var">text
or space</var> material is typeset in LR mode.  This text is fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>If between two column specifiers there is no @-expression then
LaTeX&rsquo;s <code class="code">book</code>, <code class="code">article</code>, and <code class="code">report</code> classes will
put on either side of each column a space of width <code class="code">\tabcolsep</code>,
which by default is 6<span class="dmn">pt</span>.  That is, by default adjacent columns are
separated by 12<span class="dmn">pt</span> (so <code class="code">\tabcolsep</code> is misleadingly named
since it is only half of the separation between tabular columns).  In
addition, a space of <code class="code">\tabcolsep</code> also comes before the first
column and after the final column, unless you put a <code class="code">@{...}</code>
there.
</p>
<p>If you override the default and use an @-expression then LaTeX does
not insert <code class="code">\tabcolsep</code> so you must insert any desired space
yourself, as in <code class="code">@{\hspace{1em}}</code>.
</p>
<p>An empty expression <code class="code">@{}</code> will eliminate the space. In
particular, sometimes you want to eliminate the space before the first
column or after the last one, as in the example below where the
tabular lines need to lie on the left margin.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{flushleft}
  \begin{tabular}{@{}l}
    ...
  \end{tabular}
\end{flushleft}
</pre></div>

<p>The next example shows text, a decimal point between the columns,
arranged so the numbers in the table are aligned on it.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{r@{$.$}l}
  $3$ &amp;$14$  \\
  $9$ &amp;$80665$
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cextracolsep"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cextracolsep"></a>
<p>An <code class="code">\extracolsep{<var class="var">wd</var>}</code> command in an @-expression causes an
extra space of width <var class="var">wd</var> to appear to the left of all subsequent
columns, until countermanded by another <code class="code">\extracolsep</code>.  Unlike
ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an
@-expression.  An <code class="code">\extracolsep</code> command can be used only in an
@-expression in the <code class="code">cols</code> argument.  Below, LaTeX inserts the
right amount of intercolumn space to make the entire table 4 inches
wide.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular*}{4in}{l@{\extracolsep{\fill}}l}
  Seven times down, eight times up \ldots 
  &amp;such is life!
\end{tabular*}
</pre></div>

<p>To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given
column, load the <code class="code">array</code> package and use the <code class="code">&gt;{...}</code>
specifier.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">p{<var class="var">wd</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><p>Each item in the column is typeset in a parbox of width <var class="var">wd</var>, as if
it were the argument of a <code class="code">\parbox[t]{wd}{...}</code> command.
</p>
<p>A line break double backslash <code class="code">\\</code> may not appear in the item,
except inside an environment like <code class="code">minipage</code>, <code class="code">array</code>, or
<code class="code">tabular</code>, or inside an explicit <code class="code">\parbox</code>, or in the scope of
a <code class="code">\centering</code>, <code class="code">\raggedright</code>, or <code class="code">\raggedleft</code>
declaration (when used in a <code class="code">p</code>-column element these declarations
must appear inside braces, as with <code class="code">{\centering .. \\
..}</code>). Otherwise LaTeX will misinterpret the double backslash as
ending the tabular row.  Instead, to get a line break in there use
<code class="code">\newline</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewline"><code class="code">\newline</code></a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">*{<var class="var">num</var>}{<var class="var">cols</var>}</code></dt>
<dd><p>Equivalent to <var class="var">num</var> copies of <var class="var">cols</var>, where <var class="var">num</var> is a
positive integer and <var class="var">cols</var> is a list of specifiers.  Thus the
specifier <code class="code">\begin{tabular}{|*{3}{l|r}|}</code> is equivalent to
the specifier <code class="code">\begin{tabular}{|l|rl|rl|r|}</code>.  Note that
<var class="var">cols</var> may contain another <code class="code">*</code>-expression.
</p> 
</dd>
</dl>

</dd>
<dt><var class="var">width</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required for <code class="code">tabular*</code>, not allowed for <code class="code">tabular</code>. Specifies
the width of the <code class="code">tabular*</code> environment.  The space between columns
should be rubber, as with <code class="code">@{\extracolsep{\fill}}</code>, to allow
the table to stretch or shrink to make the specified width, or else you
are likely to get the <code class="code">Underfull \hbox (badness 10000) in alignment
...</code> warning.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Parameters that control formatting:
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005carrayrulewidth'><span><code class="code">\arrayrulewidth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005carrayrulewidth'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="tabular-arrayrulewidth"></a><p>A length that is the thickness of the rule created by <code class="code">|</code>,
<code class="code">\hline</code>, and <code class="code">\vline</code> in the <code class="code">tabular</code> and <code class="code">array</code>
environments.  The default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">.4pt</samp>&rsquo;. Change it as in
<code class="code">\setlength{\arrayrulewidth}{0.8pt}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005carraystretch'><span><code class="code">\arraystretch</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005carraystretch'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="tabular-arraystrech"></a><p>A factor by which the spacing between rows in the <code class="code">tabular</code> and
<code class="code">array</code> environments is multiplied.  The default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1</samp>&rsquo;, for
no scaling.  Change it as <code class="code">\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.2}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdoublerulesep'><span><code class="code">\doublerulesep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdoublerulesep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="tabular-doublerulesep"></a><p>A length that is the distance between the vertical rules produced by the
<code class="code">||</code> specifier.  The default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">2pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctabcolsep'><span><code class="code">\tabcolsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctabcolsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="tabular-tabcolsep"></a><p>A length that is half of the space between columns. The default is
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">6pt</samp>&rsquo;.  Change it with <code class="code">\setlength</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>The following commands can be used inside the body of a <code class="code">tabular</code>
environment, the first two inside an entry and the second two between
lines:
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cmulticolumn" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\multicolumn</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cvline" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\vline</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005ccline" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\cline</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005chline" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\hline</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cmulticolumn">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cvline" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\vline</code></a>, Up: <a href="#tabular" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">tabular</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cmulticolumn-1">8.23.1 <code class="code">\multicolumn</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmulticolumn"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\multicolumn{<var class="var">numcols</var>}{<var class="var">cols</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Make an <code class="code">array</code> or <code class="code">tabular</code> entry that spans several columns.
The first argument <var class="var">numcols</var> gives the number of columns to span.
The second argument <var class="var">cols</var> specifies the formatting of the entry,
with <code class="code">c</code> for centered, <code class="code">l</code> for flush left, or <code class="code">r</code> for
flush right.  The third argument <var class="var">text</var> gives the contents of that
entry.
</p>
<p>In this example, in the first row, the second and third columns are
spanned by the single heading &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Name</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{lccl} 
  \textit{ID}       &amp;\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textit{Name}} &amp;\textit{Age} \\
  \hline  
  978-0-393-03701-2 &amp;O'Brian &amp;Patrick                  &amp;55           \\
    ...
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>What counts as a column is:&nbsp;the column format specifier for the
<code class="code">array</code> or <code class="code">tabular</code> environment is broken into parts, where
each part (except the first) begins with <code class="code">l</code>, <code class="code">c</code>, <code class="code">r</code>,
or&nbsp;<code class="code">p</code>.  So from <code class="code">\begin{tabular}{|r|ccp{1.5in}|}</code>
the parts are <code class="code">|r|</code>, <code class="code">c</code>, <code class="code">c</code>,
and&nbsp;<code class="code">p{1.5in}|</code>.
</p>
<p>The <var class="var">cols</var> argument overrides the <code class="code">array</code> or <code class="code">tabular</code>
environment&rsquo;s intercolumn area default adjoining this multicolumn
entry. To affect that area, this argument can contain vertical bars
<code class="code">|</code> indicating the placement of vertical rules, and <code class="code">@{...}</code>
expressions.  Thus if <var class="var">cols</var> is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">|c|</samp>&rsquo; then this multicolumn
entry will be centered and a vertical rule will come in the intercolumn
area before it and after it.  This table details the exact behavior.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{|cc|c|c|}
  \multicolumn{1}{r}{w}       % entry one
    &amp;\multicolumn{1}{|r|}{x}  % entry two 
    &amp;\multicolumn{1}{|r}{y}   % entry three
    &amp;z                        % entry four
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>Before the first entry the output will not have a vertical rule because
the <code class="code">\multicolumn</code> has the <var class="var">cols</var> specifier &lsquo;<samp class="samp">r</samp>&rsquo; with no
initial vertical bar.  Between entry one and entry two there will be a
vertical rule; although the first <var class="var">cols</var> does not have an ending
vertical bar, the second <var class="var">cols</var> does have a starting one.  Between
entry two and entry three there is a single vertical rule; despite that
the <var class="var">cols</var> in both of the surrounding <code class="code">multicolumn</code>&rsquo;s call for
a vertical rule, you only get one rule.  Between entry three and entry
four there is no vertical rule; the default calls for one but the
<var class="var">cols</var> in the entry three <code class="code">\multicolumn</code> leaves it out, and
that takes precedence.  Finally, following entry four there is a
vertical rule because of the default.
</p>
<p>The number of spanned columns <var class="var">numcols</var> can be 1.  Besides giving
the ability to change the horizontal alignment, this also is useful to
override for one row the <code class="code">tabular</code> definition&rsquo;s default intercolumn
area specification, including the placement of vertical rules.
</p>
<p>In the example below, in the <code class="code">tabular</code> definition the first column
is specified to default to left justified but in the first row the entry
is centered with <code class="code">\multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}</code>.
Also in the first row, the second and third columns are spanned by a
single entry with <code class="code">\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}}</code>,
overriding the specification to center those two columns on the page
range en-dash.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{l|r@{--}l} 
  \multicolumn{1}{c}{\textsc{Period}}  
    &amp;\multicolumn{2}{c}{\textsc{Span}} \\ \hline
  Baroque          &amp;1600           &amp;1760         \\
  Classical        &amp;1730           &amp;1820         \\
  Romantic         &amp;1780           &amp;1910         \\
  Impressionistic  &amp;1875           &amp;1925
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>Although the <code class="code">tabular</code> specification by default puts a vertical
rule between the first and second columns, no such vertical rule appears
in the first row here.  That&rsquo;s because there is no vertical bar in the
<var class="var">cols</var> part of the first row&rsquo;s first <code class="code">\multicolumn</code> command.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cvline">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005ccline" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\cline</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cmulticolumn" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\multicolumn</code></a>, Up: <a href="#tabular" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">tabular</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cvline-1">8.23.2 <code class="code">\vline</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cvline"></a>
<p>Draw a vertical line in a <code class="code">tabular</code> or <code class="code">array</code> environment
extending the full height and depth of an entry&rsquo;s row.  Can also be
used in an @-expression, although its synonym vertical
bar&nbsp;<code class="code">|</code> is more common.  This command is rarely used in the
body of a table; typically a table&rsquo;s vertical lines are specified in
<code class="code">tabular</code>&rsquo;s <var class="var">cols</var> argument and overridden as needed with
<code class="code">\multicolumn</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#tabular"><code class="code">tabular</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The example below illustrates some pitfalls.  In the first row&rsquo;s second
entry the <code class="code">\hfill</code> moves the <code class="code">\vline</code> to the left edge of the
cell.  But that is different than putting it halfway between the two
columns, so between the first and second columns there are two vertical
rules, with the one from the <code class="code">{c|cc}</code> specifier coming before the
one produced by the <code class="code">\vline\hfill</code>.  In contrast, the first row&rsquo;s
third entry shows the usual way to put a vertical bar between two
columns.  In the second row, the <code class="code">ghi</code> is the widest entry in its
column so in the <code class="code">\vline\hfill</code> the <code class="code">\hfill</code> has no effect and
the vertical line in that entry appears immediately next to the
<code class="code">g</code>, with no whitespace.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{c|cc}
  x   &amp;\vline\hfill y   &amp;\multicolumn{1}{|r}{z} \\ % row 1  
  abc &amp;def &amp;\vline\hfill ghi                       % row 2  
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005ccline">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005chline" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\hline</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cvline" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\vline</code></a>, Up: <a href="#tabular" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">tabular</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005ccline-1">8.23.3 <code class="code">\cline</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccline"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\cline{<var class="var">i</var>-<var class="var">j</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>In an <code class="code">array</code> or <code class="code">tabular</code> environment, draw a horizontal rule
beginning in column&nbsp;<var class="var">i</var> and ending in column&nbsp;<var class="var">j</var>. The
dash, <code class="code">-</code>, must appear in the mandatory argument. To span a single
column use the number twice, as with <code class="code">\cline{2-2}</code>.
</p>
<p>This example puts two horizontal lines between the first and second
rows, one line in the first column only, and the other spanning the
third and fourth columns.  The two lines are side-by-side, at the same
height.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{llrr} 
  a &amp;b &amp;c &amp;d \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-4} 
  e &amp;f &amp;g &amp;h 
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005chline">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005ccline" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\cline</code></a>, Up: <a href="#tabular" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">tabular</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005chline-1">8.23.4 <code class="code">\hline</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005chline"></a>

<p>Draw a horizontal line the width of the enclosing <code class="code">tabular</code> or
<code class="code">array</code> environment.  It&rsquo;s most commonly used to draw a line at the
top, bottom, and between the rows of a table.
</p>
<p>In this example the top of the table has two horizontal rules, one above
the other, that span both columns.  The bottom of the table has a single
rule spanning both columns.  Because of the <code class="code">\hline</code>, the
<code class="code">tabular</code> second row&rsquo;s line ending double backslash&nbsp;<code class="code">\\</code>
is required.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{ll} \hline\hline
  Baseball   &amp;Red Sox  \\
  Basketball &amp;Celtics  \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="thebibliography">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#theorem" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">theorem</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#tabular" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">tabular</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="thebibliography-1">8.24 <code class="code">thebibliography</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-thebibliography"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-thebibliography-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bibliography_002c-creating-_0028manually_0029"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{thebibliography}{<var class="var">widest-label</var>}
  \bibitem[<var class="var">label</var>]{<var class="var">cite_key}</var>
  ...
\end{thebibliography}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a bibliography or reference list.  There are two ways to produce
bibliographic lists.  This environment is suitable when you have only a
few references and can maintain the list by hand.  See <a class="xref" href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a>,
for a more sophisticated approach.
</p>
<p>This shows the environment with two entries.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">This work is based on \cite{latexdps}.
Together they are \cite{latexdps, texbook}.
  ...
\begin{thebibliography}{9}
\bibitem{latexdps} 
  Leslie Lamport. 
  \textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}. 
  Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993.
\bibitem{texbook} 
  Donald Ervin Knuth. 
  \textit{The \TeX book}. 
  Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
\end{thebibliography}
</pre></div>

<p>This styles the first reference as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">[1] Leslie ...</samp>&rsquo;, and so that
<code class="code">... based on \cite{latexdps}</code> produces the matching
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">... based on [1]</samp>&rsquo;.  The second <code class="code">\cite</code> produces &lsquo;<samp class="samp">[1,
2]</samp>&rsquo;.  You must compile the document twice to resolve these references.
</p>
<p>The mandatory argument <var class="var">widest-label</var> is text that, when typeset, is
as wide as the widest item label produced by the <code class="code">\bibitem</code>
commands.  The tradition is to use <code class="code">9</code> for bibliographies with less
than 10 references, <code class="code">99</code> for ones with less than 100, etc.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbibname"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005crefname"></a>
<p>The bibliographic list is headed by a title such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Bibliography</samp>&rsquo;.
To change it there are two cases.  In the <samp class="file">book</samp> and <samp class="file">report</samp>
classes, where the top level sectioning is <code class="code">\chapter</code> and the
default title is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Bibliography</samp>&rsquo;, that title is in the macro
<code class="code">\bibname</code>.  For <samp class="file">article</samp>, where the class&rsquo;s top level
sectioning is <code class="code">\section</code> and the default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">References</samp>&rsquo;, the
title is in macro <code class="code">\refname</code>.  Change it by redefining the command,
as with <code class="code">\renewcommand{\refname}{Cited references}</code>, after
<code class="code">\begin{document}</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-babel-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-babel-package-1"></a>

<p>Language support packages such as <code class="code">babel</code> will automatically
redefine <code class="code">\refname</code> or <code class="code">\bibname</code> to fit the selected
language.
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#list"><code class="code">list</code></a>, for the list layout control parameters.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cbibitem" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\bibitem</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005ccite" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\cite</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnocite" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\nocite</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#Using-BibTeX" accesskey="4">Using BibTeX</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cbibitem">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005ccite" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\cite</code></a>, Up: <a href="#thebibliography" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cbibitem-1">8.24.1 <code class="code">\bibitem</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbibitem"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\bibitem{<var class="var">cite_key</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\bibitem[<var class="var">label</var>]{<var class="var">cite_key</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Generate an entry labeled by default by a number generated using the
<code class="code">enumi</code> counter.  The <em class="dfn">citation key</em>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-citation-key"></a>
<var class="var">cite_key</var> can be any string of
letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols (but not comma).
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#thebibliography"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a>, for an example.
</p>
<p>When provided, the optional <var class="var">label</var> becomes the entry label and the
<code class="code">enumi</code> counter is not incremented.  With this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{thebibliography}
\bibitem[Lamport 1993]{latexdps} 
  Leslie Lamport. 
  \textit{\LaTeX{}: a document preparation system}. 
  Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1993.
\bibitem{texbook} 
  Donald Ervin Knuth. 
  \textit{The \TeX book}. 
  Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
\end{thebibliography}
</pre></div>

<p>the first entry will be styled as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">[Lamport 1993] Leslie ...</samp>&rsquo;  (The
amount of horizontal space that LaTeX leaves for the label depends on
the <var class="var">widest-label</var> argument of the <code class="code">thebibliography</code>
environment; see <a class="ref" href="#thebibliography"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a>.)  Similarly, <code class="code">... based on
\cite{latexdps}</code> will produce &lsquo;<samp class="samp">... based on [Lamport 1994]</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>If you mix <code class="code">\bibitem</code> entries having a <var class="var">label</var> with those that
do not then LaTeX will number the unlabelled ones sequentially.  In
the example above the <code class="code">texbook</code> entry will appear as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">[1]
Donald ...</samp>&rsquo;, despite that it is the second entry.
</p>
<p>If you use the same <var class="var">cite_key</var> twice then you get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX
Warning: There were multiply-defined labels</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>Under the hood, LaTeX remembers the <var class="var">cite_key</var> and <var class="var">label</var>
information because <code class="code">\bibitem</code> writes it to the auxiliary file
<samp class="file"><var class="var">jobname</var>.aux</samp> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Jobname">Jobname</a>).  For instance, the above
example causes the two <code class="code">\bibcite{latexdps}{Lamport, 1993}</code> and
<code class="code">\bibcite{texbook}{1}</code> to appear in that file.  The <samp class="file">.aux</samp>
file is read by the <code class="code">\begin{document}</code> command and then the
information is available for <code class="code">\cite</code> commands.  This explains why
you need to run LaTeX twice to resolve references: once to write it
out and once to read it in.
</p>
<p>Because of this two-pass algorithm, when you add a <code class="code">\bibitem</code> or
change its <var class="var">cite_key</var> you may get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Warning: Label(s) may
have changed. Rerun to get cross-references right</samp>&rsquo;.  Fix it by
recompiling.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005ccite">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnocite" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\nocite</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cbibitem" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\bibitem</code></a>, Up: <a href="#thebibliography" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005ccite-1">8.24.2 <code class="code">\cite</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccite"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\cite{<var class="var">keys</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\cite[<var class="var">subcite</var>]{<var class="var">keys</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Generate as output a citation to the references associated with
<var class="var">keys</var>.  The mandatory <var class="var">keys</var> is a citation key, or a
comma-separated list of citation keys (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cbibitem"><code class="code">\bibitem</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The ultimate source is \cite{texbook}.
  ...
\begin{thebibliography}
\bibitem{texbook} 
  Donald Ervin Knuth. 
  \textit{The \TeX book}. 
  Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1983.
\end{thebibliography}
</pre></div>

<p>produces output like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">... source is [1]</samp>&rsquo;.  You can change the
appearance of the citation and of the reference by using bibliography
styles if you generate automatically the <code class="code">thebibliography</code>
environment.  More information in <a class="ref" href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a>.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">subcite</var> is appended to the citation.  For
example, <code class="code">See 14.3 in \cite[p.~314]{texbook}</code> might produce
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">See 14.3 in [1, p.&nbsp;314]</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>In addition to what appears in the output, <code class="code">\cite</code> writes
information to the auxiliary file <samp class="file"><var class="var">jobname</var>.aux</samp>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Jobname">Jobname</a>).  For instance, <code class="code">\cite{latexdps}</code> writes
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">\citation{latexdps}</samp>&rsquo; to that file.  This information is used by
BibTeX to include in your reference list only those works that you
have actually cited; see <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cnocite"><code class="code">\nocite</code></a> also.
</p>
<p>If <var class="var">keys</var> is not in your bibliography information then you get
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Warning: There were undefined references</samp>&rsquo;, and in the output
the citation shows as a boldface question mark between square brackets.
There are two possible causes.  If you have mistyped something, as in
<code class="code">\cite{texbok}</code> then you need to correct the spelling.  On the
other hand, if you have just added or modified the bibliographic
information and so changed the <samp class="file">.aux</samp> file (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cbibitem"><code class="code">\bibitem</code></a>) then
the fix may be to run LaTeX again.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnocite">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Using-BibTeX" accesskey="n" rel="next">Using BibTeX</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005ccite" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\cite</code></a>, Up: <a href="#thebibliography" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cnocite-1">8.24.3 <code class="code">\nocite</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnocite"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"><code class="code">\nocite{<var class="var">keys</var>}</code>
</pre></div>

<p>Produces no output but writes <var class="var">keys</var> to the auxiliary file
<samp class="file"><var class="var">jobname</var>.aux</samp> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Jobname">Jobname</a>).
</p>
<p>The mandatory argument <var class="var">keys</var> is a comma-separated list of one or
more citation keys (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cbibitem"><code class="code">\bibitem</code></a>).  This information is used by
BibTeX to include these works in your reference list even though you
have not explicitly cited them (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ccite"><code class="code">\cite</code></a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Using-BibTeX">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnocite" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\nocite</code></a>, Up: <a href="#thebibliography" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Using-BibTeX-1">8.24.4 Using BibTeX</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-using-BibTeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bibTeX_002c-using"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bibliography_002c-creating-_0028automatically_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbibliographystyle"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbibliography"></a>

<p>As described in <code class="code">thebibliography</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#thebibliography"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a>), a
sophisticated approach to managing bibliographies is provided by the
BibTeX program.  This is only an introduction; see the full
documentation on CTAN (see <a class="pxref" href="#CTAN">CTAN: The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network</a>).
</p>
<p>With BibTeX, you don&rsquo;t use the <code class="code">thebibliography</code> environment
directly (see <a class="pxref" href="#thebibliography"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a>). Instead, include these lines:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\bibliographystyle{<var class="var">bibstyle</var>}
\bibliography{<var class="var">bibfile1</var>, <var class="var">bibfile2</var>, ...}
</pre></div>

<p>The <var class="var">bibstyle</var> refers to a file <samp class="file"><var class="var">bibstyle</var>.bst</samp>, which
defines how your citations will look.  The standard <var class="var">bibstyle</var>&rsquo;s
distributed with BibTeX are:
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">alpha</code></dt>
<dd><p>Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication.
The bibliographic items are sorted alphabetically.
</p></dd>
<dt><code class="code">plain</code></dt>
<dd><p>Labels are integers.
Sort the  bibliographic items alphabetically.
</p></dd>
<dt><code class="code">unsrt</code></dt>
<dd><p>Like <code class="code">plain</code>, but entries are in order of citation.
</p></dd>
<dt><code class="code">abbrv</code></dt>
<dd><p>Like <code class="code">plain</code>, but more compact labels.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>Many, many other BibTeX style files exist,
tailored to the demands of various publications.  See the CTAN topic
<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/topic/bibtex-sty">https://ctan.org/topic/bibtex-sty</a>.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\bibliography</code> command is what actually produces the
bibliography.  Its argument is a comma-separated list, referring to
files named <samp class="file"><var class="var">bibfile1</var>.bib</samp>, <samp class="file"><var class="var">bibfile2</var>.bib</samp>,
&hellip; These contain your database in BibTeX format.  This shows a
typical couple of entries in that format.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">@book{texbook,
  title     = {The {{\TeX}}book},
  author    = {D.E. Knuth},
  isbn      = {0201134489},
  series    = {Computers \&amp; typesetting},
  year      = {1983},
  publisher = {Addison-Wesley}
}
@book{sexbook,
    author    = {W.H. Masters and V.E. Johnson},
    title     = {Human Sexual Response},
    year      = {1966},
    publisher = {Bantam Books}
}
</pre></div>

<p>Only the bibliographic entries referred to via <code class="code">\cite</code> and
<code class="code">\nocite</code> will be listed in the document&rsquo;s bibliography.  Thus you
can keep all your sources together in one file, or a small number of
files, and rely on BibTeX to include in this document only those that
you used.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002a_002c-to-_005cnocite-all-keys"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnocite-_007b_002a_007d_002c-for-all-keys"></a>
<p>With BibTeX, the <var class="var">keys</var> argument to <code class="code">\nocite</code> can also be
the single character &lsquo;<samp class="samp">*</samp>&rsquo;.  This means to implicitly cite all
entries from all given bibliographies.
</p>

<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages" accesskey="1">BibTeX error messages</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsubsection-level-extent" id="BibTeX-error-messages">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Up: <a href="#Using-BibTeX" accesskey="u" rel="up">Using BibTeX</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsubsection" id="BibTeX-error-messages-1">8.24.4.1 BibTeX error messages</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-BibTeX-error-messages"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-error-messages_002c-from-BibTeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002eaux-file-and-BibTeX-commands"></a>

<p>If you forget to use <code class="code">\bibliography</code> or <code class="code">\bibliographystyle</code>
in your document (or, less likely, any <code class="code">\cite</code> or <code class="code">\nocite</code>
command), BibTeX will issue an error message.  Because BibTeX
can be used with any program, not just LaTeX, the error messages
refer to the internal commands read by BibTeX (from the <samp class="file">.aux</samp>
file), rather than the user-level commands described above.
</p>
<p>Here is a table showing internal commands mentioned in the BibTeX
errors, and the corresponding user-level commands.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cbibdata'><span><code class="code">\bibdata</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbibdata'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbibliography-and-internal-_005cbibdata"></a>
<p><code class="code">\bibliography</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbibstyle'><span><code class="code">\bibstyle</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbibstyle'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbibliographystyle-and-internal-_005cbibstyle"></a>
<p><code class="code">\bibliographystyle</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccitation'><span><code class="code">\citation</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccitation'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccite-and-internal-_005ccitation"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnocite-and-internal-_005ccitation"></a>
<p><code class="code">\cite</code>, <code class="code">\nocite</code>
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>For example, if your document has no <code class="code">\bibliographystyle</code>
command, BibTeX complains as follows:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">I found no \bibstyle command---while reading file <var class="var">document</var>.aux
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="theorem">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#titlepage" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">titlepage</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#thebibliography" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">thebibliography</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="theorem-1">8.25 <code class="code">theorem</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-theorem"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-theorem-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-theorems_002c-typesetting"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{theorem}
  <var class="var">theorem body</var>
\end{theorem}
</pre></div>

<p>Produces &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Theorem <var class="var">n</var></samp>&rsquo; in boldface followed by <var class="var">theorem
body</var> in italics.  The numbering possibilities for <var class="var">n</var> are described under
<code class="code">\newtheorem</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem"><code class="code">\newtheorem</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newtheorem{lem}{Lemma}      % in preamble
\newtheorem{thm}{Theorem}    
  ...
\begin{lem}                  % in  document body
  text of lemma
\end{lem}

The next result follows immediately.
\begin{thm}[Gauss]   %  put `Gauss' in parens after theorem head
  text of theorem
\end{thm}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-4"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-4"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsthm"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsthm-package"></a>

<p>Most new documents use the packages <code class="code">amsthm</code> and <code class="code">amsmath</code>
from the American Mathematical Society.  Among other things these
packages include a large number of options for theorem environments,
such as styling options.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="titlepage">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#verbatim" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">verbatim</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#theorem" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">theorem</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="titlepage-1">8.26 <code class="code">titlepage</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-titlepage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-titlepage-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-making-a-title-page"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-title-pages_002c-creating"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{titlepage}
  ... text and spacing ...
\end{titlepage}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a title page, a page with no printed page number or heading and
with succeeding pages numbered starting with page one.
</p>
<p>In this example all formatting, including vertical spacing, is left to
the author.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{titlepage}
\vspace*{\stretch{1}}
\begin{center}
  {\huge\bfseries Thesis \\[1ex] 
                  title}                  \\[6.5ex]
  {\large\bfseries Author name}           \\
  \vspace{4ex}
  Thesis  submitted to                    \\[5pt]
  \textit{University name}                \\[2cm]
  in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of \\[2cm]
  \textsc{\Large Doctor of Philosophy}    \\[2ex]
  \textsc{\large Mathematics}             \\[12ex]
  \vfill
  Department of Mathematics               \\
  Address                                 \\
  \vfill
  \today
\end{center}
\vspace{\stretch{2}}
\end{titlepage}
</pre></div>

<p>To instead produce a standard title page without a <code class="code">titlepage</code>
environment, use <code class="code">\maketitle</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmaketitle"><code class="code">\maketitle</code></a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="verbatim">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#verse" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">verse</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#titlepage" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">titlepage</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="verbatim-1">8.27 <code class="code">verbatim</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-verbatim"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-verbatim-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-verbatim-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-simulating-typed-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-typed-text_002c-simulating"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-code_002c-typesetting"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-computer-programs_002c-typesetting"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{verbatim}
<var class="var">literal-text</var>
\end{verbatim}
</pre></div>

<p>A paragraph-making environment in which LaTeX produces as output
exactly what you type as input.  For instance inside <var class="var">literal-text</var>
the backslash&nbsp;<code class="code">\</code> character does not start commands, it
produces a printed &lsquo;<samp class="samp">\</samp>&rsquo;, and carriage returns and blanks are taken
literally.  The output appears in a monospaced typewriter-like font
(<code class="code">\tt</code>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{verbatim}
Symbol swearing: %&amp;$#?!.
\end{verbatim}
</pre></div>

<p>The only restriction on <code class="code">literal-text</code> is that it cannot include
the string <code class="code">\end{verbatim}</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-cprotect"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cprotect-package"></a>

<p>You cannot use the verbatim environment in the argument to macros, for
instance in the argument to a <code class="code">\section</code>.  This is not the same as
commands being fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>), instead it just cannot work,
as the <code class="code">verbatim</code> environment changes the catcode regime before
processing its contents, and restore it immediately afterward,
nevertheless with a macro argument the content of the argument has
already be converted to a token list along the catcode regime in effect
when the macro was called.  However, the <code class="code">cprotect</code> package can
help with this.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-listings-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-listings-package-1"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-minted-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-minted-package-1"></a>

<p>One common use of verbatim input is to typeset computer code.  There are
packages that are an improvement the <code class="code">verbatim</code> environment.  For
instance, one improvement is to allow the verbatim inclusion of external
files, or parts of those files.  Such packages include <code class="code">listings</code>,
and <code class="code">minted</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-fancyvrb-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fancyvrb-package-1"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-verbatimbox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-verbatimbox-package"></a>

<p>A package that provides many more options for verbatim environments is
<code class="code">fancyvrb</code>.  Another is <code class="code">verbatimbox</code>.
</p>
<p>For a list of all the relevant packages, see CTAN (see <a class="pxref" href="#CTAN">CTAN: The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network</a>).
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cverb" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\verb</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cverb">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Up: <a href="#verbatim" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">verbatim</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cverb-1">8.27.1 <code class="code">\verb</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cverb"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-verbatim-text_002c-inline"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\verb <var class="var">char</var> <var class="var">literal-text</var> <var class="var">char</var>
\verb* <var class="var">char</var> <var class="var">literal-text</var> <var class="var">char</var>
</pre></div>

<p>Typeset <var class="var">literal-text</var> as it is input, including special characters
and spaces, using the typewriter (<code class="code">\tt</code>) font.
</p>
<p>This example shows two different invocations of <code class="code">\verb</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">This is \verb!literally! the biggest pumpkin ever.
And this is the best squash, \verb+literally!+
</pre></div>

<p>The first <code class="code">\verb</code> has its <var class="var">literal-text</var> surrounded with
exclamation point, <code class="code">!</code>.  The second instead uses plus, <code class="code">+</code>,
because the exclamation point is part of <code class="code">literal-text</code>.
</p>
<p>The single-character delimiter <var class="var">char</var> surrounds
<var class="var">literal-text</var>&mdash;it must be the same character before and after.
No spaces come between <code class="code">\verb</code> or <code class="code">\verb*</code> and <var class="var">char</var>,
or between <var class="var">char</var> and <var class="var">literal-text</var>, or between
<var class="var">literal-text</var> and the second occurrence of <var class="var">char</var> (the
synopsis shows a space only to distinguish one component from the
other).  The delimiter must not appear in <var class="var">literal-text</var>. The
<var class="var">literal-text</var> cannot include a line break.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-visible-space"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">*</code>-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a visible
space character.
</p>
<p>The output from this will include a visible space on both side of word
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">with</samp>&rsquo;:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The command's first argument is \verb*!filename with extension! and ...
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-url"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-url-package"></a>

<p>For typesetting Internet addresses, urls, the package <code class="code">url</code>
is a better option than the <code class="code">\verb</code> command, since
it allows line breaks.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-listings-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-listings-package-2"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-minted-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-minted-package-2"></a>

<p>For computer code there are many packages with advantages over
<code class="code">\verb</code>.  One is <code class="code">listings</code>, another is <code class="code">minted</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-cprotect-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cprotect-package-1"></a>

<p>You cannot use <code class="code">\verb</code> in the argument to a macro, for instance in
the argument to a <code class="code">\section</code>.  It is not a question of <code class="code">\verb</code>
being fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>), instead it just cannot work, as the
<code class="code">\verb</code> command changes the catcode regime before reading its
argument, and restore it immediately afterward, nevertheless with a
macro argument the content of the argument has already be converted to a
token list along the catcode regime in effect when the macro was called.
However, the <code class="code">cprotect</code> package can help with this.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="verse">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#verbatim" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">verbatim</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="u" rel="up">Environments</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="verse-1">8.28 <code class="code">verse</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-verse"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-verse-environment"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-poetry_002c-an-environment-for"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{verse}
  <var class="var">line1</var> \\
  <var class="var">line2</var> \\
  ...
\end{verse}
</pre></div>

<p>An environment for poetry.
</p>
<p>Here are two lines from Shakespeare&rsquo;s Romeo and Juliet.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Then plainly know my heart's dear love is set \\
On the fair daughter of rich Capulet.
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-verse_0029"></a>
<p>Separate the lines of each stanza with <code class="code">\\</code>, and use one or more
blank lines to separate the stanzas.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{verse}
\makebox[\linewidth][c]{\textit{Shut Not Your Doors} ---Walt Whitman}
  \\[1\baselineskip]
Shut not your doors to me proud libraries,                  \\
For that which was lacking on all your well-fill'd shelves, \\
\qquad yet needed most, I bring,                             \\
Forth from the war emerging, a book I have made,            \\
The words of my book nothing, the drift of it every thing,  \\
A book separate, not link'd with the rest nor felt by the intellect, \\
But you ye untold latencies will thrill to every page.
\end{verse}
</pre></div>

<p>The output has margins indented on the left and the right, paragraphs
are not indented, and the text is not right-justified.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Line-breaking">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Page-breaking" accesskey="n" rel="next">Page breaking</a>, Previous: <a href="#Environments" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Environments</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Line-breaking-1">9 Line breaking</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-line-breaking"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-breaking-lines"></a>

<p>The first thing LaTeX does when processing ordinary text is to
translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces.  To
produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines
(and these lines must be broken into pages).
</p>
<p>LaTeX usually does the line (and page) breaking in the text body for
you but in some environments you manually force line breaks.
</p>
<p>A common workflow is to get a final version of the document content
before taking a final pass through and considering line breaks (and page
breaks).  This differs from word processing, where you are formatting
text as you input it.  Putting these off until the end prevents a lot of
fiddling with breaks that will change anyway.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005c_005c" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\\</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\obeycr</code> &amp; <code class="code">\restorecr</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnewline" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\newline</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005c_002d-_0028hyphenation_0029" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\-</code> (discretionary hyphen)</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cdiscretionary" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\discretionary</code> (generalized hyphenation point)</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy" accesskey="6"><code class="code">\fussy</code> &amp; <code class="code">\sloppy</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005chyphenation" accesskey="7"><code class="code">\hyphenation</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak" accesskey="8"><code class="code">\linebreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nolinebreak</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005c_005c">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\obeycr</code> &amp; <code class="code">\restorecr</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Line-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Line breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005c_005c-1">9.1 <code class="code">\\</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028force-line-break_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-new-line_002c-starting"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-line-break_002c-forcing"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\\
\\[<var class="var">morespace</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>or one of: 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\\*
\\*[<var class="var">morespace</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>End the current line.  The optional argument <var class="var">morespace</var> specifies
extra vertical space to be inserted before the next line.  This is a
rubber length (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>) and can be negative.  The text before
the line break is set at its normal length, that is, it is not stretched
to fill out the line width.  This command is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\title{My story: \\[0.25in]
       a tale of woe}
</pre></div>

<p>The starred form, <code class="code">\\*</code>, tells LaTeX not to start a new page
between the two lines, by issuing a <code class="code">\nobreak</code>.
</p>
<p>Explicit line breaks in the main text body are unusual in LaTeX.  In
particular, don&rsquo;t start new paragraphs with <code class="code">\\</code>.  Instead leave a
blank line between the two paragraphs.  And don&rsquo;t put in a sequence of
<code class="code">\\</code>&rsquo;s to make vertical space. Instead use
<code class="code">\vspace{<var class="var">length</var>}</code>, or
<code class="code">\leavevmode\vspace{<var class="var">length</var>}</code>, or
<code class="code">\vspace*{<var class="var">length</var>}</code> if you want the space to not be thrown
out at the top of a new page (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cvspace"><code class="code">\vspace</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\\</code> command is mostly used outside of the main flow of text
such as in a <code class="code">tabular</code> or <code class="code">array</code> environment or in an
equation environment.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\\</code> command is a synonym for <code class="code">\newline</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewline"><code class="code">\newline</code></a>) under ordinary circumstances (an example of an
exception is the <code class="code">p{...}</code> column in a <code class="code">tabular</code>
environment; see <a class="pxref" href="#tabular"><code class="code">tabular</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\\</code> command is a macro, and its definition changes by context
so that its definition in normal text, a <code class="code">center</code> environment, a
<code class="code">flushleft</code> environment, and a <code class="code">tabular</code> are all different.
In normal text when it forces a linebreak it is essentially a shorthand
for <code class="code">\newline</code>.  It does not end horizontal mode or end the
paragraph, it just inserts some glue and penalties so that when the
paragraph does end a linebreak will occur at that point, with the short
line padded with white space.
</p>
<p>You get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: There's no line here to end</samp>&rsquo; if you use
<code class="code">\\</code> to ask for a new line, rather than to end the current line.
An example is if you have <code class="code">\begin{document}\\</code> or, more likely,
something like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center}
  \begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
  \\
  In that vertical space put your mark.
  \end{minipage}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>Fix it by replacing the double backslash with something like
<code class="code">\vspace{\baselineskip}</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnewline" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\newline</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005c_005c" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\\</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Line-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Line breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr-1">9.2 <code class="code">\obeycr</code> &amp; <code class="code">\restorecr</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cobeycr"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005crestorecr"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cobeycr"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005crestorecr"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-new-line_002c-output-as-input"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">\obeycr</code> command makes a return in the input file (&lsquo;<samp class="samp">^^M</samp>&rsquo;,
internally) the same as <code class="code">\\</code>, followed by <code class="code">\relax</code>.  So each
new line in the input will also be a new line in the output.  The
<code class="code">\restorecr</code> command restores normal line-breaking behavior.
</p>
<p>This is not the way to show verbatim text or computer code.  Use
<code class="code">verbatim</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#verbatim"><code class="code">verbatim</code></a>) instead.
</p>
<p>With LaTeX&rsquo;s usual defaults, this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">aaa
bbb

\obeycr
ccc
ddd
   eee

\restorecr
fff
ggg

hhh
iii
</pre></div>

<p>produces output like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">  aaa bbb
  ccc
ddd
eee

fff ggg
  hhh iii
</pre></div>

<p>The indents are paragraph indents.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnewline">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005c_002d-_0028hyphenation_0029" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\-</code> (discretionary hyphen)</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\obeycr</code> &amp; <code class="code">\restorecr</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Line-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Line breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cnewline-1">9.3 <code class="code">\newline</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewline"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-new-line_002c-starting-_0028paragraph-mode_0029"></a>

<p>In ordinary text, this ends a line in a way that does not right-justify
it, so the text before the end of line is not stretched. That is, in
paragraph mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>), the <code class="code">\newline</code> command is
equivalent to double-backslash (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_005c"><code class="code">\\</code></a>).  This command is fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>However, the two commands are different inside a <code class="code">tabular</code> or
<code class="code">array</code> environment. In a column with a specifier producing a
paragraph box such as typically <code class="code">p{...}</code>, <code class="code">\newline</code> will
insert a line end inside of the column; that is, it does not break the
entire tabular row.  To break the entire row use <code class="code">\\</code> or its
equivalent <code class="code">\tabularnewline</code>.
</p>
<p>This will print &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Name:</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Address:</samp>&rsquo; as two lines in a
single cell of the table.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{p{1in}@{\hspace{2in}}p{1in}}
  Name: \newline Address: &amp;Date: \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>The &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Date:</samp>&rsquo; will be baseline-aligned with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Name:</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005c_002d-_0028hyphenation_0029">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cdiscretionary" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\discretionary</code> (generalized hyphenation point)</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnewline" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\newline</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Line-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Line breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005c_002d-_0028discretionary-hyphen_0029">9.4 <code class="code">\-</code> (discretionary hyphen)</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_002d-_0028hyphenation_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hyphenation_002c-forcing"></a>

<p>Tell LaTeX that it may hyphenate the word at that point.  When you
insert <code class="code">\-</code> commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at
those points and not at any of the other hyphenation points that
LaTeX might otherwise have chosen.  This command is robust
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>LaTeX is good at hyphenating and usually finds most of the correct
hyphenation points, while almost never using an incorrect one.  The
<code class="code">\-</code> command is for exceptional cases.
</p>
<p>For example, LaTeX does not ordinarily hyphenate words containing a
hyphen.  Below, the long and hyphenated word means LaTeX has to put
in unacceptably large spaces to set the narrow column.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{rp{1.75in}}
  Isaac Asimov &amp;The strain of
               anti-intellectualism
               % an\-ti-in\-tel\-lec\-tu\-al\-ism
               has been a constant thread winding its way through our
               political and cultural life, nurtured by
               the false notion that democracy means that
               `my ignorance is just as good as your knowledge'.
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>Commenting out the third line and uncommenting the fourth makes a much
better fit.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\-</code> command only allows LaTeX to break there, it does not
require that it break there.  You can force a split with something
like <code class="code">Hef-\linebreak feron</code>.  Of course, if you later change the
text then this forced break may look out of place, so this approach
requires care.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cdiscretionary">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\fussy</code> &amp; <code class="code">\sloppy</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005c_002d-_0028hyphenation_0029" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\-</code> (discretionary hyphen)</a>, Up: <a href="#Line-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Line breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cdiscretionary-_0028generalized-hyphenation-point_0029">9.5 <code class="code">\discretionary</code> (generalized hyphenation point)</h3>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hyphenation_002c-discretionary"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-discretionary-hyphenation"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\discretionary{<var class="var">pre-break</var>}{<var class="var">post-break</var>}{<var class="var">no-break</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Handle word changes around hyphens.  This command is not often used in
LaTeX documents.
</p>
<p>If a line break occurs at the point where <code class="code">\discretionary</code> appears
then TeX puts <var class="var">pre-break</var> at the end of the current line and puts
<var class="var">post-break</var> at the start of the next line.  If there is no line
break here then TeX puts <var class="var">no-break</var>.
</p>
<p>In &lsquo;<samp class="samp">difficult</samp>&rsquo; the three letters <code class="code">ffi</code> form a ligature.  But
TeX can nonetheless break between the two &lsquo;<samp class="samp">f</samp>&rsquo;&rsquo;s with this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">di\discretionary{f-}{fi}{ffi}cult
</pre></div>

<p>Note that users do not have to do this.  It is typically handled
automatically by TeX&rsquo;s hyphenation algorithm.
</p>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005chyphenation" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\hyphenation</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cdiscretionary" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\discretionary</code> (generalized hyphenation point)</a>, Up: <a href="#Line-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Line breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy-1">9.6 <code class="code">\fussy</code> &amp; <code class="code">\sloppy</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cfussy"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005csloppy"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfussy"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csloppy"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-line-breaks_002c-changing"></a>

<p>Declarations to make TeX more picky or less picky about line
breaking.  Declaring <code class="code">\fussy</code> usually avoids too much space between
words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box.  Conversely,
<code class="code">\sloppy</code> avoids overfull boxes while suffering loose interword
spacing.
</p>
<p>The default is <code class="code">\fussy</code>.  Line breaking in a paragraph is
controlled by whichever declaration is current at the end of the
paragraph, i.e., at the blank line or <code class="code">\par</code> or displayed
equation ending that paragraph.  So to affect the line breaks, include
that paragraph-ending material in the scope of the command.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#sloppypar" accesskey="1"><code class="code">sloppypar</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="sloppypar">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Up: <a href="#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\fussy</code> &amp; <code class="code">\sloppy</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="sloppypar-1">9.6.1 <code class="code">sloppypar</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-sloppypar"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-sloppypar-environment-1"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-sloppypar-environment"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{sloppypar}
  ... paragraphs ...
\end{sloppypar}
</pre></div>

<p>Typeset the paragraphs with <code class="code">\sloppy</code> in effect (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy"><code class="code">\fussy</code> &amp; <code class="code">\sloppy</code></a>).  Use this to locally adjust line breaking, to avoid
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Overfull box</samp>&rsquo; or &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Underfull box</samp>&rsquo; errors.
</p>
<p>The example is simple.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{sloppypar}
  Her plan for the morning thus settled, she sat quietly down to her
  book after breakfast, resolving to remain in the same place and the
  same employment till the clock struck one; and from habitude very
  little incommoded by the remarks and ejaculations of Mrs.\ Allen,
  whose vacancy of mind and incapacity for thinking were such, that
  as she never talked a great deal, so she could never be entirely
  silent; and, therefore, while she sat at her work, if she lost her
  needle or broke her thread, if she heard a carriage in the street,
  or saw a speck upon her gown, she must observe it aloud, whether
  there were anyone at leisure to answer her or not.
\end{sloppypar}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005chyphenation">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\linebreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nolinebreak</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\fussy</code> &amp; <code class="code">\sloppy</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Line-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Line breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005chyphenation-1">9.7 <code class="code">\hyphenation</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005chyphenation"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hyphenation_002c-defining"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\hyphenation{<var class="var">word1</var> ...}
</pre></div>

<p>Declares allowed hyphenation points within the words in the list.  The
words in that list are separated by spaces.  Show permitted points for
hyphenation with a dash character, <code class="code">-</code>.
</p>
<p>Here is an example:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\hyphenation{hat-er il-lit-e-ra-ti tru-th-i-ness}
</pre></div>

<p>Use lowercase letters.  TeX will only hyphenate if the word matches
exactly, no inflections are tried.  Multiple <code class="code">\hyphenation</code>
commands accumulate.
</p>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005chyphenation" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\hyphenation</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Line-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Line breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak-1">9.8 <code class="code">\linebreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nolinebreak</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005clinebreak"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cnolinebreak"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clinebreak"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnolinebreak"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-line-breaks_002c-forcing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-line-breaks_002c-preventing"></a>

<p>Synopses, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\linebreak
\linebreak[<var class="var">zero-to-four</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>or one of these.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\nolinebreak
\nolinebreak[<var class="var">zero-to-four</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>Encourage or discourage a line break.  The optional <var class="var">zero-to-four</var>
is an integer lying between 0 and 4 that allows you to soften the
instruction.  The default is 4, so that without the optional argument
these commands entirely force or prevent the break.  But for instance,
<code class="code">\nolinebreak[1]</code> is a suggestion that another place may be better.
The higher the number, the more insistent the request.  Both commands
are fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Here we tell LaTeX that a good place to put a linebreak is after the
standard legal text.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\boilerplatelegal{} \linebreak[2]
We especially encourage applications from members of traditionally
underrepresented groups.
</pre></div>

<p>When you issue <code class="code">\linebreak</code>, the spaces in the line are stretched
out so that the break point reaches the right margin.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005c_005c"><code class="code">\\</code></a>
and&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cnewline"><code class="code">\newline</code></a>, to have the spaces not stretched out.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Page-breaking">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Footnotes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Footnotes</a>, Previous: <a href="#Line-breaking" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Line breaking</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Page-breaking-1">10 Page breaking</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-page-breaking"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-breaking-pages"></a>

<p>Ordinarily LaTeX automatically takes care of breaking output into
pages with its usual aplomb.  But if you are writing commands, or
tweaking the final version of a document, then you may need to
understand how to influence its actions.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-badness"></a>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s algorithm for splitting a document into pages is more complex
than just waiting until there is enough material to fill a page and
outputting the result.  Instead, LaTeX typesets more material than
would fit on the page and then chooses a break that is optimal in some
way (it has the smallest <em class="dfn">badness</em>). An example of the advantage of
this approach is that if the page has some vertical space that can be
stretched or shrunk, such as with rubber lengths between paragraphs,
then LaTeX can use that to avoid widow lines (where a new page starts
with the last line of a paragraph; LaTeX can squeeze the extra line
onto the first page) and orphans (where the first line of paragraph is
at the end of a page; LaTeX can stretch the material of the first
page so the extra line falls on the second page). Another example is
where LaTeX uses available vertical shrinkage to fit on a page not
just the header for a new section but also the first two lines of that
section.
</p>
<p>But LaTeX does not optimize over the entire document&rsquo;s set of page
breaks. So it can happen that the first page break is great but the
second one is lousy; to break the current page LaTeX doesn&rsquo;t look as
far ahead as the next page break.  So occasionally you may want to
influence page breaks while preparing a final version of a document.
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Layout">Layout</a>, for more material that is relevant to page breaking.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\clearpage</code> &amp; <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnewpage" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\newpage</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cenlargethispage" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\enlargethispage</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\pagebreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nopagebreak</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnewpage" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\newpage</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Page-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Page breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage-1">10.1 <code class="code">\clearpage</code> &amp; <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cclearpage"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cclearpage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-flushing-floats-and-starting-a-page"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-starting-a-new-page-and-clearing-floats"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005ccleardoublepage"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccleardoublepage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-starting-on-a-right_002dhand-page"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\clearpage
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\cleardoublepage
</pre></div>

<p>End the current page and output all of the pending floating figures and
tables (see <a class="pxref" href="#Floats">Floats</a>).  If there are too many floats to fit on the
page then LaTeX will put in extra pages containing only floats.  In
two-sided printing, <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code> also makes the next page of
content a right-hand page, an odd-numbered page, if necessary inserting
a blank page.  The <code class="code">\clearpage</code> command is robust while
<code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code> is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this
command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside
commands.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code> command will put in a blank page, but it
will have the running headers and footers.  To get a really blank
page, use this command.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\let\origdoublepage\cleardoublepage
\newcommand{\clearemptydoublepage}{%
  \clearpage
  {\pagestyle{empty}\origdoublepage}%
}
</pre></div>

<p>If you want LaTeX&rsquo;s standard <code class="code">\chapter</code> command to do this then
add the line <code class="code">\let\cleardoublepage\clearemptydoublepage</code>. (Of
course this affects all uses of <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code>, not just the
one in <code class="code">\chapter</code>.)
</p>
<p>The command <code class="code">\newpage</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewpage"><code class="code">\newpage</code></a>) also ends the current
page, but without clearing pending floats.  And, if LaTeX is in
two-column mode then <code class="code">\newpage</code> ends the current column while
<code class="code">\clearpage</code> and <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code> end the current page.
</p>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnewpage">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cenlargethispage" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\enlargethispage</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\clearpage</code> &amp; <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Page-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Page breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cnewpage-1">10.2 <code class="code">\newpage</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewpage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-new-page_002c-starting"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-starting-a-new-page"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newpage
</pre></div>

<p>End the current page.  This command is robust (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s page breaks are optimized so ordinarily you only use this
command in a document body to polish the final version, or inside
commands.
</p>
<p>While the commands <code class="code">\clearpage</code> and <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code> also
end the current page, in addition they clear pending floats
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage"><code class="code">\clearpage</code> &amp; <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code></a>).  And, if LaTeX is in
two-column mode then <code class="code">\clearpage</code> and <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code> end
the current page, possibly leaving an empty column, while
<code class="code">\newpage</code> only ends the current column.
</p>
<p>In contrast with <code class="code">\pagebreak</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak"><code class="code">\pagebreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nopagebreak</code></a>),
the <code class="code">\newpage</code> command will cause the new page to start right where
requested.  This
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
continent,
\newpage
\noindent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the
proposition that all men are created equal.
</pre></div>

<p>makes a new page start after &lsquo;<samp class="samp">continent</samp>&rsquo;, and the cut-off line is
not right justified.  In addition, <code class="code">\newpage</code> does not vertically
stretch out the page, as <code class="code">\pagebreak</code> does.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cenlargethispage">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\pagebreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nopagebreak</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnewpage" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\newpage</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Page-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Page breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cenlargethispage-1">10.3 <code class="code">\enlargethispage</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cenlargethispage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-enlarge-current-page"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\enlargethispage{<var class="var">size</var>}
\enlargethispage*{<var class="var">size</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Enlarge the <code class="code">\textheight</code> for the current page.  The required
argument <var class="var">size</var> must be a rigid length (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  It may be
positive or negative.  This command is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>A common strategy is to wait until you have the final text of a
document, and then pass through it tweaking line and page breaks.  This
command allows you some page size leeway.
</p>
<p>This will allow one extra line on the current page.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}
</pre></div>

<p>The starred form <code class="code">\enlargesthispage*</code> tries to squeeze the material
together on the page as much as possible, for the common use case of
getting one more line on the page. This is often used together with an
explicit <code class="code">\pagebreak</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cenlargethispage" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\enlargethispage</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Page-breaking" accesskey="u" rel="up">Page breaking</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak-1">10.4 <code class="code">\pagebreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nopagebreak</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cpagebreak"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cnopagebreak"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpagebreak"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnopagebreak"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-page-break_002c-forcing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-page-break_002c-preventing"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\pagebreak
\pagebreak[<var class="var">zero-to-four</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\nopagebreak
\nopagebreak[<var class="var">zero-to-four</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>Encourage or discourage a page break.  The optional <var class="var">zero-to-four</var>
is an integer that allows you to soften the request. The default is 4,
so that without the optional argument these commands entirely force or
prevent the break.  But for instance <code class="code">\nopagebreak[1]</code> suggests to
LaTeX that another spot might be preferable.  The higher the number,
the more insistent the request.  Both commands are fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s page endings are optimized so ordinarily you only use these
commands in a document body to polish the final version, or inside
commands.
</p>
<p>If you use these inside a paragraph, they apply to the point following
the line in which they appear.  So this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this
continent,
\pagebreak
a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition
that all men are created equal.
</pre></div>

<p>does not give a page break at &lsquo;<samp class="samp">continent</samp>&rsquo;, but instead at
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">nation</samp>&rsquo;, since that is where LaTeX breaks that line.  In
addition, with <code class="code">\pagebreak</code> the vertical space on the page is
stretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom
margin.  This can look strange, and if <code class="code">\flushbottom</code> is in effect
this can cause you to get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Underfull \vbox (badness 10000) has
occurred while \output is active</samp>&rsquo;.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cnewpage"><code class="code">\newpage</code></a>, for a command that
does not have these effects.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csamepage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-samepage-environment"></a>
<p>(There is an obsolete declaration <code class="code">\samepage</code>, which tries to only
allow a break between two paragraphs.  There is a related environment
<code class="code">samepage</code>, also obsolete.  Neither of these work reliably.  For
more on keeping material on the same page, see the FAQ entry
<a class="url" href="https://texfaq.org/FAQ-nopagebrk">https://texfaq.org/FAQ-nopagebrk</a>.)
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Footnotes">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="n" rel="next">Definitions</a>, Previous: <a href="#Page-breaking" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Page breaking</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Footnotes-1">11 Footnotes</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footnotes_002c-creating"></a>

<p>Place a footnote at the bottom of the current page, as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">No&euml;l Coward quipped that having to read a footnote is like having
to go downstairs to answer the door, while in the midst of making
love.\footnote{%
  I wouldn't know, I don't read footnotes.}
</pre></div>

<p>You can put multiple footnotes on a page. If the footnote text becomes
too long then it will flow to the next page.
</p>
<p>You can also produce footnotes by combining the <code class="code">\footnotemark</code> and
the <code class="code">\footnotetext</code> commands, which is useful in special
circumstances.
</p>
<p>To make bibliographic references come out as footnotes you need to
include a bibliographic style with that behavior (see <a class="pxref" href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a>).
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\footnote</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\footnotemark</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cfootnotetext" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\footnotetext</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#Footnotes-in-section-headings" accesskey="4">Footnotes in section headings</a></li>
<li><a href="#Footnotes-in-a-table" accesskey="5">Footnotes in a table</a></li>
<li><a href="#Footnotes-of-footnotes" accesskey="6">Footnotes of footnotes</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cfootnote">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\footnotemark</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Footnotes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Footnotes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cfootnote-1">11.1 <code class="code">\footnote</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfootnote"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\footnote{<var class="var">text</var>}
\footnote[<var class="var">number</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Place a footnote <var class="var">text</var> at the bottom of the current page.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">There are over a thousand footnotes in Gibbon's 
\textit{Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire}.\footnote{%
  After reading an early version with endnotes David Hume complained, 
  ``One is also plagued with his Notes, according to the present Method 
  of printing the Book'' and suggested that they ``only to be printed 
  at the Margin or the Bottom of the Page.''}
</pre></div>

<p>The optional argument <var class="var">number</var> allows you to specify the number of
the footnote.  If you use this then LaTeX does not increment the
<code class="code">footnote</code> counter.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footnotes_002c-symbols-instead-of-numbers"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfnsymbol_002c-and-footnotes"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0040fnsymbol"></a>
<p>By default, LaTeX uses arabic numbers as footnote markers.  Change
this with something like
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}</code>, which
uses a sequence of symbols (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol"><code class="code">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</a>).  To make this change global put that in the preamble.  If
you make the change local then you may want to reset the counter with
<code class="code">\setcounter{footnote}{0}</code>.
</p>
<p>LaTeX determines the spacing of footnotes with two parameters.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footnote-parameters"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-parameters_002c-for-footnotes"></a>

<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cfootnoterule'><span><code class="code">\footnoterule</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfootnoterule'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="footnote-footnoterule"></a><p>Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page&rsquo;s
footnotes.  Default dimensions in the standard document classes (except
<code class="code">slides</code>, where it does not appear) is: vertical thickness of
<code class="code">0.4pt</code>, and horizontal size of <code class="code">0.4\columnwidth</code> long.
Change the rule with something like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand{\footnoterule}{% Kerns avoid vertical space
  \kern -3pt                         % This -3 is negative
  \hrule width \textwidth height 1pt % of the sum of this 1
  \kern 2pt}                         % and this 2
</pre></div>

</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfootnotesep'><span><code class="code">\footnotesep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfootnotesep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="footnote-footnotesep"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-strut"></a>
<p>The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cstrut"><code class="code">\strut</code></a>).  By default, this is set to the normal strut for
<code class="code">\footnotesize</code> fonts (see <a class="pxref" href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a>), therefore there is no
extra space between footnotes.  This is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">6.65pt</samp>&rsquo; for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10pt</samp>&rsquo;,
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">7.7pt</samp>&rsquo; for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">11pt</samp>&rsquo;, and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">8.4pt</samp>&rsquo; for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">12pt</samp>&rsquo;.  Change
it as with <code class="code">\setlength{\footnotesep}{11pt}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>The <code class="code">\footnote</code> command is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s default puts many restrictions on where you can use a
<code class="code">\footnote</code>; for instance, you cannot use it in an argument to a
sectioning command such as <code class="code">\chapter</code> (it can only be used in outer
paragraph mode; see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).  There are some workarounds; see
following sections.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footnotes_002c-in-a-minipage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mpfootnote-counter"></a>
<p>In a <code class="code">minipage</code> environment the <code class="code">\footnote</code> command uses the
<code class="code">mpfootnote</code> counter instead of the <code class="code">footnote</code> counter, so
they are numbered independently.  They are shown at the bottom of the
environment, not at the bottom of the page.  And by default they are
shown alphabetically. See <a class="xref" href="#minipage"><code class="code">minipage</code></a> and <a class="ref" href="#Footnotes-in-a-table">Footnotes in a table</a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cfootnotemark">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cfootnotetext" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\footnotetext</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cfootnote" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\footnote</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Footnotes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Footnotes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cfootnotemark-1">11.2 <code class="code">\footnotemark</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfootnotemark"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\footnotemark
\footnotemark[<var class="var">number</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>Put the current footnote mark in the text. To specify associated text
for the footnote see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cfootnotetext"><code class="code">\footnotetext</code></a>.  The optional argument
<var class="var">number</var> causes the command to use that number to determine the
footnote mark. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).
</p>
<p>If you use <code class="code">\footnotemark</code> without the optional argument then it
increments the <code class="code">footnote</code> counter, but if you use the optional
<var class="var">number</var> then it does not. The next example produces several
consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The first theorem\footnote{Due to Gauss.} 
and the second theorem\footnotemark[\value{footnote}] 
and the third theorem.\footnotemark[\value{footnote}]
</pre></div>

<p>If there are intervening footnotes then you must remember the value of
the number of the common mark.  This example gives the same
institutional affiliation to both the first and third authors
(<code class="code">\thanks</code> is a version of <code class="code">\footnote</code>), by-hand giving the
number of the footnote.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\title{A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem}
\author{J Moriarty\thanks{University of Leeds} 
  \and A C Doyle\thanks{Durham University} 
  \and S Holmes\footnotemark[1]}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
</pre></div>

<p>This uses a counter to remember the footnote number.  The third sentence
is followed by the same footnote marker as the first.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcounter{footnoteValueSaver}
All babies are illogical.\footnote{%
  Lewis Carroll.}\setcounter{footnoteValueSaver}{\value{footnote}}
Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile.\footnote{%
  Captain Hook.}
Illogical persons are despised.\footnotemark[\value{footnoteValueSaver}]
Therefore, anyone who can manage a crocodile is not a baby.
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-cleveref-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cleveref-package-2"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-hyperref"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hyperref-package"></a>

<p>This example accomplishes the same by using the package <code class="code">cleveref</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{cleveref}[2012/02/15]   % in preamble 
\crefformat{footnote}{#2\footnotemark[#1]#3}
...
The theorem is from Evers.\footnote{\label{fn:TE}Tinker, Evers, 1994.}
The corollary is from Chance.\footnote{Evers, Chance, 1990.}
But the key lemma is from Tinker.\cref{fn:TE}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-hyperref-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hyperref-package-1"></a>

<p>It will work with the package <code class="code">hyperref</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cfootnotetext">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Footnotes-in-section-headings" accesskey="n" rel="next">Footnotes in section headings</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\footnotemark</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Footnotes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Footnotes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cfootnotetext-1">11.3 <code class="code">\footnotetext</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfootnotetext"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\footnotetext{<var class="var">text</var>}
\footnotetext[<var class="var">number</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Place <var class="var">text</var> at the bottom of the page as a footnote.  It pairs with
<code class="code">\footnotemark</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark"><code class="code">\footnotemark</code></a>) and can come anywhere after
that command, but must appear in outer paragraph mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).
The optional argument <var class="var">number</var> changes the number of the footnote
mark.
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark"><code class="code">\footnotemark</code></a> and&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#Footnotes-in-a-table">Footnotes in a table</a>, for usage
examples.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Footnotes-in-section-headings">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Footnotes-in-a-table" accesskey="n" rel="next">Footnotes in a table</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cfootnotetext" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\footnotetext</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Footnotes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Footnotes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Footnotes-in-section-headings-1">11.4 Footnotes in section headings</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footnote_002c-in-section-headings"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-table-of-contents_002c-avoiding-footnotes"></a>

<p>Putting a footnote in a section heading, as in:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\section{Full sets\protect\footnote{This material due to ...}}
</pre></div>

<p>causes the footnote to appear at the bottom of the page where the
section starts, as usual, but also at the bottom of the table of
contents, where it is not likely to be desired.  The simplest way
to have it not appear on the table of contents is to use the optional
argument to <code class="code">\section</code>
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\section[Please]{Please\footnote{%
  Don't footnote in chapter and section headers!}}
</pre></div>

<p>No <code class="code">\protect</code> is needed in front of <code class="code">\footnote</code> here because
what gets moved to the table of contents is the optional argument.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Footnotes-in-a-table">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Footnotes-of-footnotes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Footnotes of footnotes</a>, Previous: <a href="#Footnotes-in-section-headings" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Footnotes in section headings</a>, Up: <a href="#Footnotes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Footnotes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Footnotes-in-a-table-1">11.5 Footnotes in a table</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footnote_002c-in-a-table"></a>

<p>Inside a <code class="code">tabular</code> or <code class="code">array</code> environment the <code class="code">\footnote</code>
command does not work; there is a footnote mark in the table cell but
the footnote text does not appear.  The solution is to use a
<code class="code">minipage</code> environment as here (see <a class="pxref" href="#minipage"><code class="code">minipage</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center}
  \begin{minipage}{\textwidth} \centering
     \begin{tabular}{l|l}
       \textsc{Ship}           &amp;\textsc{Book} \\ \hline 
       \textit{HMS Sophie}     &amp;Master and Commander  \\ 
       \textit{HMS Polychrest} &amp;Post Captain  \\  
       \textit{HMS Lively}     &amp;Post Captain \\
       \textit{HMS Surprise}   &amp;A number of books\footnote{%
                                  Starting with \textit{HMS Surprise}.}
     \end{tabular}
  \end{minipage}                              
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>Inside a <code class="code">minipage</code>, footnote marks are lowercase letters.  Change
that with something like
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\thempfootnote}{\arabic{mpfootnote}}</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol"><code class="code">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</a>).
</p>
<p>The footnotes in the prior example appear at the bottom of the
<code class="code">minipage</code>.  To have them appear at the bottom of the main page, as
part of the regular footnote sequence, use the <code class="code">\footnotemark</code> and
<code class="code">\footnotetext</code> pair and make a new counter.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}
\begin{center}
  \begin{minipage}{\textwidth}
    \setcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}{\value{footnote}} \centering
     \begin{tabular}{l|l}
       \textsc{Woman}             &amp;\textsc{Relationship} \\ \hline 
       Mona                       &amp;Attached\footnotemark  \\ 
       Diana Villiers             &amp;Eventual wife  \\  
       Christine Hatherleigh Wood &amp;Fiance\footnotemark 
     \end{tabular}
  \end{minipage}%  percent sign keeps footnote text close to minipage
  \stepcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}%
    \footnotetext[\value{mpFootnoteValueSaver}]{%
      Little is known other than her death.}%
  \stepcounter{mpFootnoteValueSaver}%
    \footnotetext[\value{mpFootnoteValueSaver}]{%
      Relationship is unresolved in XXI.}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-tablefootnote"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tablefootnote-package"></a>

<p>For a floating <code class="code">table</code> environment (see <a class="pxref" href="#table"><code class="code">table</code></a>), use the
<code class="code">tablefootnote</code> package.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{tablefootnote}  % in preamble
   ...
\begin{table}
  \centering
     \begin{tabular}{l|l}
     \textsc{Date}  &amp;\textsc{Campaign} \\ \hline 
     1862           &amp;Fort Donelson \\ 
     1863           &amp;Vicksburg     \\  
     1865           &amp;Army of Northern Virginia\tablefootnote{%
                      Ending the war.}
     \end{tabular}
    \caption{Forces captured by US Grant}
\end{table}
</pre></div>

<p>The footnote appears at the page bottom and is numbered in sequence with
other footnotes.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Footnotes-of-footnotes">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Footnotes-in-a-table" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Footnotes in a table</a>, Up: <a href="#Footnotes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Footnotes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Footnotes-of-footnotes-1">11.6 Footnotes of footnotes</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footnote_002c-of-a-footnote"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-bigfoot"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bigfoot-package"></a>

<p>Particularly in the humanities, authors can have multiple classes of
footnotes, including having footnotes of footnotes.  The package
<code class="code">bigfoot</code> extends LaTeX&rsquo;s default footnote mechanism in many
ways, including allow these two, as in this example.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{bigfoot}    % in preamble
\DeclareNewFootnote{Default}
\DeclareNewFootnote{from}[alph]   % create class \footnotefrom{}
 ...
The third theorem is a partial converse of the 
second.\footnotefrom{%
  Noted in Wilson.\footnote{Second edition only.}}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Definitions">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Counters" accesskey="n" rel="next">Counters</a>, Previous: <a href="#Footnotes" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Footnotes</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Definitions-1">12 Definitions</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-definitions"></a>

<p>LaTeX has support for making new commands of many different kinds.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cprovidecommand" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\providecommand</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makeatother</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\@ifstar</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnewcounter" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\newcounter</code>: Allocating a counter</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnewlength" accesskey="6"><code class="code">\newlength</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnewsavebox" accesskey="7"><code class="code">\newsavebox</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment" accesskey="8"><code class="code">\newenvironment</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewenvironment</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem" accesskey="9"><code class="code">\newtheorem</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnewfont"><code class="code">\newfont</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend"><code class="code">\ignorespaces &amp; \ignorespacesafterend</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#xspace-package">xspace package</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cprovidecommand" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\providecommand</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand-1">12.1 <code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cnewcommand"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005crenewcommand"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewcommand"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005crenewcommand"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-commands_002c-defining-new-ones"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-commands_002c-redefining"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-defining-a-new-command"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-redefining-a-command"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-new-commands_002c-defining"></a>

<p>Synopses, one of (three regular forms, three starred forms):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\newcommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\newcommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\newcommand*{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\newcommand*{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\newcommand*{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or all the same possibilities with <code class="code">\renewcommand</code> instead of
<code class="code">\newcommand</code>:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\renewcommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\renewcommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\renewcommand*{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\renewcommand*{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\renewcommand*{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
</pre></div>


<p>Define or redefine a command (see also <code class="code">\DeclareRobustCommand</code> in
<a class="ref" href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-starred-form_002c-defining-new-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002a_002dform_002c-defining-new-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clong"></a>
<p>The starred form of these two forbids the arguments from containing
multiple paragraphs of text (in plain TeX terms: the commands
are not <code class="code">\long</code>).  With the default form, arguments can be
multiple paragraphs.
</p>
<p>These are the parameters (examples follow):
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><var class="var">cmd</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required; <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> is the command name.  It must begin with a
backslash, <code class="code">\</code>, and must not begin with the four character string
<code class="code">\end</code>.  For <code class="code">\newcommand</code>, it must not be already defined.
For <code class="code">\renewcommand</code>, this name must already be defined.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">nargs</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; an integer from 0 to 9, specifying the number of arguments
that the command takes, including any optional argument.  Omitting this
argument is the same as specifying 0, meaning that the command has no
arguments.  If you redefine a command, the new version can have a
different number of arguments than the old version.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-optional-arguments_002c-defining-and-using'><span><var class="var">optargdefault</var><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-optional-arguments_002c-defining-and-using'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-arguments_002c-optional_002c-defining-and-using"></a>
<p>Optional; if this argument is present then the first argument of
<code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> is optional, with default value <var class="var">optargdefault</var>
(which may be the empty string).  If <var class="var">optargdefault</var> is not present
then <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> does not take an optional argument.
</p>
<p>That is, if <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> is called with a following argument in
square brackets, as in <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var>[<var class="var">optval</var>]{...}...</code>, then
within <var class="var">defn</var> the parameter&nbsp;<code class="code">#1</code> is set to <var class="var">optval</var>.
On the other hand, if <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> is called without following
square brackets then within <var class="var">defn</var> the parameter <code class="code">#1</code> is set
to <var class="var">optargdefault</var>.  In either case, the required arguments start
with <code class="code">#2</code>.
</p>
<p>Omitting <code class="code">[<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]</code> from the definition is entirely
different from giving the square brackets with empty contents, as in
<code class="code">[]</code>.  The former says the command being defined takes no
optional argument, so <code class="code">#1</code> is the first required argument (if
<em class="math"><var class="var">nargs</var> &ge; 1</em>); the latter sets the optional argument
<code class="code">#1</code> to the empty string as the default, if no optional argument
was given in the call.
</p>
<p>Similarly, omitting <code class="code">[<var class="var">optval</var>]</code> from a call is also entirely
different from giving the square brackets with empty contents.  The
former sets <code class="code">#1</code> to the value of <var class="var">optval</var> (assuming the
command was defined to take an optional argument); the latter sets
<code class="code">#1</code> to the empty string, just as with any other value.
</p>
<p>If a command is not defined to take an optional argument, but is
called with an optional argument, the results are unpredictable: there
may be a LaTeX error, there may be incorrect typeset output, or both.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-parameters_002c-substituting'><span><var class="var">defn</var><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-parameters_002c-substituting'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Required; the text to be substituted for every occurrence of
<code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code>. The parameters <code class="code">#1</code>, <code class="code">#2</code>,
&hellip;, <code class="code">#<var class="var">nargs</var></code> are replaced by the values supplied when
the command is called (or by <var class="var">optargdefault</var> in the case of an
optional argument not specified in the call, as just explained).
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-blanks_002c-after-control-sequences"></a>
<p>TeX ignores blanks in the source following a control word
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Control-sequences">Control sequence, control word and control symbol</a>), as in &lsquo;<samp class="samp">\cmd </samp>&rsquo;.  If you want a space
there, one solution is to type <code class="code">{}</code> after the command
(&lsquo;<samp class="samp">\cmd{} </samp>&rsquo;), and another solution is to use an explicit control
space (&lsquo;<samp class="samp">\cmd\ </samp>&rsquo;).
</p>
<p>A simple example of defining a new command:
<code class="code">\newcommand{\RS}{Robin Smith}</code> results in <code class="code">\RS</code> being
replaced by the longer text.  Redefining an existing command is similar:
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\qedsymbol}{{\small QED}}</code>.
</p>
<p>If you use <code class="code">\newcommand</code> and the command name has already been
used then you get something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Command \fred
already defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual</samp>&rsquo;.
Similarly, If you use <code class="code">\renewcommand</code> and the command name has
not been defined then you get something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: \hank
undefined</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>Here the first definition creates a command with no arguments, and the
second, a command with one required argument:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\student}{Ms~O'Leary}
\newcommand{\defref}[1]{Definition~\ref{#1}}
</pre></div>

<p>Use the first as in <code class="code">I highly recommend \student{} to you</code>.  The
second has a variable argument, so that <code class="code">\defref{def:basis}</code> expands to
<code class="code">Definition~\ref{def:basis}</code>, which ultimately expands to
something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Definition~3.14</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>Similarly, but with two required arguments:
<code class="code">\newcommand{\nbym}[2]{$#1 \times #2$}</code> is invoked as
<code class="code">\nbym{2}{k}</code>.
</p>
<p>This example has an optional argument.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\salutation}[1][Sir or Madam]{Dear #1:}
</pre></div>

<p>Then <code class="code">\salutation</code> gives &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Dear Sir or Madam:</samp>&rsquo; while
<code class="code">\salutation[John]</code> gives &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Dear John:</samp>&rsquo;.  And
<code class="code">\salutation[]</code> gives &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Dear :</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This example has an optional argument and two required arguments.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\lawyers}[3][company]{#2, #3, and~#1}
I employ \lawyers[Howe]{Dewey}{Cheatem}.
</pre></div>

<p>The output is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">I employ Dewey, Cheatem, and Howe.</samp>&rsquo;.  The optional
argument, <code class="code">Howe</code>, is associated with <code class="code">#1</code>, while
<code class="code">Dewey</code> and <code class="code">Cheatem</code> are associated with <code class="code">#2</code>
and&nbsp;<code class="code">#3</code>.  Because of the optional argument,
<code class="code">\lawyers{Dewey}{Cheatem}</code> will give the output &lsquo;<samp class="samp">I
employ Dewey, Cheatem, and company.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>The braces around <var class="var">defn</var> do not define a group, that is, they do not
delimit the scope of the result of expanding <var class="var">defn</var>.  For example,
with <code class="code">\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{\it #1}</code>, in this sentence,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The \shipname{Monitor} met the \shipname{Merrimac}.
</pre></div>

<p>the words &lsquo;<samp class="samp">met the</samp>&rsquo;, and the period, would incorrectly be in
italics.  The solution is to put another pair of braces inside the
definition: <code class="code">\newcommand{\shipname}[1]{{\it #1}}</code>.
</p>

<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Control-sequences" accesskey="1">Control sequence, control word and control symbol</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Control-sequences">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Up: <a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Control-sequence_002c-control-word-and-control-symbol">12.1.1 Control sequence, control word and control symbol</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-control-sequences"></a>

<p>When reading input TeX converts the stream of read characters into a
sequence of <em class="dfn">tokens</em>. When TeX sees a backslash <code class="code">\</code>, it will
handle the following characters in a special way in order to make a
<em class="dfn">control sequence</em> token.
</p>
<p>The control sequences fall into two categories:
</p>
<ul class="itemize mark-bullet">
<li><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-control-word_002c-defined"></a>
<em class="dfn">control word</em>, when the control sequence is gathered from a
<code class="code">\</code> followed by at least one ASCII letter (<code class="code">A-Z</code> and
<code class="code">a-z</code>), followed by at least one non-letter.

</li><li><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-control-symbol_002c-defined"></a>
<em class="dfn">control symbol</em>, when the control sequence is gathered from a
<code class="code">\</code> followed by one non-letter character.
</li></ul>

<p>The sequence of characters so found after the <code class="code">\</code> is also called
the <em class="dfn">control sequence name</em>.
</p>
<p>Blanks after a control word are ignored and do not produce any
whitespace in the output (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a> and
<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029">Backslash-space, <code class="code">\ </code></a>).
</p>
<p>Just as the <code class="code">\relax</code> command does nothing, the following input
will simply print &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Hello!</samp>&rsquo; :
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Hel\relax <!-- /@w --> <!-- /@w --> <!-- /@w -->
 <!-- /@w --> <!-- /@w --> <!-- /@w -->lo!
</pre></div>

<p>This is because blanks after <code class="code">\relax</code>, including the newline, are
ignored, and blanks at the beginning of a line are also ignored
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Leading-blanks">Leading blanks</a>).
</p>
<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cprovidecommand">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makeatother</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cprovidecommand-1">12.2 <code class="code">\providecommand</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cprovidecommand"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-commands_002c-defining-new-ones-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-defining-a-new-command-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-new-commands_002c-defining-1"></a>

<p>Synopses, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\providecommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\providecommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\providecommand{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\providecommand*{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\providecommand*{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
\providecommand*{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">defn</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Defines a command, as long as no command of this name already exists.
If no command of this name already exists then this has the same effect
as <code class="code">\newcommand</code>.  If a command of this name already exists then
this definition does nothing.  This is particularly useful in a file
that may be loaded more than once, such as a style file.
See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a>, for the description of the arguments.
</p>
<p>This example
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Saint Michael's College}
\providecommand{\myaffiliation}{Lyc\'ee Henri IV}
From \myaffiliation.
</pre></div>

<p>outputs &lsquo;<samp class="samp">From Saint Michael's College.</samp>&rsquo;.  Unlike
<code class="code">\newcommand</code>, the repeated use of <code class="code">\providecommand</code> to (try
to) define <code class="code">\myaffiliation</code> does not give an error.
</p>
<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\@ifstar</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cprovidecommand" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\providecommand</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother-1">12.3 <code class="code">\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makeatother</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cmakeatletter"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cmakeatother"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmakeatother"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmakeatother-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\makeatletter
  ... definition of commands with @ in their name ..
\makeatother
</pre></div>

<p>Use this pair when you redefine LaTeX commands that are named with an
at-sign character&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp class="samp"><code class="code">@</code></samp>&rsquo;.  The <code class="code">\makeatletter</code>
declaration makes the at-sign character have the category code of a
letter, code&nbsp;11.  The <code class="code">\makeatother</code> declaration sets the
category code of the at-sign to code&nbsp;12, its default value.
</p>
<p>As TeX reads characters, it assigns each one a category code, or
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-catcode"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-character-category-code"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-category-code_002c-character"></a>
<em class="dfn">catcode</em>. For instance, it assigns the backslash
character&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp class="samp"><code class="code">\</code></samp>&rsquo; the catcode&nbsp;0.  Command names
consist of a category&nbsp;0 character, ordinarily backslash, followed
by letters, category&nbsp;11 characters (except that a command name can
also consist of a category&nbsp;0 character followed by a single
non-letter symbol).
</p>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s source code has the convention that some commands use
<code class="code">@</code> in their name.  These commands are mainly intended for package
or class writers.  The convention prevents authors who are just using a
package or class from accidentally replacing such a command with one of
their own, because by default the at-sign has catcode&nbsp;12.
</p>
<p>Use the pair <code class="code">\makeatletter</code> and <code class="code">\makeatother</code> inside a
<samp class="file">.tex</samp> file, typically in the preamble, when you are defining or
redefining commands named with <code class="code">@</code>, by having them surround your
definition.  Don&rsquo;t use these inside <samp class="file">.sty</samp> or <samp class="file">.cls</samp> files
since the <code class="code">\usepackage</code> and <code class="code">\documentclass</code> commands already
arrange that the at-sign has the character code of a letter,
catcode&nbsp;11.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-macros2e"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-macros2e-package"></a>

<p>For a comprehensive list of macros with an at-sign in their names see
<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/macros2e">https://ctan.org/pkg/macros2e</a>.
</p>
<p>In this example the class file has a command
<code class="code">\thesis@universityname</code> that the user wants to change.  These
three lines should go in the preamble, before the
<code class="code">\begin{document}</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\makeatletter
\renewcommand{\thesis@universityname}{Saint Michael's College}
\makeatother
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005c_0040ifstar">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnewcounter" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\newcounter</code>: Allocating a counter</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makeatother</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005c_0040ifstar-1">12.4 <code class="code">\@ifstar</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0040ifstar"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-commands_002c-star_002dvariants"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-star_002dvariants_002c-commands"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\mycmd}{\@ifstar{\mycmd@star}{\mycmd@nostar}}
\newcommand{\mycmd@nostar}[<var class="var">nostar-num-args</var>]{<var class="var">nostar-body</var>} 
\newcommand{\mycmd@star}[<var class="var">star-num-args</var>]{<var class="var">star-body</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Many standard LaTeX environments or commands have a variant with the
same name but ending with a star character&nbsp;<code class="code">*</code>, an asterisk.
Examples are the <code class="code">table</code> and <code class="code">table*</code> environments and the
<code class="code">\section</code> and <code class="code">\section*</code> commands.
</p>
<p>When defining environments, following this pattern is straightforward
because <code class="code">\newenvironment</code> and <code class="code">\renewenvironment</code> allow the
environment name to contain a star.  So you just have to write
<code class="code">\newenvironment{<var class="var">myenv</var>}</code> or
<code class="code">\newenvironment{<var class="var">myenv</var>*}</code> and continue the definition as
usual. For commands the situation is more complex as the star not being
a letter cannot be part of the command name.  As in the synopsis above,
there will be a user-called command, given above as <code class="code">\mycmd</code>, which
peeks ahead to see if it is followed by a star.  For instance, LaTeX
does not really have a <code class="code">\section*</code> command; instead, the
<code class="code">\section</code> command peeks ahead.  This command does not accept
arguments but instead expands to one of two commands that do accept
arguments.  In the synopsis these two are <code class="code">\mycmd@nostar</code> and
<code class="code">\mycmd@star</code>.  They could take the same number of arguments or a
different number, or no arguments at all.  As always, in a LaTeX
document a command using an at-sign&nbsp;<code class="code">@</code> in its name must be
enclosed inside a <code class="code">\makeatletter ... \makeatother</code> block
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother"><code class="code">\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makeatother</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This example of <code class="code">\@ifstar</code> defines the command <code class="code">\ciel</code> and a
variant <code class="code">\ciel*</code>.  Both have one required argument.  A call to
<code class="code">\ciel{blue}</code> will return &quot;not starry blue sky&quot; while
<code class="code">\ciel*{night}</code> will return &quot;starry night sky&quot;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\makeatletter
\newcommand*{\ciel@unstarred}[1]{not starry #1 sky}
\newcommand*{\ciel@starred}[1]{starry #1 sky}
\newcommand*{\ciel}{\@ifstar{\ciel@starred}{\ciel@unstarred}}
\makeatother
</pre></div>

<p>In the next example, the starred variant takes a different number of
arguments than the unstarred one.  With this definition, Agent 007&rsquo;s
<code class="code">``My name is \agentsecret*{Bond},
\agentsecret{James}{Bond}.''</code> is equivalent to entering the commands
<code class="code">``My name is \textsc{Bond}, \textit{James} textsc{Bond}.''</code>
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand*{\agentsecret@unstarred}[2]{\textit{#1} \textsc{#2}}
\newcommand*{\agentsecret@starred}[1]{\textsc{#1}}
\newcommand*{\agentsecret}{%
  \@ifstar{\agentsecret@starred}{\agentsecret@unstarred}}
</pre></div>

<p>After a command name, a star is handled similarly to an optional
argument.  (This differs from environment names in which the star is
part of the name itself and as such could be in any position.)  Thus,
it is technically possible to put any number of spaces between the
command and the star. Thus <code class="code">\agentsecret*{Bond}</code> and
<code class="code">\agentsecret&nbsp;*<!-- /@w -->{Bond}</code> are equivalent. However, the
standard practice is not to insert any such spaces.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-suffix"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-suffix-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-xparse-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-xparse-package-1"></a>

<p>There are two alternative ways to accomplish the work of
<code class="code">\@ifstar</code>.  (1)&nbsp;The <code class="code">suffix</code> package allows the
construct <code class="code">\newcommand\mycommand{<var class="var">unstarred-variant</var>}</code>
followed by
<code class="code">\WithSuffix\newcommand\mycommand*{<var class="var">starred-variant</var>}</code>.
(2)&nbsp;LaTeX provides the <code class="code">xparse</code> package, which allows
this code:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\NewDocumentCommand\foo{s}{\IfBooleanTF#1
  {<var class="var">starred-variant</var>}%
  {<var class="var">unstarred-variant</var>}% 
  }
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnewcounter">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnewlength" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\newlength</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\@ifstar</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cnewcounter_003a-Allocating-a-counter">12.5 <code class="code">\newcounter</code>: Allocating a counter</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewcounter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-counters_002c-defining-new"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcounter{<var class="var">countername</var>}
\newcounter{<var class="var">countername</var>}[<var class="var">supercounter</var>]
</pre></div>

<p>Globally defines a new counter named <var class="var">countername</var> and initialize it
to zero (see <a class="pxref" href="#Counters">Counters</a>).
</p>
<p>The name <var class="var">countername</var> must consist of letters only. It does not
begin with a backslash.  This name must not already be in use by another
counter.
</p>
<p>When you use the optional argument <code class="code">[<var class="var">supercounter</var>]</code> then the
counter <var class="var">countername</var> will be reset to zero whenever
<var class="var">supercounter</var> is incremented.  For example, ordinarily
<code class="code">subsection</code> is numbered within <code class="code">section</code> so that any time you
increment <var class="var">section</var>, either with <code class="code">\stepcounter</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cstepcounter"><code class="code">\stepcounter</code></a>) or <code class="code">\refstepcounter</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005crefstepcounter"><code class="code">\refstepcounter</code></a>), then LaTeX will reset <var class="var">subsection</var> to
zero.
</p>
<p>This example
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcounter{asuper}  \setcounter{asuper}{1}
\newcounter{asub}[asuper] \setcounter{asub}{3}   % Note `asuper'
The value of asuper is \arabic{asuper} and of asub is \arabic{asub}.
\stepcounter{asuper}
Now asuper is \arabic{asuper} while asub is \arabic{asub}.
</pre></div>

<p>produces &lsquo;<samp class="samp">The value of asuper is 1 and that of asub is 3</samp>&rsquo; and
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Now asuper is 2 while asub is 0</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>If the counter already exists, for instance by entering <code class="code">asuper</code>
twice, then you get something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Command \c@asuper
already defined.  Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>If you use the optional argument then the super counter must already
exist. Entering <code class="code">\newcounter{jh}[lh]</code> when <code class="code">lh</code> is not a
defined counter will get you &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: No counter 'lh'
defined.</samp>&rsquo;
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnewlength">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnewsavebox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\newsavebox</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnewcounter" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\newcounter</code>: Allocating a counter</a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cnewlength-1">12.6 <code class="code">\newlength</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewlength"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lengths_002c-allocating-new"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-rubber-lengths_002c-defining-new"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-skip-register_002c-plain-TeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-glue-register_002c-plain-TeX"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newlength{\<var class="var">len</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Allocate a new length register (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  The required argument
<code class="code">\<var class="var">len</var></code> has to be a control sequence (see <a class="pxref" href="#Control-sequences">Control sequence, control word and control symbol</a>), and as such must begin with a backslash, <code class="code">\</code> under
normal circumstances.  The new register holds rubber lengths such as
<code class="code">72.27pt</code> or <code class="code">1in plus.2in minus.1in</code> (a LaTeX length
register is what plain TeX calls a <code class="code">skip</code> register).  The
initial value is zero.  The control sequence <code class="code">\<var class="var">len</var></code> must not
be already defined.
</p>
<p>An example:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newlength{\graphichgt}
</pre></div>

<p>If you forget the backslash then you get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Missing control sequence
inserted</samp>&rsquo;.  If the control sequence already exists then you get
something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Command \graphichgt already defined.
Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnewsavebox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\newenvironment</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewenvironment</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnewlength" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\newlength</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cnewsavebox-1">12.7 <code class="code">\newsavebox</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewsavebox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-box_002c-allocating-new"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newsavebox{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define \<var class="var">cmd</var>, the string consisting of a backslash followed by
<var class="var">cmd</var>, to refer to a new bin for storing material.  These bins hold
material that has been typeset, to use multiple times or to measure or
manipulate (see <a class="pxref" href="#Boxes">Boxes</a>).  The bin name \<var class="var">cmd</var> is required, must
start with a backslash, \, and must not already be a defined command.
This command is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This allocates a bin and then puts typeset material into it.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newsavebox{\logobox}
\savebox{\logobox}{LoGo}
Our logo is \usebox{\logobox}. 
</pre></div>

<p>The output is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Our logo is LoGo</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>If there is an already defined bin then you get something like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Command \logobox already defined. Or name
\end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>The allocation of a box is global.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\newtheorem</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnewsavebox" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\newsavebox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment-1">12.8 <code class="code">\newenvironment</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewenvironment</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cnewenvironment"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005crenewenvironment"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewenvironment"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005crenewenvironment"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environments_002c-defining"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-defining-new-environments"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-redefining-environments"></a>

<p>Synopses, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newenvironment{<var class="var">env</var>}{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
\newenvironment{<var class="var">env</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
\newenvironment{<var class="var">env</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
\newenvironment*{<var class="var">env</var>}{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
\newenvironment*{<var class="var">env</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
\newenvironment*{<var class="var">env</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or one of these.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewenvironment{<var class="var">env</var>}{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
\renewenvironment{<var class="var">env</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
\renewenvironment{<var class="var">env</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
\renewenvironment*{<var class="var">env</var>}{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
\renewenvironment*{<var class="var">env</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>]{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
\renewenvironment*{<var class="var">env</var>}[<var class="var">nargs</var>][<var class="var">optargdefault</var>]{<var class="var">begdef</var>}{<var class="var">enddef</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define or redefine the environment <var class="var">env</var>, that is, create the
construct <code class="code">\begin{<var class="var">env</var>} ... <var class="var">body</var> ... \end{<var class="var">env</var>}</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002a_002dform-of-environment-commands"></a>
<p>The starred form of these commands requires that the arguments not
contain multiple paragraphs of text.  However, the body of these
environments can contain multiple paragraphs.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><var class="var">env</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required; the environment name.  It consists only of letters or the
<code class="code">*</code> character, and thus does not begin with backslash, <code class="code">\</code>.
It must not begin with the string <code class="code">end</code>.  For
<code class="code">\newenvironment</code>, the name <var class="var">env</var> must not be the name of an
already existing environment, and also the command <code class="code">\<var class="var">env</var></code>
must be undefined.  For <code class="code">\renewenvironment</code>, <var class="var">env</var> must be the
name of an existing environment.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">nargs</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; an integer from 0 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of
that the environment takes.  When you use the environment these
arguments appear after the <code class="code">\begin</code>, as in
<code class="code">\begin{<var class="var">env</var>}{<var class="var">arg1</var>} ... {<var class="var">argn</var>}</code>.  Omitting
this is equivalent to setting it to 0; the environment will have no
arguments.  When redefining an environment, the new version can have a
different number of arguments than the old version.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">optargdefault</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; if this is present then the first argument of the defined
environment is optional, with default value <var class="var">optargdefault</var> (which
may be the empty string).  If this is not in the definition then the
environment does not take an optional argument.
</p>
<p>That is, when <var class="var">optargdefault</var> is present in the definition of the
environment then you can start the environment with square brackets, as
in <code class="code">\begin{<var class="var">env</var>}[<var class="var">optval</var>]{...} ... \end{<var class="var">env</var>}</code>.
In this case, within <var class="var">begdefn</var> the parameter <code class="code">#1</code> is set to the
value of <var class="var">optval</var>.  If you call <code class="code">\begin{<var class="var">env</var>}</code> without
square brackets, then within <var class="var">begdefn</var> the parameter <code class="code">#1</code> is
set to the value of the default <var class="var">optargdefault</var>.  In either case,
any required arguments start with <code class="code">#2</code>.
</p>
<p>Omitting <code class="code">[<var class="var">myval</var>]</code> in the call is different than having the
square brackets with no contents, as in <code class="code">[]</code>.  The former results
in <code class="code">#1</code> expanding to <var class="var">optargdefault</var>; the latter results in
<code class="code">#1</code> expanding to the empty string.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">begdef</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of
<code class="code">\begin{<var class="var">env</var>}</code>.  Within <var class="var">begdef</var>, the parameters
<code class="code">#1</code>, <code class="code">#2</code>, ... <code class="code">#<var class="var">nargs</var></code>, are replaced by the
values that you supply when you call the environment; see the examples
below.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">enddef</var></dt>
<dd><p>Required; the text expanded at every occurrence of
<code class="code">\end{<var class="var">env</var>}</code>.  This may not contain any parameters, that is,
you cannot use <code class="code">#1</code>, <code class="code">#2</code>, etc., here (but see the final
example below).
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>All environments, that is to say the <var class="var">begdef</var> code, the environment
body, and the <var class="var">enddef</var> code, are processed within a group.  Thus, in
the first example below, the effect of the <code class="code">\small</code> is limited to
the quote and does not extend to material following the environment.
</p>
<p>If you try to define an environment and the name has already been used
then you get something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Command \fred already
defined. Or name \end... illegal, see p.192 of the manual</samp>&rsquo;.  If you try
to redefine an environment and the name has not yet been used then you
get something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Environment hank undefined.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This example gives an environment like LaTeX&rsquo;s <code class="code">quotation</code>
except that it will be set in smaller type.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newenvironment{smallquote}{%
  \small\begin{quotation}
}{%
  \end{quotation}
}
</pre></div>

<p>This has an argument, which is set in boldface at the start of a
paragraph.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newenvironment{point}[1]{%
  \noindent\textbf{#1}
}{%
}
</pre></div>

<p>This one shows the use of a optional argument; it gives a quotation
environment that cites the author.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
  \begin{quotation}
  \noindent\textit{#1}: 
}{%
  \end{quotation}
}
</pre></div>

<p>The author&rsquo;s name is optional, and defaults to &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Shakespeare</samp>&rsquo;.  In
the document, use the environment like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{citequote}[Lincoln]
  ...
\end{citequote}
</pre></div>

<p>The final example shows how to save the value of an argument to use in 
<var class="var">enddef</var>, in this case in a box (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox"><code class="code">\sbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\savebox</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newsavebox{\quoteauthor}
\newenvironment{citequote}[1][Shakespeare]{%
  \sbox\quoteauthor{#1}%
  \begin{quotation} 
}{%
  \hspace{1em plus 1fill}---\usebox{\quoteauthor}
  \end{quotation}
}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnewtheorem">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnewfont" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\newfont</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\newenvironment</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewenvironment</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cnewtheorem-1">12.9 <code class="code">\newtheorem</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewtheorem"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-theorems_002c-defining"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-defining-new-theorems"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-theorem_002dlike-environment"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-theorem_002dlike"></a>
<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newtheorem{<var class="var">name</var>}{<var class="var">title</var>}
\newtheorem{<var class="var">name</var>}{<var class="var">title</var>}[<var class="var">numbered_within</var>]
\newtheorem{<var class="var">name</var>}[<var class="var">numbered_like</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define a new theorem-like environment.  You can specify one of
<var class="var">numbered_within</var> and <var class="var">numbered_like</var>, or neither, but not both.
</p>
<p>The first form, <code class="code">\newtheorem{<var class="var">name</var>}{<var class="var">title</var>}</code>, creates
an environment that will be labelled with <var class="var">title</var>; see the first
example below.
</p>
<p>The second form,
<code class="code">\newtheorem{<var class="var">name</var>}{<var class="var">title</var>}[<var class="var">numbered_within</var>]</code>,
creates an environment whose counter is subordinate to the existing
counter <var class="var">numbered_within</var>, so this counter will be reset when
<var class="var">numbered_within</var> is reset.  See the second example below.
</p>
<p>The third form
<code class="code">\newtheorem{<var class="var">name</var>}[<var class="var">numbered_like</var>]{<var class="var">title</var>}</code>,
with optional argument between the two required arguments, creates an
environment whose counter will share the previously defined counter
<var class="var">numbered_like</var>.  See the third example.
</p>
<p>This command creates a counter named <var class="var">name</var>.  In addition, unless
the optional argument <var class="var">numbered_like</var> is used, inside of the
theorem-like environment the current <code class="code">\ref</code> value will be that of
<code class="code">\the<var class="var">numbered_within</var></code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cref"><code class="code">\ref</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This declaration is global.  It is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Arguments:
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><var class="var">name</var></dt>
<dd><p>The name of the environment.  It is a string of letters.  It must not
begin with a backslash, <code class="code">\</code>.  It must not be the name of an
existing environment, and the command name <code class="code">\<var class="var">name</var></code> must not
already be defined.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">title</var></dt>
<dd><p>The text to be printed at the beginning of the environment, before the
number. For example, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Theorem</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">numbered_within</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; the name of an already defined counter, usually a sectional
unit such as <code class="code">chapter</code> or <code class="code">section</code>.  When the
<var class="var">numbered_within</var> counter is reset then the <var class="var">name</var> environment&rsquo;s
counter will also be reset.
</p>
<p>If this optional argument is not used then the command
<code class="code">\the<var class="var">name</var></code> is set to <code class="code">\arabic{<var class="var">name</var>}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">numbered_like</var></dt>
<dd><p>Optional; the name of an already defined theorem-like environment. The
new environment will be numbered in sequence with <var class="var">numbered_like</var>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Without any optional arguments the environments are numbered
sequentially.  The example below has a declaration in the preamble that
results in &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Definition&nbsp;1</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Definition&nbsp;2</samp>&rsquo; in the
output.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}
\begin{document}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
  First def 
\end{defn}

\section{...}
\begin{defn}
  Second def
\end{defn}
</pre></div>

<p>This example has the same document body as the prior one.  But here
<code class="code">\newtheorem</code>&rsquo;s optional argument <var class="var">numbered_within</var> is given as
<code class="code">section</code>, so the output is like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Definition&nbsp;1.1</samp>&rsquo; and
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Definition&nbsp;2.1</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
\begin{document}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
  First def 
\end{defn}

\section{...}
\begin{defn}
  Second def
\end{defn}
</pre></div>

<p>In the next example there are two declarations in the preamble, the
second of which calls for the new <code class="code">thm</code> environment to use the same
counter as <code class="code">defn</code>.  It gives &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Definition&nbsp;1.1</samp>&rsquo;, followed
by &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Theorem&nbsp;2.1</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Definition&nbsp;2.2</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newtheorem{defn}{Definition}[section]
\newtheorem{thm}[defn]{Theorem}
\begin{document}
\section{...}
\begin{defn}
  First def 
\end{defn}

\section{...}
\begin{thm}
  First thm
\end{thm}

\begin{defn}
  Second def
\end{defn}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnewfont">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cprotect" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\newtheorem</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cnewfont-1">12.10 <code class="code">\newfont</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewfont"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fonts_002c-new-commands-for"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-defining-new-fonts"></a>

<p>This command is obsolete. This description is here only to help with old
documents.  New documents should define fonts in families through the
New Font Selection Scheme which allows you to, for example, associate a
boldface with a roman (see <a class="pxref" href="#Fonts">Fonts</a>).
</p>
<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newfont{\<var class="var">cmd</var>}{<var class="var">font description</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Define a command <code class="code">\<var class="var">cmd</var></code> that will change the current font.
The control sequence must not already be defined. It must begin with a
backslash, <code class="code">\</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-at-clause_002c-in-font-definitions"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-design-size_002c-in-font-definitions"></a>
<p>The <var class="var">font description</var> consists of a <var class="var">fontname</var> and an optional
<em class="dfn">at clause</em>.  LaTeX will look on your system for a file named
<samp class="file"><var class="var">fontname</var>.tfm</samp>.  The at clause can have the form either
<code class="code">at <var class="var">dimen</var></code> or <code class="code">scaled <var class="var">factor</var></code>, where a
<var class="var">factor</var> of &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1000</samp>&rsquo; means no scaling.  For LaTeX&rsquo;s purposes,
all this does is scale all the character and other font dimensions
relative to the font&rsquo;s design size, which is a value defined in the
<samp class="file">.tfm</samp> file.
</p>
<p>This defines two equivalent fonts and typesets a few characters in each.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newfont{\testfontat}{cmb10 at 11pt}
\newfont{\testfontscaled}{cmb10 scaled 1100}
\testfontat abc
\testfontscaled abc
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cprotect">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\ignorespaces &amp; \ignorespacesafterend</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnewfont" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\newfont</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cprotect-1">12.11 <code class="code">\protect</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cprotect"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fragile-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-robust-commands"></a>

<p>All LaTeX commands are either <em class="dfn">fragile</em> or <em class="dfn">robust</em>.  A
fragile command can break when it is used in the argument to certain
other commands.  Commands that contain data that LaTeX writes to an
auxiliary file and re-reads later are fragile.  This includes material
that goes into a table of contents, list of figures, list of tables,
etc.  Fragile commands also include line breaks, any command that has an
optional argument, and many more. To prevent such commands from
breaking, one solution is to preceded them with the command
<code class="code">\protect</code>.
</p>
<p>For example, when LaTeX runs the <code class="code">\section{<var class="var">section
name</var>}</code> command it writes the <var class="var">section name</var> text to the
<samp class="file">.aux</samp> auxiliary file, moving it there for use elsewhere in the
document such as in the table of contents.  Any argument that is
internally expanded by LaTeX without typesetting it directly is
referred to as a 
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-moving-arguments"></a>
<em class="dfn">moving argument</em>.  A command is fragile if it can
expand during this process into invalid TeX code.  Some examples of
moving arguments are those that appear in the <code class="code">\caption{...}</code>
command (see <a class="pxref" href="#figure"><code class="code">figure</code></a>), in the <code class="code">\thanks{...}</code> command
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmaketitle"><code class="code">\maketitle</code></a>), and in @-expressions in the <code class="code">tabular</code> and
<code class="code">array</code> environments (see <a class="pxref" href="#tabular"><code class="code">tabular</code></a>).
</p>
<p>If you get strange errors from commands used in moving arguments, try
preceding it with <code class="code">\protect</code>.  Every fragile commands must be
protected with their own <code class="code">\protect</code>.  
</p>
<p>Although usually a <code class="code">\protect</code> command doesn&rsquo;t hurt, length
commands are robust and should not be preceded by a <code class="code">\protect</code>
command. Nor can a <code class="code">\protect</code> command be used in the argument to
<code class="code">\addtocounter</code> or <code class="code">\setcounter</code> command.
</p>
<p>In this example the <code class="code">\caption</code> command gives a mysterious error
about an extra curly brace.  Fix the problem by preceding each
<code class="code">\raisebox</code> command with <code class="code">\protect</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{figure}
  ...
  \caption{Company headquarters of A\raisebox{1pt}{B}\raisebox{-1pt}{C}}
\end{figure}
</pre></div>

<p>In the next example the <code class="code">\tableofcontents</code> command gives an error
because the <code class="code">\(..\)</code> in the section title expands to illegal TeX
in the <samp class="file">.toc</samp> file.  You can solve this by changing <code class="code">\(..\)</code>
to <code class="code">\protect\(..\protect\)</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{document}
\tableofcontents
...
\section{Einstein's \( e=mc^2 \)}
...
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#xspace-package" accesskey="n" rel="next">xspace package</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cprotect" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend-1">12.12 <code class="code">\ignorespaces &amp; \ignorespacesafterend</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cignorespaces"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cignorespacesafterend"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cignorespaces"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cignorespacesafterend"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-spaces_002c-ignore-around-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-commands_002c-ignore-spaces"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\ignorespaces
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\ignorespacesafterend
</pre></div>

<p>Both commands cause LaTeX to ignore blanks (that is, characters of
catcode&nbsp;10 such as space or tabulation) after the end of the
command up to the first box or non-blank character.  The first is a
primitive command of TeX, and the second is LaTeX-specific.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\ignorespaces</code> is often used when defining commands via
<code class="code">\newcommand</code>, or <code class="code">\newenvironment</code>, or <code class="code">\def</code>.  The
example below illustrates.  It allows a user to show the points values
for quiz questions in the margin but it is inconvenient because, as
shown in the <code class="code">enumerate</code> list, users must not put any space between
the command and the question text.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\points}[1]{\makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}
\begin{enumerate} 
  \item\points{10}no extra space output here
  \item\points{15} extra space between the number and the `extra'
\end{enumerate} 
</pre></div>

<p>The solution is to change to this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\points}[1]{%
  \makebox[0pt]{\makebox[10em][l]{#1~pts}}\ignorespaces}
</pre></div>

<p>A second example shows blanks being removed from the front of text.  The
commands below allow a user to uniformly attach a title to names.  But,
as given, if a title accidentally starts with a space then
<code class="code">\fullname</code> will reproduce that.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\honorific}[1]{\def\honorific{#1}} % remember title
\newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\honorific~#1}       % put title before name

\begin{tabular}{|l|}
\honorific{Mr/Ms}  \fullname{Jones} \\  % no extra space here
\honorific{ Mr/Ms} \fullname{Jones}     % extra space before title
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>To fix this, change to
<code class="code">\newcommand{\fullname}[1]{\ignorespaces\honorific~#1}</code>.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\ignorespaces</code> is also often used in a <code class="code">\newenvironment</code>
at the end of the <var class="var">begin</var> clause, as in
<code class="code">\begin{newenvironment}{<var class="var">env
name</var>}{... \ignorespaces}{...}</code>.
</p>
<p>To strip blanks off the end of an environment use
<code class="code">\ignorespacesafterend</code>.  An example is that this will show a much
larger vertical space between the first and second environments than
between the second and third.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}}
\begin{eq}
e=mc^2
\end{eq}
\begin{equation}
F=ma
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
E=IR
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>Putting a comment character&nbsp;<code class="code">%</code> immediately after the
<code class="code">\end{eq}</code> will make the vertical space disappear, but that is
inconvenient.  The solution is to change to
<code class="code">\newenvironment{eq}{\begin{equation}}{\end{equation}\ignorespacesafterend}</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="xspace-package">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\ignorespaces &amp; \ignorespacesafterend</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Definitions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="xspace-package-1">12.13 xspace package</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cxspace"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-xspace"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-xspace-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-spaces_002c-ignore-around-commands-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-commands_002c-ignore-spaces-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{xspace}
  ...
\newcommand{...}{...\xspace}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">\xspace</code> macro, when used at the end of a command definition,
adds a space unless the command is followed by certain punctuation
characters.
</p>
<p>After a command control sequence that is a control word (see <a class="pxref" href="#Control-sequences">Control sequence, control word and control symbol</a>, as opposed to control symbols such as <code class="code">\$</code>), TeX
gobbles blank characters.  Thus, in the first sentence below, the output
has &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Vermont</samp>&rsquo; placed snugly against the period, without any
intervening space.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\VT}{Vermont}
Our college is in \VT .
The \VT{} summers are nice.
</pre></div>

<p>But because of the gobbling, the second sentence needs the empty curly
braces or else there would be no space separating &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Vermont</samp>&rsquo; from
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">summers</samp>&rsquo;.  (Many authors instead use a backslash-space
<code class="code">\ </code> for this.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029">Backslash-space, <code class="code">\ </code></a>.)
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">xspace</code> package provides <code class="code">\xspace</code>.  It is for writing
commands which are designed to be used mainly in text.  It must be placed
at the very end of the definition of these commands. It inserts a space
after that command unless what immediately follows is in a list of
exceptions.  In this example, the empty braces are not needed.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\VT}{Vermont\xspace}
Our college is in \VT .
\VT summers are nice.
</pre></div>

<p>The default exception list contains the characters <code class="code">,.'/?;:!~-)</code>,
the open curly brace and the backslash-space command discussed above,
and the commands <code class="code">\footnote</code> or <code class="code">\footnotemark</code>.  Add to that
list as with <code class="code">\xspaceaddexceptions{\myfni \myfnii}</code> which adds
<code class="code">\myfni</code> and&nbsp;<code class="code">\myfnii</code> to the list, and remove from that
list as with <code class="code">\xspaceremoveexception{!}</code>.
</p>
<p>A comment: many experts prefer not to use <code class="code">\xspace</code>.  Putting it in
a definition means that the command will usually get the spacing right.
But it isn&rsquo;t easy to predict when to enter empty braces because
<code class="code">\xspace</code> will get it wrong, such as when it is followed by another
command, and so <code class="code">\xspace</code> can make editing material harder and more
error-prone than instead always inserting the empty braces.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Counters">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Lengths" accesskey="n" rel="next">Lengths</a>, Previous: <a href="#Definitions" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Definitions</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Counters-1">13 Counters</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-counters_002c-a-list-of"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-variables_002c-a-list-of"></a>

<p>Everything LaTeX numbers for you has a counter associated with
it. The name of the counter is often the same as the name of the
environment or command associated with the number, except that the
counter&rsquo;s name has no backslash&nbsp;<code class="code">\</code>.  Thus, associated with
the <code class="code">\chapter</code> command is the <code class="code">chapter</code> counter that keeps
track of the chapter number.  
</p>
<p>Below is a list of the counters used in LaTeX&rsquo;s standard document
classes to control numbering.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-part-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-chapter-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-section-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-subsection-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-subsubsection-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-subparagraph-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-page-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-equation-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-figure-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-table-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footnote-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mpfootnote-counter-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-enumi-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-enumii-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-enumiii-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-enumiv-counter"></a>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">part            paragraph       figure          enumi
chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
section         page            footnote        enumiii
subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
subsubsection
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">mpfootnote</code> counter is used by the <code class="code">\footnote</code> command
inside of a minipage (see <a class="pxref" href="#minipage"><code class="code">minipage</code></a>).  The counters <code class="code">enumi</code>
through <code class="code">enumiv</code> are used in the <code class="code">enumerate</code> environment, for
up to four levels of nesting (see <a class="pxref" href="#enumerate"><code class="code">enumerate</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Counters can have any integer value but they are typically positive.
</p>
<p>New counters are created with <code class="code">\newcounter</code>.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cnewcounter"><code class="code">\newcounter</code>: Allocating a counter</a>.
</p>



<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cusecounter" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\usecounter</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cvalue" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\value</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csetcounter" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\setcounter</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005caddtocounter" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\addtocounter</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005crefstepcounter" accesskey="6"><code class="code">\refstepcounter</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cstepcounter" accesskey="7"><code class="code">\stepcounter</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear" accesskey="8"><code class="code">\day</code> &amp; <code class="code">\month</code> &amp; <code class="code">\year</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cusecounter" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\usecounter</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Counters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Counters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol_003a-Printing-counters">13.1 <code class="code">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-counters_002c-printing"></a>

<p>Print the value of a counter, in a specified style.  For instance, if
the counter <var class="var">counter</var> has the value 1 then a
<code class="code">\alph{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code> in your source will result in a lowercase
letter&nbsp;a appearing in the output.
</p>
<p>All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for
instance, <code class="code">\alph{enumi}</code>.  Note that the counter name does not
start with a backslash.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005calph_007bcounter_007d'><span><code class="code">\alph{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005calph_007bcounter_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Print the value of <var class="var">counter</var> in lowercase letters: &lsquo;a&rsquo;, &lsquo;b&rsquo;,
<small class="enddots">...</small> If the counter&rsquo;s value is less than 1 or more than 26 then
you get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Counter too large.</samp>&rsquo;
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cAlph_007bcounter_007d'><span><code class="code">\Alph{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cAlph_007bcounter_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Print in uppercase letters: &lsquo;A&rsquo;, &lsquo;B&rsquo;, <small class="enddots">...</small> If the counter&rsquo;s value
is less than 1 or more than 26 then you get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Counter
too large.</samp>&rsquo;
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005carabic_007bcounter_007d'><span><code class="code">\arabic{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005carabic_007bcounter_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Print in Arabic numbers such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">5</samp>&rsquo; or &lsquo;<samp class="samp">-2</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005croman_007bcounter_007d'><span><code class="code">\roman{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005croman_007bcounter_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Print in lowercase roman numerals: &lsquo;i&rsquo;, &lsquo;ii&rsquo;, <small class="enddots">...</small> If the
counter&rsquo;s value is less than 1 then you get no warning or error but
LaTeX does not print anything in the output.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cRoman_007bcounter_007d'><span><code class="code">\Roman{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cRoman_007bcounter_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Print in uppercase roman numerals: &lsquo;I&rsquo;, &lsquo;II&rsquo;, <small class="enddots">...</small> If the
counter&rsquo;s value is less than 1 then you get no warning or error but
LaTeX does not print anything in the output.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfnsymbol_007bcounter_007d'><span><code class="code">\fnsymbol{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfnsymbol_007bcounter_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Prints the value of <var class="var">counter</var> using a sequence of nine symbols that
are traditionally used for labeling footnotes.  The value of
<var class="var">counter</var> should be between&nbsp;1 and&nbsp;9, inclusive.  If the
counter&rsquo;s value is less than 0 or more than 9 then you get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX
Error: Counter too large</samp>&rsquo;, while if it is 0 then you get no error or
warning but LaTeX does not output anything.
</p>
<p>Here are the symbols:
</p>
<table class="multitable">
<thead><tr><th width="11%">Number</th><th width="30%">Name</th><th width="30%">Command</th><th width="28%">Symbol</th></tr></thead>
<tbody><tr><td width="11%">1</td><td width="30%">asterisk</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\ast</code></td><td width="28%">*</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">2</td><td width="30%">dagger</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\dagger</code></td><td width="28%">&#x2020;</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">3</td><td width="30%">ddagger</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\ddagger</code></td><td width="28%">&#x2021;</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">4</td><td width="30%">section-sign</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\S</code></td><td width="28%">&#x00A7;</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">5</td><td width="30%">paragraph-sign</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\P</code></td><td width="28%">&#x00B6;</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">6</td><td width="30%">double-vert</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\parallel</code></td><td width="28%">&#x2016;</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">7</td><td width="30%">double-asterisk</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\ast\ast</code></td><td width="28%">**</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">8</td><td width="30%">double-dagger</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\dagger\dagger</code></td><td width="28%">&#x2020;&#x2020;</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">9</td><td width="30%">double-ddagger</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\ddagger\ddagger</code></td><td width="28%">&#x2021;&#x2021;</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cusecounter">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cvalue" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\value</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</a>, Up: <a href="#Counters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Counters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cusecounter-1">13.2 <code class="code">\usecounter</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cusecounter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-list-items_002c-specifying-counter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-numbered-items_002c-specifying-counter"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usecounter{<var class="var">counter</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Used in the second argument of the <code class="code">list</code> environment
(see <a class="pxref" href="#list"><code class="code">list</code></a>), this declares that list items will be numbered by
<var class="var">counter</var>.  It initializes <var class="var">counter</var> to zero, and arranges that
when <code class="code">\item</code> is called without its optional argument then
<var class="var">counter</var> is incremented by <code class="code">\refstepcounter</code>, making its value
be the current <code class="code">ref</code> value (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cref"><code class="code">\ref</code></a>).  This command is fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Put in the document preamble, this example makes a new list environment
enumerated with <var class="var">testcounter</var>:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcounter{testcounter}
\newenvironment{test}{%
  \begin{list}{}{%
    \usecounter{testcounter}
  }
}{%
  \end{list}
}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cvalue">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csetcounter" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\setcounter</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cusecounter" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\usecounter</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Counters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Counters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cvalue-1">13.3 <code class="code">\value</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cvalue"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-counters_002c-getting-value-of"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\value{<var class="var">counter</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Expands to the value of the counter <var class="var">counter</var>. (Note that the name
of a counter does not begin with a backslash.)
</p>
<p>This example outputs &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Test counter is&nbsp;6. Other counter
is&nbsp;5.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcounter{test} \setcounter{test}{5}
\newcounter{other} \setcounter{other}{\value{test}}
\addtocounter{test}{1}

Test counter is \arabic{test}.
Other counter is \arabic{other}.
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">\value</code> command is not used for typesetting the value of the
counter.  For that, see <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol"><code class="code">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</a>.
</p>
<p>It is often used in <code class="code">\setcounter</code> or <code class="code">\addtocounter</code> but
<code class="code">\value</code> can be used anywhere that LaTeX expects a number, such
as in <code class="code">\hspace{\value{foo}\parindent}</code>.  It must not be
preceded by <code class="code">\protect</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This example inserts <code class="code">\hspace{4\parindent}</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setcounter{myctr}{3} \addtocounter{myctr}{1}
\hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005csetcounter">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005caddtocounter" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\addtocounter</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cvalue" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\value</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Counters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Counters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005csetcounter-1">13.4 <code class="code">\setcounter</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csetcounter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-counters_002c-setting"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-setting-counters"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setcounter{<var class="var">counter</var>}{<var class="var">value</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Globally set the counter <var class="var">counter</var> to have the value of the
<var class="var">value</var> argument, which must be an integer.  Thus, you can set a
counter&rsquo;s value as <code class="code">\setcounter{section}{5}</code>.  Note that the
counter name does not start with a backslash.
</p>
<p>In this example if the counter <code class="code">theorem</code> has value 12 then the
second line will print &lsquo;<samp class="samp">XII</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setcounter{exercise}{\value{theorem}}
Here it is in Roman: \Roman{exercise}.
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005caddtocounter">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005crefstepcounter" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\refstepcounter</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csetcounter" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\setcounter</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Counters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Counters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005caddtocounter-1">13.5 <code class="code">\addtocounter</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005caddtocounter"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\addtocounter{<var class="var">counter</var>}{<var class="var">value</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Globally increment <var class="var">counter</var> by the amount specified by the
<var class="var">value</var> argument, which may be negative.
</p>
<p>In this example the section value appears as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">VII</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setcounter{section}{5}
\addtocounter{section}{2}
Here it is in Roman: \Roman{section}.
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005crefstepcounter">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cstepcounter" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\stepcounter</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005caddtocounter" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\addtocounter</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Counters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Counters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005crefstepcounter-1">13.6 <code class="code">\refstepcounter</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005crefstepcounter"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\refstepcounter{<var class="var">counter</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Globally increments the value of <var class="var">counter</var> by one, as does
<code class="code">\stepcounter</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cstepcounter"><code class="code">\stepcounter</code></a>).  The difference is that this
command resets the value of any counter numbered within it.  (For the
definition of &ldquo;counters numbered within&rdquo;, see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewcounter"><code class="code">\newcounter</code>: Allocating a counter</a>.)
</p>
<p>In addition, this command also defines the current <code class="code">\ref</code> value
to be the result of <code class="code">\thecounter</code>.
</p>
<p>While the counter value is set globally, the <code class="code">\ref</code> value is set
locally, i.e., inside the current group.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cstepcounter">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\day</code> &amp; <code class="code">\month</code> &amp; <code class="code">\year</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005crefstepcounter" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\refstepcounter</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Counters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Counters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cstepcounter-1">13.7 <code class="code">\stepcounter</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cstepcounter"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\stepcounter{<var class="var">counter</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Globally adds one to <var class="var">counter</var> and resets all counters numbered
within it.  (For the definition of &ldquo;counters numbered within&rdquo;,
see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewcounter"><code class="code">\newcounter</code>: Allocating a counter</a>.)
</p>
<p>This command differs from <code class="code">\refstepcounter</code> in that this one does
not influence references; that is, it does not define the current
<code class="code">\ref</code> value to be the result of <code class="code">\thecounter</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005crefstepcounter"><code class="code">\refstepcounter</code></a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cstepcounter" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\stepcounter</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Counters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Counters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear-1">13.8 <code class="code">\day</code> &amp; <code class="code">\month</code> &amp; <code class="code">\year</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cday"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cmonth"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cyear"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cday"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmonth"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cyear"></a>

<p>LaTeX defines the counter <code class="code">\day</code> for the day of the month
(nominally with value between 1 and 31), <code class="code">\month</code> for the month of
the year (nominally with value between 1 and 12), and <code class="code">\year</code> for
the year.  When TeX starts up, they are set from the current values
on the system.  The related command <code class="code">\today</code> produces a string
representing the current day (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ctoday"><code class="code">\today</code></a>).
</p>
<p>They counters are not updated as the job progresses so in principle they
could be incorrect by the end.  In addition, TeX does no sanity
check:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\day=-2 \month=13 \year=-4 \today
</pre></div>

<p>gives no error or warning and results in the output &lsquo;<samp class="samp">-2, -4</samp>&rsquo; (the
bogus month value produces no output).
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Command-line-input">Command line input</a>, to force the date to a given value from the
command line.
</p>
<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Lengths">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Making-paragraphs" accesskey="n" rel="next">Making paragraphs</a>, Previous: <a href="#Counters" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Counters</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Lengths-1">14 Lengths</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lengths_002c-defining-and-using"></a>

<p>A <em class="dfn">length</em> is a measure of distance.  Many LaTeX commands take a
length as an argument.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-rigid-lengths"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-rubber-lengths"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dimen-plain-TeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-skip-plain-TeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-glue-plain-TeX"></a>
<p>Lengths come in two types.  A <em class="dfn">rigid length</em> such as <code class="code">10pt</code>
does not contain a <code class="code">plus</code> or <code class="code">minus</code> component.  (Plain
TeX calls this a <em class="dfn">dimen</em>.)  A <em class="dfn">rubber length</em> (what plain
TeX calls a <em class="dfn">skip</em> or <em class="dfn">glue</em>) such as with <code class="code">1cm
plus0.05cm minus0.01cm</code> can contain either or both of those
components.  In that rubber length, the <code class="code">1cm</code> is the <em class="dfn">natural
length</em> while the other two, the <code class="code">plus</code> and <code class="code">minus</code>
components, allow TeX to stretch or shrink the length to optimize
placement.
</p>
<p>The illustrations below use these two commands.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">% make a black bar 10pt tall and #1 wide
\newcommand{\blackbar}[1]{\rule{#1}{10pt}}

% Make a box around #2 that is #1 wide (excluding the border)
\newcommand{\showhbox}[2]{%
  \fboxsep=0pt\fbox{\hbox to #1{#2}}} 
</pre></div>

<p>This example uses those commands to show a black bar 100&nbsp;points
long between &lsquo;<samp class="samp">XXX</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">YYY</samp>&rsquo;.  This length is rigid.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">XXX\showhbox{100pt}{\blackbar{100pt}}YYY
</pre></div>

<p>As for rubber lengths, shrinking is simpler one: with <code class="code">1cm minus
0.05cm</code>, the natural length is 1<span class="dmn">cm</span> but TeX can shrink it down
as far as 0.95<span class="dmn">cm</span>.  Beyond that, TeX refuses to shrink any more.
Thus, below the first one works fine, producing a space of
98&nbsp;points between the two bars.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
  \blackbar{101pt}\hspace{100pt minus 2pt}\blackbar{101pt}}YYY

XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
  \blackbar{105pt}\hspace{100pt minus 1pt}\blackbar{105pt}}YYY
</pre></div>

<p>But the second one gets a warning like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Overfull \hbox (1.0pt too
wide) detected at line 17</samp>&rsquo;.  In the output the first &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Y</samp>&rsquo; is
overwritten by the end of the black bar, because the box&rsquo;s material is
wider than the 300<span class="dmn">pt</span> allocated, as TeX has refused to shrink
the total to less than 309&nbsp;points.
</p>
<p>Stretching is like shrinking except that if TeX is asked to stretch
beyond the given amount, it will do it.  Here the first line is fine,
producing a space of 110&nbsp;points between the bars.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
  \blackbar{95pt}\hspace{100pt plus 10pt}\blackbar{95pt}}YYY

XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
  \blackbar{95pt}\hspace{100pt plus 1pt}\blackbar{95pt}}YYY
</pre></div>

<p>In the second line TeX needs a stretch of 10&nbsp;points and only
1&nbsp;point was specified.  TeX stretches the space to the required
length but it gives you a warning like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Underfull \hbox (badness
10000) detected at line 22</samp>&rsquo;.  (We won&rsquo;t discuss badness.)
</p>
<p>You can put both stretch and shrink in the same length, as in
<code class="code">1ex plus 0.05ex minus 0.02ex</code>.
</p>
<p>If TeX is setting two or more rubber lengths then it allocates the
stretch or shrink in proportion.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">XXX\showhbox{300pt}{%
  \blackbar{100pt}%  left
  \hspace{0pt plus 50pt}\blackbar{80pt}\hspace{0pt plus 10pt}%  middle
  \blackbar{100pt}}YYY  % right
</pre></div>

<p>The left and right bars take up 100&nbsp;points, so the middle needs
another 100.  The middle bar is 80&nbsp;points so the two
<code class="code">\hspace</code>&rsquo;s must stretch 20&nbsp;points.  Because the two are
<code class="code">plus 50pt</code> and <code class="code">plus 10pt</code>, TeX gets 5/6 of the stretch
from the first space and 1/6 from the second.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">plus</code> or <code class="code">minus</code> component of a rubber length can contain
a <em class="dfn">fill</em> component, as in <code class="code">1in plus2fill</code>.  This gives the
length infinite stretchability or shrinkability so that TeX could set
it to any distance.  Here the two figures will be equal-spaced across
the page.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{minipage}{\linewidth}
  \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{godel.png}%
  \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}\includegraphics{einstein.png}%
  \hspace{0pt plus 1fill}
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>

<p>TeX has three levels of infinity for glue components: <code class="code">fil</code>,
<code class="code">fill</code>, and <code class="code">filll</code>.  The later ones are more infinite than
the earlier ones.  Ordinarily document authors only use the middle one
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005chfill"><code class="code">\hfill</code></a> and see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cvfill"><code class="code">\vfill</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Multiplying a rubber length by a number turns it into a rigid length, so
that after <code class="code">\setlength{\ylength}{1in plus 0.2in}</code> and
<code class="code">\setlength{\zlength}{3\ylength}</code> then the value of
<code class="code">\zlength</code> is <code class="code">3in</code>.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Units-of-length" accesskey="1">Units of length</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csetlength" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\setlength</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005caddtolength" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\addtolength</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csettodepth" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\settodepth</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csettoheight" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\settoheight</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csettowidth" accesskey="6"><code class="code">\settowidth</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cstretch" accesskey="7"><code class="code">\stretch</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#Expressions" accesskey="8">Expressions</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Units-of-length">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csetlength" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\setlength</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Lengths" accesskey="u" rel="up">Lengths</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Units-of-length-1">14.1 Units of length</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-units_002c-of-length"></a>

<p>TeX and LaTeX know about these units both inside and outside of
math mode.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-pt'><span><code class="code">pt</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-pt'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-point"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-pt"></a><p>Point, 1/72.27 inch.  The (approximate) conversion to metric units
is 1<span class="dmn">point</span> = .35146<span class="dmn">mm</span> = .035146<span class="dmn">cm</span>. 
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-pc'><span><code class="code">pc</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-pc'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-pica"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-pc"></a><p>Pica, 12 pt
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-in'><span><code class="code">in</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-in'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-inch"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-in"></a><p>Inch, 72.27 pt
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-bp'><span><code class="code">bp</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-bp'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-big-point"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-PostScript-point"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-bp"></a><p>Big point, 1/72 inch.  This length is the definition of a point in
PostScript and many desktop publishing systems.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-mm'><span><code class="code">mm</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-mm'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-millimeter"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-mm"></a><p>Millimeter, 2.845<span class="dmn">pt</span>
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-cm'><span><code class="code">cm</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-cm'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-centimeter"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-cm"></a><p>Centimeter, 10<span class="dmn">mm</span>
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-dd'><span><code class="code">dd</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-dd'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-didot-point"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-dd"></a><p>Didot point, 1.07 pt
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-cc'><span><code class="code">cc</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-cc'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cicero"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-cc"></a><p>Cicero, 12 dd
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-sp'><span><code class="code">sp</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-sp'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-scaled-point"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-sp"></a><p>Scaled point, 1/65536 pt
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Three other units are defined according to the current font, rather
than being an absolute dimension.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-ex-1'><span><code class="code">ex</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-ex-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-x_002dheight"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ex"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="Lengths_002fex"></a><a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-ex"></a><p>The x-height of the current font <em class="dfn">ex</em>, traditionally the
height of the lowercase letter x, is often used for vertical
lengths.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-em-1'><span><code class="code">em</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-em-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-m_002dwidth"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-em"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="Lengths_002fem"></a><a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-em"></a><p>Similarly <em class="dfn">em</em>, traditionally the width of the capital
letter M, is often used for horizontal lengths.  This is also often
the size of the current font, e.g., a nominal 10<span class="dmn">pt</span> font will
have 1<span class="dmn">em</span> = 10<span class="dmn">pt</span>.  LaTeX has several commands to produce
horizontal spaces based on the em (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad"><code class="code">\enspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\quad</code> &amp; <code class="code">\qquad</code></a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-mu'><span><code class="code">mu</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-mu'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mu_002c-math-unit"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="units-of-length-mu"></a><p>Finally, in math mode, many definitions are expressed in terms
of the math unit <em class="dfn">mu</em>, defined by 1<span class="dmn">em</span> = 18<span class="dmn">mu</span>, where the
em is taken from the current math symbols family.  See <a class="xref" href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Using these units can help make a definition work better across font
changes.  For example, a definition of the vertical space between list
items given as <code class="code">\setlength{\itemsep}{1ex plus 0.05ex minus
0.01ex}</code> is more likely to still be reasonable if the font is changed
than a definition given in points.
</p>
<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005csetlength">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005caddtolength" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\addtolength</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#Units-of-length" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Units of length</a>, Up: <a href="#Lengths" accesskey="u" rel="up">Lengths</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005csetlength-1">14.2 <code class="code">\setlength</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csetlength"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lengths_002c-setting"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\<var class="var">len</var>}{<var class="var">amount</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Set the length \<var class="var">len</var> to <var class="var">amount</var>.  The length name
<code class="code">\<var class="var">len</var></code> has to be a control sequence (see <a class="pxref" href="#Control-sequences">Control sequence, control word and control symbol</a>), and as such must begin with a backslash, <code class="code">\</code> under
normal circumstances.  The <var class="var">amount</var> can be a rubber length
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  It can be positive, negative or zero, and can be in
any units that LaTeX understands (see <a class="pxref" href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>).
</p>
<p>Below, with LaTeX&rsquo;s defaults the first paragraph will be indented
while the second will not.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">I told the doctor I broke my leg in two places.

\setlength{\parindent}{0em}
He said stop going to those places.
</pre></div>

<p>If you did not declare \<var class="var">len</var> with <code class="code">\newlength</code>, for example if
you mistype it as in
<code class="code">\newlength{\specparindent}\setlength{\sepcparindent}{...}</code>,
then you get an error like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Undefined control sequence. &lt;argument&gt;
\sepcindent</samp>&rsquo;.  If you omit the backslash at the start of the length name
then you get an error like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Missing number, treated as zero.</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005caddtolength">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csettodepth" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\settodepth</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csetlength" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\setlength</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Lengths" accesskey="u" rel="up">Lengths</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005caddtolength-1">14.3 <code class="code">\addtolength</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005caddtolength"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lengths_002c-adding-to"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\addtolength{\<var class="var">len</var>}{<var class="var">amount</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Increment the length \<var class="var">len</var> by <var class="var">amount</var>.  The length name
<code class="code">\<var class="var">len</var></code> has to be a control sequence (see <a class="pxref" href="#Control-sequences">Control sequence, control word and control symbol</a>), and as such must begin with a backslash, <code class="code">\</code> under
normal circumstances.  The <var class="var">amount</var> is a rubber length
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  It can be positive, negative or zero, and can be in
any units that LaTeX understands (see <a class="pxref" href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>).
</p>
<p>Below, if <code class="code">\parskip</code> starts with the value <code class="code">0pt plus 1pt</code> 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Doctor: how is the boy who swallowed the silver dollar?
\addtolength{\parskip}{1pt}

Nurse: no change.
</pre></div>

<p>then it has the value <code class="code">1pt plus 1pt</code> for the second paragraph.
</p>
<p>If you did not declare \<var class="var">len</var> with <code class="code">\newlength</code>, for example if
you mistype it as in
<code class="code">\newlength{\specparindent}\addtolength{\sepcparindent}{...}</code>,
then you get an error like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Undefined control sequence. &lt;argument&gt;
\sepcindent</samp>&rsquo;. If the <var class="var">amount</var> uses some length that has not been
declared, for instance if for example you mistype the above as
<code class="code">\addtolength{\specparindent}{0.6\praindent}</code>, then you get
something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Undefined control sequence. &lt;argument&gt; \praindent</samp>&rsquo;.
If you leave off the backslash at the start of \<var class="var">len</var>, as in
<code class="code">\addtolength{parindent}{1pt}</code>, then you get something like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">You can't use `the letter p' after \advance</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005csettodepth">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csettoheight" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\settoheight</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005caddtolength" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\addtolength</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Lengths" accesskey="u" rel="up">Lengths</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005csettodepth-1">14.4 <code class="code">\settodepth</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csettodepth"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\settodepth{\<var class="var">len</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Set the length \<var class="var">len</var> to the depth of box that LaTeX gets on
typesetting the <var class="var">text</var> argument.  The length name <code class="code">\<var class="var">len</var></code>
has to be a control sequence (see <a class="pxref" href="#Control-sequences">Control sequence, control word and control symbol</a>), and as such
must begin with a backslash, <code class="code">\</code> under normal circumstances.
</p>
<p>This will print how low the character descenders go.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newlength{\alphabetdepth}
\settodepth{\alphabetdepth}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}
\the\alphabetdepth
</pre></div>

<p>If you did not declare \<var class="var">len</var> with <code class="code">\newlength</code>, if for example you
mistype the above as <code class="code">\settodepth{\aplhabetdepth}{abc...}</code>,
then you get something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Undefined control sequence. &lt;argument&gt;
\aplhabetdepth</samp>&rsquo;.  If you leave the backslash out of \<var class="var">len</var>, as in
<code class="code">\settodepth{alphabetdepth}{...}</code> then you get something like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Missing number, treated as zero. &lt;to be read again&gt; \setbox</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005csettoheight">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csettowidth" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\settowidth</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csettodepth" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\settodepth</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Lengths" accesskey="u" rel="up">Lengths</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005csettoheight-1">14.5 <code class="code">\settoheight</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csettoheight"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\settoheight{\<var class="var">len</var>}{text}
</pre></div>

<p>Sets the length \<var class="var">len</var> to the height of box that LaTeX gets on
typesetting the <code class="code">text</code> argument.  The length name <code class="code">\<var class="var">len</var></code>
has to be a control sequence (see <a class="pxref" href="#Control-sequences">Control sequence, control word and control symbol</a>), and as such
must begin with a backslash, <code class="code">\</code> under normal circumstances.
</p>
<p>This will print how high the characters go.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newlength{\alphabetheight}
\settoheight{\alphabetheight}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}
\the\alphabetheight
</pre></div>

<p>If no such length \<var class="var">len</var> has been declared with <code class="code">\newlength</code>, if
for example you mistype as
<code class="code">\settoheight{\aplhabetheight}{abc...}</code>, then you get something
like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Undefined control sequence. &lt;argument&gt; \alphabetheight</samp>&rsquo;.  If
you leave the backslash out of \<var class="var">len</var>, as in
<code class="code">\settoheight{alphabetheight}{...}</code> then you get something like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Missing number, treated as zero. &lt;to be read again&gt; \setbox</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005csettowidth">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cstretch" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\stretch</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csettoheight" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\settoheight</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Lengths" accesskey="u" rel="up">Lengths</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005csettowidth-1">14.6 <code class="code">\settowidth</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csettowidth"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\settowidth{\<var class="var">len</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Set the length \<var class="var">len</var> to the width of the box that LaTeX gets on
typesetting the <var class="var">text</var> argument.  The length name <code class="code">\<var class="var">len</var></code>
has to be a control sequence (see <a class="pxref" href="#Control-sequences">Control sequence, control word and control symbol</a>), and as such
must begin with a backslash, <code class="code">\</code> under normal circumstances.
</p>
<p>This prints the width of the lowercase ASCII alphabet.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newlength{\alphabetwidth}
\settowidth{\alphabetwidth}{abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz}
\the\alphabetwidth
</pre></div>

<p>If no such length \<var class="var">len</var> has been declared with <code class="code">\newlength</code>,
if for example you mistype the above as
<code class="code">\settowidth{\aplhabetwidth}{abc...}</code>, then you get something
like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Undefined control sequence. &lt;argument&gt; \aplhabetwidth</samp>&rsquo;.  If
you leave the backslash out of \<var class="var">len</var>, as in
<code class="code">\settoheight{alphabetwidth}{...}</code> then you get something like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Missing number, treated as zero. &lt;to be read again&gt; \setbox</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cstretch">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Expressions" accesskey="n" rel="next">Expressions</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csettowidth" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\settowidth</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Lengths" accesskey="u" rel="up">Lengths</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cstretch-1">14.7 <code class="code">\stretch</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cstretch"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\stretch{<var class="var">number</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Produces a rubber length with zero natural length and <var class="var">number</var> times
<code class="code">\fill</code> units of stretchability (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  The
<var class="var">number</var> can be positive or negative.  This command is robust
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>It works for both vertical and horizontal spacing.  In this horizontal
example, LaTeX produces three tick marks, and the distance between
the first and second is half again as long as the distance between the
second and third.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\rule{0.4pt}{1ex}\hspace{\stretch{1.5}}%
  \rule{0.4pt}{1ex}\hspace{\stretch{1}}%
  \rule{0.4pt}{1ex} 
</pre></div>

<p>In this vertical example, the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">We dedicate &hellip;</samp>&rsquo; will have three
times as much space under it as above it.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newenvironment{dedication}{% in document preamble
  \clearpage\thispagestyle{empty}% 
  \vspace*{\stretch{1}} % stretchable space at top 
  \it
}{%
  \vspace{\stretch{3}}  % space at bot is 3x as at top
  \clearpage
}
  ...
\begin{dedication}  % in document body
We dedicate this book to our wives.
\end{dedication}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Expressions">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cstretch" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\stretch</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Lengths" accesskey="u" rel="up">Lengths</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Expressions-1">14.8 Expressions</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-expressions"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\numexpr <var class="var">expression</var> 
\dimexpr <var class="var">expression</var>
\glueexpr <var class="var">expression</var>
\muglue <var class="var">expression</var>
</pre></div>

<p>Any place where you may write an integer, or a TeX dimen, or TeX
glue, or muglue, you can instead write an expression to compute that
type of quantity.
</p>
<p>An example is that <code class="code">\the\dimexpr\linewidth-4pt\relax</code> will
produce as output the length that is four points less than width of a
line (the only purpose of <code class="code">\the</code> is to show the result in the
document).  Analogously, <code class="code">\romannumeral\numexpr6+3\relax</code> will
produce &lsquo;<samp class="samp">ix</samp>&rsquo;, and <code class="code">\the\glueexpr 5pt plus 1pt * 2 \relax</code>
will produce &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10.0pt plus 2.0pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>A convenience here over doing calculations by allocating registers and
then using <code class="code">\advance</code>, etc., is that the evaluation of expressions
does not involve assignments and can therefore be performed in places
where assignments are not allowed.  The next example computes the width
of the <code class="code">\parbox</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newlength{\offset}\setlength{\offset}{2em}
\begin{center}
\parbox{\dimexpr\linewidth-\offset*3}{With malice toward none
with charity for all with firmness in the right as God gives us to see
the right let us strive on to finish the work we are in to bind up the
nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and
for his widow and his orphan \textasciitilde\ to do all which may
achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with
all nations.  ---Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address, from the
memorial}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>The <var class="var">expression</var> consists of one or more terms of the same type
(integer, dimension, etc.) that are added or subtracted.  A term that is
a type of number, dimension, etc., consists of a factor of that type,
optionally multiplied or divided by factors.  A factor of a type is
either a quantity of that type or a parenthesized subexpression.  The
expression produces a result of the given type, so that <code class="code">\numexpr</code>
produces an integer, <code class="code">\dimexpr</code> produces a dimension, etc.
</p>
<p>In the quotation example above, changing to
<code class="code">\dimexpr\linewidth-3*\offset</code> gives the error <code class="code">Illegal unit
of measure (pt inserted)</code>.  This is because for <code class="code">\dimexpr</code> and
<code class="code">\glueexpr</code>, the input consists of a dimension or glue value
followed by an optional multiplication factor, and not the other way
around. Thus <code class="code">\the\dimexpr 1pt*10\relax</code> is valid and produces
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">10.0pt</samp>&rsquo;, but <code class="code">\the\dimexpr 10*1pt\relax</code> gives the
<code class="code">Illegal unit</code> error.
</p>
<p>The expressions absorb tokens and carry out appropriate mathematics up
to a <code class="code">\relax</code> (which will be absorbed), or up to the first
non-valid token.  Thus, <code class="code">\the\numexpr2+3px</code> will print
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">5px</samp>&rsquo;, because LaTeX reads the <code class="code">\numexpr2+3</code>, which is
made up of numbers, and then finds the letter <code class="code">p</code>, which cannot
be part of a number.  It therefore terminates the expression and
produces the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">5</samp>&rsquo;, followed by the regular text &lsquo;<samp class="samp">px</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>This termination behavior is useful in comparisons.  In
<code class="code">\ifnum\numexpr\parindent*2 &lt; 10pt Yes\else No\fi</code>, the less than
sign terminates the expression and the result is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">No</samp>&rsquo; (in a
standard LaTeX article).
</p>
<p>Expressions may use the operators <code class="code">+</code>, <code class="code">-</code>, <code class="code">*</code> and
<code class="code">/</code> along with parentheses for subexpressions, <code class="code">(...)</code>.  In
glue expressions the <code class="code">plus</code> and <code class="code">minus</code> parts do not need
parentheses to be affected by a factor. So <code class="code">\the\glueexpr 5pt plus
1pt * 2 \relax</code> results in &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10pt plus 2pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>TeX will coerce other numerical types in the same way as it does when
doing register assignment. Thus <code class="code">\the\numexpr\dimexpr
1pt\relax\relax</code> will result in &lsquo;<samp class="samp">65536</samp>&rsquo;, which is <code class="code">1pt</code>
converted to scaled points (see <a class="pxref" href="#units-of-length-sp"><code class="code">sp</code></a>,
TeX&rsquo;s internal unit) and then coerced into an integer.  With a
<code class="code">\glueexpr</code> here, the stretch and shrink would be dropped.  Going
the other way, a <code class="code">\numexpr</code> inside a <code class="code">\dimexpr</code> or
<code class="code">\glueexpr</code> will need appropriate units, as in
<code class="code">\the\dimexpr\numexpr 1 + 2\relax pt\relax</code>, which produces
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">3.0pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>The details of the arithmetic: each factor is checked to be in the
allowed range, numbers must be less than <em class="math">2^{31}</em> in absolute
value, and dimensions or glue components must be less than
<em class="math">2^{14}</em> points, or <code class="code">mu</code>, or <code class="code">fil</code>, etc.  The
arithmetic operations are performed individually, except for a scaling
operation (a multiplication immediately followed by a division) which
is done as one combined operation with a 64-bit product as
intermediate value. The result of each operation is again checked to
be in the allowed range.
</p>
<p>Finally, division and scaling take place with rounding (unlike TeX&rsquo;s
<code class="code">\divide</code>, which truncates).  Thus
<code class="code">\the\dimexpr 5pt*(3/2)\relax</code> puts &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10.0pt</samp>&rsquo; in the document,
because it rounds <code class="code">3/2</code> to <code class="code">2</code>, while
<code class="code">\the\dimexpr 5pt*(4/3)\relax</code> produces &lsquo;<samp class="samp">5.0pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Making-paragraphs">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Math-formulas" accesskey="n" rel="next">Math formulas</a>, Previous: <a href="#Lengths" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Lengths</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Making-paragraphs-1">15 Making paragraphs</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-making-paragraphs"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraphs"></a>

<p>To start a paragraph, just type some text.  To end the current
paragraph, put an empty line.  This is three paragraphs, the
separation of which is made by two empty lines.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession
of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.

However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his
first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds
of the surrounding families, that he is considered the rightful property
of some one or other of their daughters.

``My dear Mr. Bennet,'' said his lady to him one day,
``have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?''
</pre></div>

<p>A paragraph separator can be made of a sequence of at least one blank
line, at least one of which is not terminated by a comment. A blank line
is a line that is empty or made only of blank characters such as space
or tab. Comments in source code are started with a <code class="code">%</code> and span up
to the end of line. In the following example the two columns are
identical:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass[twocolumn]{article}
\begin{document}
First paragraph.

Second paragraph.
\newpage
First paragraph.
      
  % separator lines may contain blank characters.
  		
Second paragraph.
\end{document}
</pre></div>


<p>Once LaTeX has gathered all of a paragraph&rsquo;s contents it divides that
content into lines in a way that is optimized over the entire paragraph
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Line-breaking">Line breaking</a>).
</p>
<p>There are places where a new paragraph is not permitted.  Don&rsquo;t put a
blank line in math mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>); here the blank line before the
<code class="code">\end{equation}</code>
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  2^{|S|} &gt; |S|

\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>will get you the error &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Missing $ inserted</samp>&rsquo;.  Similarly, the blank
line in this <code class="code">\section</code> argument
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\section{aaa

bbb}
</pre></div>

<p>gets &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Runaway argument? {aaa ! Paragraph ended before \@sect was
complete</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>



<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cpar" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\par</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\indent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\noindent</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\parindent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\parskip</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#Marginal-notes" accesskey="4">Marginal notes</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cpar">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\indent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\noindent</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Making-paragraphs" accesskey="u" rel="up">Making paragraphs</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cpar-1">15.1 <code class="code">\par</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpar"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph_002c-ending"></a>

<p>Synopsis (note that while reading the input TeX converts any sequence
of one or more blank lines to a <code class="code">\par</code>, <a class="ref" href="#Making-paragraphs">Making paragraphs</a>):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\par
</pre></div>

<p>End the current paragraph.  The usual way to separate paragraphs is with
a blank line but the <code class="code">\par</code> command is entirely equivalent.  This
command is robust (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This example uses <code class="code">\par</code> rather than a blank line simply for
readability.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\syllabusLegalese}{%
  \whatCheatingIs\par\whatHappensWhenICatchYou}
</pre></div>

<p>In LR mode the <code class="code">\par</code> command does nothing and is ignored.  In
paragraph mode, the <code class="code">\par</code> command terminates paragraph mode,
switching LaTeX to vertical mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).
</p>
<p>You cannot use the <code class="code">\par</code> command in a math mode.  You also cannot
use it in the argument of many commands, such as the sectioning
commands, e.g. <code class="code">\section</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Making-paragraphs">Making paragraphs</a> and
<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand"><code class="code">\newcommand</code> &amp; <code class="code">\renewcommand</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\par</code> command is not the same as the <code class="code">\paragraph</code>
command. The latter is, like <code class="code">\section</code> or <code class="code">\subsection</code>, a
sectioning command used by the LaTeX document standard classes
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph"><code class="code">\subsubsection</code>, <code class="code">\paragraph</code>, <code class="code">\subparagraph</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\par</code> command is not the same as <code class="code">\newline</code> or the line
break double backslash, <code class="code">\\</code>.  The difference is that <code class="code">\par</code>
ends the paragraph, not just the line, and also triggers the addition of
the between-paragraph vertical space <code class="code">\parskip</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip"><code class="code">\parindent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\parskip</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The output from this example
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">xyz

\setlength{\parindent}{3in}
\setlength{\parskip}{5in}
\noindent test\indent test1\par test2 
</pre></div>

<p>is: after &lsquo;<samp class="samp">xyz</samp>&rsquo; there is a vertical skip of 5&nbsp;inches and then
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">test</samp>&rsquo; appears, aligned with the left margin.  On the same line,
there is an empty horizontal space of 3&nbsp;inches and then
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">test1</samp>&rsquo; appears.  Finally. there is a vertical space of
5&nbsp;inches, followed by a fresh paragraph with a paragraph indent of
3&nbsp;inches, and then LaTeX puts the text &lsquo;<samp class="samp">test2</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\parindent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\parskip</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cpar" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\par</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Making-paragraphs" accesskey="u" rel="up">Making paragraphs</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent-1">15.2 <code class="code">\indent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\noindent</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cindent"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cnoindent"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cindent"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnoindent"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-indent_002c-forcing"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\indent
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\noindent
</pre></div>

<p>Go into horizontal mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).  The <code class="code">\indent</code> command
first outputs an empty box whose width is <code class="code">\parindent</code>.  These
commands are robust (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Ordinarily you create a new paragraph by putting in a blank line.
See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cpar"><code class="code">\par</code></a>, for the difference between this command and <code class="code">\par</code>.  To
start a paragraph without an indent, or to continue an interrupted
paragraph, use <code class="code">\noindent</code>.
</p>
<p>In the middle of a paragraph the <code class="code">\noindent</code> command has no effect,
because LaTeX is already in horizontal mode there.  The
<code class="code">\indent</code> command&rsquo;s only effect is to output a space.
</p>
<p>This example starts a fresh paragraph.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">... end of the prior paragraph.

\noindent This paragraph is not indented.
</pre></div>

<p>and this continues an interrupted paragraph.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The data 

\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{rl} ... \end{tabular}
\end{center}

\noindent shows this clearly.
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cparindent-1"></a>
<p>To omit indentation in the entire document put
<code class="code">\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}</code> in the preamble.  If you do that,
you may want to also set the length of spaces between paragraphs,
<code class="code">\parskip</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip"><code class="code">\parindent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\parskip</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-indentfirst-5"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-indentfirst-package-5"></a>

<p>Default LaTeX styles have the first paragraph after a section that is
not indented, as is traditional typesetting in English.  To change that,
look on CTAN for the package <code class="code">indentfirst</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Marginal-notes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Marginal notes</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\indent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\noindent</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Making-paragraphs" accesskey="u" rel="up">Making paragraphs</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip-1">15.3 <code class="code">\parindent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\parskip</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cparindent"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cparskip"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cparindent-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cparskip"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph-indentation"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-horizontal-paragraph-indentation"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-vertical-space-before-paragraphs"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\parindent}{<var class="var">horizontal len</var>}
\setlength{\parskip}{<var class="var">vertical len</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Both are rubber lengths (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  They affect the
indentation of ordinary paragraphs, not paragraphs inside
minipages (see <a class="pxref" href="#minipage"><code class="code">minipage</code></a>), and the vertical space between
paragraphs, respectively.
</p>
<p>For example, if this is put in the preamble:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\parindent}{0em}
\setlength{\parskip}{1ex}
</pre></div>

<p>The document will have paragraphs that are not indented, but instead
are vertically separated by about the height of a lowercase &lsquo;<samp class="samp">x</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>In LaTeX standard class documents, the default value for
<code class="code">\parindent</code> in one-column documents is <code class="code">15pt</code> when the
default text size is <code class="code">10pt</code>, <code class="code">17pt</code> for <code class="code">11pt</code>, and
<code class="code">1.5em</code> for <code class="code">12pt</code>.  In two-column documents it is <code class="code">1em</code>.
(These values are set before LaTeX calls <code class="code">\normalfont</code> so
<code class="code">em</code> is derived from the default font, Computer Modern.  If you use
a different font then to set <code class="code">\parindent</code> to 1<span class="dmn">em</span> matching
that font, put
<code class="code">\AtBeginDocument{\setlength{\parindent}{1em}}</code> in the
preamble.)
</p>
<p>The default value for <code class="code">\parskip</code> in LaTeX&rsquo;s standard document
classes is <code class="code">0pt plus1pt</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Marginal-notes">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\parindent</code> &amp; <code class="code">\parskip</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Making-paragraphs" accesskey="u" rel="up">Making paragraphs</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Marginal-notes-1">15.4 Marginal notes</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-marginal-notes"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-notes-in-the-margin"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-remarks-in-the-margin"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmarginpar"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\marginpar{<var class="var">right</var>}
\marginpar[<var class="var">left</var>]{<var class="var">right</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a note in the margin.  The first line of the note will have the
same baseline as the line in the text where the <code class="code">\marginpar</code>
occurs.
</p>
<p>The margin that LaTeX uses for the note depends on the current layout
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>) and also on <code class="code">\reversemarginpar</code>
(see below).  If you are using one-sided layout (document option
<code class="code">oneside</code>) then it goes in the right margin.  If you are using
two-sided layout (document option <code class="code">twoside</code>) then it goes in the
outside margin.  If you are in two-column layout (document option
<code class="code">twocolumn</code>) then it goes in the nearest margin.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005creversemarginpar"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnormalmarginpar"></a>
<p>If you declare <code class="code">\reversemarginpar</code> then LaTeX will place
subsequent marginal notes in the opposite margin to that given in the
prior paragraph.  Revert that to the default position with
<code class="code">\normalmarginpar</code>.
</p>
<p>When you specify the optional argument <var class="var">left</var> then it is used for
a note in the left margin, while the mandatory argument <var class="var">right</var> is
used for a note in the right margin.
</p>
<p>Normally, a note&rsquo;s first word will not be hyphenated.  You can enable
hyphenation there by beginning <var class="var">left</var> or <var class="var">right</var> with
<code class="code">\hspace{0pt}</code>.
</p>
<p>These parameters affect the formatting of the note:
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cmarginparpush-2'><span><code class="code">\marginparpush</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmarginparpush-2'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="marginal-notes-marginparpush"></a><p>Minimum vertical space between notes; default &lsquo;<samp class="samp">7pt</samp>&rsquo; for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">12pt</samp>&rsquo;
documents, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">5pt</samp>&rsquo; else. See also&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#page-layout-parameters-marginparpush">page layout parameters marginparpush</a>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmarginparsep'><span><code class="code">\marginparsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmarginparsep'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="marginal-notes-marginparsep"></a><p>Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">11pt</samp>&rsquo; for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10pt</samp>&rsquo; documents, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10pt</samp>&rsquo; else.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmarginparwidth-2'><span><code class="code">\marginparwidth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmarginparwidth-2'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="marginal-notes-marginparwidth"></a><p>Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10pt</samp>&rsquo; document
is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">90pt</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">83pt</samp>&rsquo; for &lsquo;<samp class="samp">11pt</samp>&rsquo;, and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">68pt</samp>&rsquo; for
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">12pt</samp>&rsquo;; &lsquo;<samp class="samp">17pt</samp>&rsquo; more in each case for a two-sided document.
In two column mode, the default is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">48pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>The standard LaTeX routine for marginal notes does not prevent
notes from falling off the bottom of the page.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Math-formulas">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Modes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Modes</a>, Previous: <a href="#Making-paragraphs" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Making paragraphs</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Math-formulas-1">16 Math formulas</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-formulas"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-formulas_002c-math"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-mode_002c-entering"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-math-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-environment-1"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-displaymath-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-displaymath-environment-1"></a>
        
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-equation-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-equation-environment-1"></a>
        

<p>Produce mathematical text by putting LaTeX into math mode or display
math mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).  This example shows both.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The wave equation for \( u \) is
\begin{displaymath}
  \frac{\partial^2u}{\partial t^2} = c^2\nabla^2u
\end{displaymath}
where \( \nabla^2 \) is the spatial Laplacian and \( c \) is constant.
</pre></div>

<p>Math mode is for inline mathematics.  In the above example it is invoked
by the starting <code class="code">\(</code> and finished by the matching ending <code class="code">\)</code>.
Display math mode is for displayed equations and here is invoked by the
<code class="code">displaymath</code> environment.  Note that any mathematical text
whatever, including mathematical text consisting of just one character,
is handled in math mode.
</p>
<p>When in math mode or display math mode, LaTeX handles many aspects of
your input text differently than in other text modes.  For example,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">contrast x+y with \( x+y \)
</pre></div>

<p>in math mode the letters are in italics and the spacing around the plus
sign is different.
</p>
<p>There are three ways to make inline formulas, to put LaTeX in math
mode.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\( <var class="var">mathematical material</var> \)
$ <var class="var">mathematical material</var> $
\begin{math} <var class="var">mathematical material</var> \end{math}
</pre></div>

<p>The first form is preferred and the second is quite common, but the
third form is rarely used.  You can sometimes use one and sometimes
another, as in <code class="code">\(x\) and $y$</code>.  You can use these in paragraph
mode or in LR mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).
</p>
<p>To make displayed formulas, put LaTeX into display math mode with
either:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{displaymath}
  <var class="var">mathematical material</var>
\end{displaymath}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  <var class="var">mathematical material</var>
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>(see <a class="pxref" href="#displaymath"><code class="code">displaymath</code></a>, see <a class="pxref" href="#equation"><code class="code">equation</code></a>).  The only difference is that
with the <code class="code">equation</code> environment, LaTeX puts a formula number
alongside the formula.  The construct <code class="code">\[ <var class="var">math</var> \]</code> is
equivalent to <code class="code">\begin{displaymath} <var class="var">math</var>
\end{displaymath}</code>.  These environments can only be used in paragraph
mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-5"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-5"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsfonts"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsfonts-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-mathtools"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mathtools-package"></a>

<p>The American Mathematical Society has made freely available a set of
packages that greatly expand your options for writing mathematics,
<code class="code">amsmath</code> and <code class="code">amssymb</code> (also be aware of the <code class="code">mathtools</code>
package that is an extension to, and loads, <code class="code">amsmath</code>).  New
documents that will have mathematical text should use these packages.
Descriptions of these packages is outside the scope of this document;
see their documentation on CTAN.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts" accesskey="1">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</a></li>
<li><a href="#Math-symbols" accesskey="2">Math symbols</a></li>
<li><a href="#Math-functions" accesskey="3">Math functions</a></li>
<li><a href="#Math-accents" accesskey="4">Math accents</a></li>
<li><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining" accesskey="5">Over- and Underlining</a></li>
<li><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode" accesskey="6">Spacing in math mode</a></li>
<li><a href="#Math-styles" accesskey="7">Math styles</a></li>
<li><a href="#Math-miscellany" accesskey="8">Math miscellany</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Math-symbols" accesskey="n" rel="next">Math symbols</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-formulas" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math formulas</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Subscripts-_0026-superscripts-1">16.1 Subscripts &amp; superscripts</h3>

<a class="anchor" id="superscript"></a><a class="anchor" id="subscript"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-superscript"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-subscript"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005e-superscript"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005f-subscript"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-exponent"></a>

<p>Synopsis (in math mode or display math mode), one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"><var class="var">base</var>^<var class="var">exp</var>
<var class="var">base</var>^{<var class="var">exp</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"><var class="var">base</var>_<var class="var">exp</var>
<var class="var">base</var>_{<var class="var">exp</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Make <var class="var">exp</var> appear as a superscript of <var class="var">base</var> (with the caret
character,&nbsp;<code class="code">^</code>) or a subscript (with
underscore,&nbsp;<code class="code">_</code>).
</p>
<p>In this example the <code class="code">0</code>&rsquo;s and <code class="code">1</code>&rsquo;s are subscripts while the
<code class="code">2</code>&rsquo;s are superscripts.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\( (x_0+x_1)^2 \leq (x_0)^2+(x_1)^2 \)
</pre></div>

<p>To have the subscript or superscript contain more than one character,
surround the expression with curly braces, as in <code class="code">e^{-2x}</code>.
This example&rsquo;s fourth line shows curly braces used to group an expression
for the exponent.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{displaymath}
  (3^3)^3=27^3=19\,683
  \qquad
  3^{(3^3)}=3^{27}=7\,625\,597\,484\,987
\end{displaymath}
</pre></div>

<p>LaTeX knows how to handle a superscript on a superscript, or a
subscript on a subscript, or supers on subs, or subs on supers.  So,
expressions such as <code class="code">e^{x^2}</code> and <code class="code">x_{i_0}</code> give correct
output.  Note the use in those expressions of curly braces to give the
<var class="var">base</var> a determined <var class="var">exp</var>.  If you enter <code class="code">\(3^3^3\)</code>, this
interpreted as <code class="code">\(3^{3}^{3}\)</code> and then you get TeX error
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Double superscript</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>LaTeX does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a
superscript.  In this example the integral has both.  They come out in
the correct place without any author intervention.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{displaymath}
  \int_{x=a}^b f'(x)\,dx = f(b)-f(a)
\end{displaymath}
</pre></div>

<p>Note the curly braces around <code class="code">x=a</code> to make the entire expression a
subscript.
</p>
<p>To put a superscript or subscript before a symbol, use a construct like
<code class="code">{}_t K^2</code>.  The empty curly braces <code class="code">{}</code> give the
subscript something to attach to and keeps it from accidentally
attaching to a prior symbols.
</p>
<p>Using the subscript or superscript character outside of math mode or
display math mode, as in <code class="code">the expression x^2</code>, will get you
the TeX error &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Missing $ inserted</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-mhchem"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mhchem-package"></a>

<p>A common reason to want subscripts outside of a mathematics mode is to
typeset chemical formulas.  There are packages for that, such as
<code class="code">mhchem</code>; see CTAN.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Math-symbols">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Math-functions" accesskey="n" rel="next">Math functions</a>, Previous: <a href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-formulas" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math formulas</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Math-symbols-1">16.2 Math symbols</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-symbols"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-symbols_002c-math"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-greek-letters"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-comprehensive"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-comprehensive-package"></a>


<p>LaTeX provides almost any mathematical or technical symbol that
anyone uses. For example, if you include <code class="code">$\pi$</code> in your source,
you will get the pi symbol &#x03C0;. See the &ldquo;Comprehensive
LaTeX Symbol List&rdquo; package at
<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/comprehensive">https://ctan.org/pkg/comprehensive</a>.
</p>
<p>Here is a list of commonly-used symbols.  It is by no means exhaustive.
Each symbol is described with a short phrase, and its symbol class,
which determines the spacing around it, is given in parenthesis.  Unless
said otherwise, the commands for these symbols can be used only in math
mode.  To redefine a command so that it can be used whatever the current
mode, see <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005censuremath"><code class="code">\ensuremath</code></a>.
</p>

<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005c_007c'><span><code class="code">\|</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_007c'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2225; Parallel (relation). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\parallel</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005caleph'><span><code class="code">\aleph</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005caleph'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2135; Aleph, transfinite cardinal (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005calpha'><span><code class="code">\alpha</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005calpha'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03B1; Lowercase Greek letter alpha (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005camalg'><span><code class="code">\amalg</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005camalg'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2A3F; Disjoint union (binary)
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cangle'><span><code class="code">\angle</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cangle'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2220; Geometric angle (ordinary). Similar: less-than
sign&nbsp;<code class="code">&lt;</code> and angle bracket&nbsp;<code class="code">\langle</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005capprox'><span><code class="code">\approx</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005capprox'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2248; Almost equal to (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cast'><span><code class="code">\ast</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cast'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2217; Asterisk operator, convolution, six-pointed
(binary). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">*</code>, which is often a superscript or
subscript, as in the Kleene star. Similar:&nbsp;<code class="code">\star</code>, which is
five-pointed, and is sometimes used as a general binary operation, and
sometimes reserved for cross-correlation.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005casymp'><span><code class="code">\asymp</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005casymp'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x224D; Asymptotically equivalent (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbackslash'><span><code class="code">\backslash</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbackslash'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>\ Backslash (ordinary).  Similar: set minus&nbsp;<code class="code">\setminus</code>, and
<code class="code">\textbackslash</code> for backslash outside of math mode.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbeta'><span><code class="code">\beta</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbeta'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03B2; Lowercase Greek letter beta (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigcap'><span><code class="code">\bigcap</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigcap'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22C2; Variable-sized, or n-ary, intersection (operator). Similar:
binary intersection&nbsp;<code class="code">\cap</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigcirc'><span><code class="code">\bigcirc</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigcirc'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x26AA; Circle, larger (binary).  Similar: function
composition&nbsp;<code class="code">\circ</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigcup'><span><code class="code">\bigcup</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigcup'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22C3; Variable-sized, or n-ary, union (operator). Similar: binary
union&nbsp;<code class="code">\cup</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigodot'><span><code class="code">\bigodot</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigodot'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2A00; Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled dot operator (operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigoplus'><span><code class="code">\bigoplus</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigoplus'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2A01; Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled plus operator (operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigotimes'><span><code class="code">\bigotimes</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigotimes'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2A02; Variable-sized, or n-ary, circled times operator (operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigtriangledown'><span><code class="code">\bigtriangledown</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigtriangledown'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x25BD; Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle
pointing down (binary). Synonym: <var class="var">\varbigtriangledown</var>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigtriangleup'><span><code class="code">\bigtriangleup</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigtriangleup'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x25B3; Variable-sized, or n-ary, open triangle
pointing up (binary). Synonym: <var class="var">\varbigtriangleup</var>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigsqcup'><span><code class="code">\bigsqcup</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigsqcup'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2A06; Variable-sized, or n-ary, square union (operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbiguplus'><span><code class="code">\biguplus</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbiguplus'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2A04; Variable-sized, or n-ary, union operator with a plus
(operator).  (Note that the name has only one p.)
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigvee'><span><code class="code">\bigvee</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigvee'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22C1; Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-or (operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigwedge'><span><code class="code">\bigwedge</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigwedge'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22C0; Variable-sized, or n-ary, logical-and (operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbot'><span><code class="code">\bot</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbot'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22A5;, Up tack, bottom, least element of a partially ordered
set, or a contradiction (ordinary).  See also&nbsp;<code class="code">\top</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbowtie'><span><code class="code">\bowtie</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbowtie'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22C8; Natural join of two relations (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cBox'><span><code class="code">\Box</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cBox'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x25A1; Modal operator for necessity; square open box
(ordinary).  Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the <code class="code">amssymb</code> package.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbullet'><span><code class="code">\bullet</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbullet'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bullet-symbol"></a>
<p>&#x2022; Bullet (binary).  Similar: multiplication
dot&nbsp;<code class="code">\cdot</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccap'><span><code class="code">\cap</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccap'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2229; Intersection of two sets (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
operator&nbsp;<code class="code">\bigcap</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccdot'><span><code class="code">\cdot</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccdot'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22C5; Multiplication (binary).  Similar: Bullet
dot&nbsp;<code class="code">\bullet</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cchi'><span><code class="code">\chi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cchi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03C7; Lowercase Greek chi (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccirc'><span><code class="code">\circ</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccirc'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2218; Function composition, ring operator (binary).  Similar:
variable-sized operator&nbsp;<code class="code">\bigcirc</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cclubsuit'><span><code class="code">\clubsuit</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cclubsuit'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2663; Club card suit (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccomplement'><span><code class="code">\complement</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccomplement'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2201;, Set complement, used as a superscript as in
<code class="code">$S^\complement$</code> (ordinary).  Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the <code class="code">amssymb</code> package. Also used:
<code class="code">$S^{\mathsf{c}}$</code> or&nbsp;<code class="code">$\bar{S}$</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccong'><span><code class="code">\cong</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccong'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2245; Congruent (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccoprod'><span><code class="code">\coprod</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccoprod'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2210; Coproduct (operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccup'><span><code class="code">\cup</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccup'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x222A; Union of two sets (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
operator&nbsp;<code class="code">\bigcup</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdagger'><span><code class="code">\dagger</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdagger'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2020; Dagger relation (binary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdashv'><span><code class="code">\dashv</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdashv'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22A3; Dash with vertical, reversed turnstile (relation).  Similar:
turnstile&nbsp;<code class="code">\vdash</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cddagger'><span><code class="code">\ddagger</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cddagger'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2021; Double dagger relation (binary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cDelta'><span><code class="code">\Delta</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cDelta'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x0394; Greek uppercase delta, used for increment (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdelta'><span><code class="code">\delta</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdelta'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03B4; Greek lowercase delta (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cDiamond'><span><code class="code">\Diamond</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cDiamond'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x25C7; Large diamond operator (ordinary).  Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the <code class="code">amssymb</code> package.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdiamond'><span><code class="code">\diamond</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdiamond'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22C4; Diamond operator (binary).  Similar: large
diamond&nbsp;<code class="code">\Diamond</code>, circle bullet&nbsp;<code class="code">\bullet</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdiamondsuit'><span><code class="code">\diamondsuit</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdiamondsuit'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2662; Diamond card suit (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdiv'><span><code class="code">\div</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdiv'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x00F7; Division sign (binary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdoteq'><span><code class="code">\doteq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdoteq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2250; Approaches the limit (relation).  Similar: geometrically equal
to&nbsp;<code class="code">\Doteq</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdownarrow'><span><code class="code">\downarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdownarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2193; Down arrow, converges (relation).  Similar:
<code class="code">\Downarrow</code> double line down arrow.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cDownarrow'><span><code class="code">\Downarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cDownarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21D3; Double line down arrow (relation).  Similar:
<code class="code">\downarrow</code> single line down arrow.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cell'><span><code class="code">\ell</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cell'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2113; Lowercase cursive letter l (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cemptyset'><span><code class="code">\emptyset</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cemptyset'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2205; Empty set symbol (ordinary).  The variant form is
<code class="code">\varnothing</code>.
</p>	
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cepsilon'><span><code class="code">\epsilon</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cepsilon'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03F5; Lowercase lunate epsilon (ordinary). Similar to
Greek text letter. More widely used in mathematics is the script small
letter epsilon <code class="code">\varepsilon</code>&nbsp;&#x03B5;. Related:
the set membership relation <code class="code">\in</code>&nbsp;&#x2208;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cequiv'><span><code class="code">\equiv</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cequiv'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2261; Equivalence (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ceta'><span><code class="code">\eta</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ceta'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03B7; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cexists'><span><code class="code">\exists</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cexists'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2203; Existential quantifier (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cflat'><span><code class="code">\flat</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cflat'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x266D; Musical flat (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cforall'><span><code class="code">\forall</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cforall'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2200; Universal quantifier (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfrown'><span><code class="code">\frown</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfrown'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2322; Downward curving arc (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cGamma'><span><code class="code">\Gamma</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cGamma'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x0393; uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cgamma'><span><code class="code">\gamma</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cgamma'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03B3; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cge'><span><code class="code">\ge</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cge'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2265; Greater than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
for&nbsp;<code class="code">\geq</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cgeq'><span><code class="code">\geq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cgeq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2265; Greater than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
for&nbsp;<code class="code">\ge</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cgets'><span><code class="code">\gets</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cgets'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2190; Is assigned the value (relation).
Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\leftarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cgg'><span><code class="code">\gg</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cgg'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x226B; Much greater than (relation).  Similar: much less
than&nbsp;<code class="code">\ll</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005chbar'><span><code class="code">\hbar</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005chbar'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x210F; Planck constant over two pi (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cheartsuit'><span><code class="code">\heartsuit</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cheartsuit'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2661; Heart card suit (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005chookleftarrow'><span><code class="code">\hookleftarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005chookleftarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21A9; Hooked left arrow (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005chookrightarrow'><span><code class="code">\hookrightarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005chookrightarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21AA; Hooked right arrow (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ciff'><span><code class="code">\iff</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ciff'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x27F7; If and only if (relation).  It is <code class="code">\Longleftrightarrow</code>
with a <code class="code">\thickmuskip</code> on either side.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cIm'><span><code class="code">\Im</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cIm'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2111; Imaginary part (ordinary).  See: real part&nbsp;<code class="code">\Re</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cimath'><span><code class="code">\imath</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cimath'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dotless-i_002c-math"></a>
<p>Dotless i; used when you are putting an accent on an i (see <a class="pxref" href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cin'><span><code class="code">\in</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cin'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2208; Set element (relation).  See also: lowercase lunate
epsilon&nbsp;<code class="code">\epsilon</code>&#x03F5; and small letter script
epsilon&nbsp;<code class="code">\varepsilon</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cinfty'><span><code class="code">\infty</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cinfty'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x221E; Infinity (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cint'><span><code class="code">\int</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cint'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x222B; Integral (operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ciota'><span><code class="code">\iota</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ciota'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03B9; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cJoin'><span><code class="code">\Join</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cJoin'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2A1D; Condensed bowtie symbol (relation).  Not available in Plain
TeX.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cjmath'><span><code class="code">\jmath</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cjmath'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dotless-j_002c-math"></a>
<p>Dotless j; used when you are putting an accent on a j (see <a class="pxref" href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ckappa'><span><code class="code">\kappa</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ckappa'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03BA; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cLambda'><span><code class="code">\Lambda</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cLambda'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x039B; uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clambda'><span><code class="code">\lambda</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clambda'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03BB; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cland'><span><code class="code">\land</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cland'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2227; Logical and (binary).  Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\wedge</code>.
See also logical&nbsp;or&nbsp;<code class="code">\lor</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clangle'><span><code class="code">\langle</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clangle'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x27E8; Left angle, or sequence, bracket (opening).  Similar:
less-than&nbsp;<code class="code">&lt;</code>. Matches&nbsp;<code class="code">\rangle</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clbrace'><span><code class="code">\lbrace</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clbrace'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x007B; Left curly brace
(opening). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\{</code>. Matches&nbsp;<code class="code">\rbrace</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clbrack'><span><code class="code">\lbrack</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clbrack'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x005B; Left square bracket (opening).
Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">[</code>. Matches&nbsp;<code class="code">\rbrack</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clceil'><span><code class="code">\lceil</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clceil'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2308; Left ceiling bracket, like a square bracket but with the bottom
shaved off (opening). Matches&nbsp;<code class="code">\rceil</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cle'><span><code class="code">\le</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cle'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2264; Less than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
for&nbsp;<code class="code">\leq</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cleadsto'><span><code class="code">\leadsto</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cleadsto'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21DD; Squiggly right arrow (relation).
To get this symbol outside of math mode you can put
<code class="code">\newcommand*{\Leadsto}{\ensuremath{\leadsto}}</code> in the
preamble and then use <code class="code">\Leadsto</code> instead.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cLeftarrow'><span><code class="code">\Leftarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cLeftarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21D0; Is implied by, double-line left arrow (relation).  Similar:
single-line left arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\leftarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cleftarrow'><span><code class="code">\leftarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cleftarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2190; Single-line left arrow (relation).
Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\gets</code>. Similar: double-line left
arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\Leftarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cleftharpoondown'><span><code class="code">\leftharpoondown</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cleftharpoondown'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21BD; Single-line left harpoon, barb under bar (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cleftharpoonup'><span><code class="code">\leftharpoonup</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cleftharpoonup'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21BC; Single-line left harpoon, barb over bar (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cLeftrightarrow'><span><code class="code">\Leftrightarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cLeftrightarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21D4; Bi-implication; double-line double-headed arrow (relation).
Similar: single-line double headed arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\leftrightarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cleftrightarrow'><span><code class="code">\leftrightarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cleftrightarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2194; Single-line double-headed arrow (relation).  Similar:
double-line double headed arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\Leftrightarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cleq'><span><code class="code">\leq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cleq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2264; Less than or equal to (relation).  This is a synonym
for&nbsp;<code class="code">\le</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clfloor'><span><code class="code">\lfloor</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clfloor'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x230A; Left floor bracket (opening). Matches:&nbsp;<code class="code">\floor</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clhd'><span><code class="code">\lhd</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clhd'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x25C1; Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing left (binary).
For the normal subgroup symbol you should load
<code class="code">amssymb</code> and use&nbsp;<code class="code">\vartriangleleft</code> (which is a relation
and so gives better spacing).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cll'><span><code class="code">\ll</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cll'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x226A; Much less than (relation).  Similar: much greater
than&nbsp;<code class="code">\gg</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clnot'><span><code class="code">\lnot</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clnot'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x00AC; Logical negation (ordinary). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\neg</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clongleftarrow'><span><code class="code">\longleftarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clongleftarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x27F5; Long single-line left arrow (relation).  Similar: long
double-line left arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\Longleftarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clongleftrightarrow'><span><code class="code">\longleftrightarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clongleftrightarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x27F7; Long single-line double-headed arrow (relation).  Similar: long
double-line double-headed arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\Longleftrightarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clongmapsto'><span><code class="code">\longmapsto</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clongmapsto'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x27FC; Long single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar
(relation).  Similar: shorter version&nbsp;<code class="code">\mapsto</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clongrightarrow'><span><code class="code">\longrightarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clongrightarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x27F6; Long single-line right arrow (relation).  Similar: long
double-line right arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\Longrightarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clor'><span><code class="code">\lor</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clor'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2228; Logical or (binary).  Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\vee</code>.
See also logical&nbsp;and&nbsp;<code class="code">\land</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmapsto'><span><code class="code">\mapsto</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmapsto'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21A6; Single-line left arrow starting with vertical bar
(relation).
Similar: longer version&nbsp;<code class="code">\longmapsto</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmho'><span><code class="code">\mho</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmho'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2127; Conductance, half-circle rotated capital omega (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmid'><span><code class="code">\mid</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmid'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2223; Single-line vertical bar (relation).  A typical use of
<code class="code">\mid</code> is for a set <code class="code">\{\, x \mid x\geq 5 \,\}</code>.
</p>
<p>Similar: <code class="code">\vert</code> and&nbsp;<code class="code">|</code> produce the same single-line
vertical bar symbol but without any spacing (they fall in class
ordinary) and you should not use them as relations but instead only as
ordinals, i.e., footnote symbols.  For absolute value, see the entry
for&nbsp;<code class="code">\vert</code> and for norm see the entry for&nbsp;<code class="code">\Vert</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmodels'><span><code class="code">\models</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmodels'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22A8; Entails, or satisfies; double turnstile, short double dash
(relation).  Similar: long double dash&nbsp;<code class="code">\vDash</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmp'><span><code class="code">\mp</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmp'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2213; Minus or plus (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmu'><span><code class="code">\mu</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmu'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03BC; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cnabla'><span><code class="code">\nabla</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cnabla'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2207; Hamilton&rsquo;s del, or differential, operator (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cnatural'><span><code class="code">\natural</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cnatural'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x266E; Musical natural notation (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cne'><span><code class="code">\ne</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cne'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2260; Not equal (relation). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\neq</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cnearrow'><span><code class="code">\nearrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cnearrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2197; North-east arrow (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cneg'><span><code class="code">\neg</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cneg'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x00AC; Logical negation (ordinary).
Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\lnot</code>. Sometimes instead used for
negation:&nbsp;<code class="code">\sim</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cneq'><span><code class="code">\neq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cneq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2260; Not equal (relation). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\ne</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cni'><span><code class="code">\ni</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cni'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x220B; Reflected membership epsilon; has the member
(relation). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\owns</code>. Similar: is a member
of&nbsp;<code class="code">\in</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cnot'><span><code class="code">\not</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cnot'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x0020;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Long solidus, or slash, used to overstrike a
following operator (relation).
</p>
<p>Many negated operators are available that don&rsquo;t require <code class="code">\not</code>,
particularly with the <code class="code">amssymb</code> package. For example, <code class="code">\notin</code>
is typographically preferable to <code class="code">\not\in</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cnotin'><span><code class="code">\notin</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cnotin'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2209; Not an element of (relation).  Similar: not subset
of&nbsp;<code class="code">\nsubseteq</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cnu'><span><code class="code">\nu</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cnu'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03BD; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cnwarrow'><span><code class="code">\nwarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cnwarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2196; North-west arrow (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005codot'><span><code class="code">\odot</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005codot'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2299; Dot inside a circle (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
operator&nbsp;<code class="code">\bigodot</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005coint'><span><code class="code">\oint</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005coint'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x222E; Contour integral, integral with circle in the middle
(operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cOmega'><span><code class="code">\Omega</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cOmega'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03A9; uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005comega'><span><code class="code">\omega</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005comega'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03C9; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cominus'><span><code class="code">\ominus</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cominus'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2296; Minus sign, or dash, inside a circle (binary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005coplus'><span><code class="code">\oplus</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005coplus'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2295; Plus sign inside a circle (binary).  Similar: variable-sized
operator&nbsp;<code class="code">\bigoplus</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005coslash'><span><code class="code">\oslash</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005coslash'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2298; Solidus, or slash, inside a circle (binary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cotimes'><span><code class="code">\otimes</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cotimes'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2297; Times sign, or cross, inside a circle (binary).  Similar:
variable-sized operator&nbsp;<code class="code">\bigotimes</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cowns'><span><code class="code">\owns</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cowns'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x220B; Reflected membership epsilon; has the member
(relation). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\ni</code>. Similar: is a member
of&nbsp;<code class="code">\in</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cparallel'><span><code class="code">\parallel</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cparallel'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2225; Parallel (relation). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\|</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpartial'><span><code class="code">\partial</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpartial'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2202; Partial differential (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cperp'><span><code class="code">\perp</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cperp'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x27C2; Perpendicular (relation).  Similar:&nbsp;<code class="code">\bot</code> uses the
same glyph but the spacing is different because it is in the class
ordinary.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cPhi'><span><code class="code">\Phi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cPhi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03A6; Uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cphi'><span><code class="code">\phi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cphi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03D5; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
<code class="code">\varphi</code>&nbsp;&#x03C6;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cPi'><span><code class="code">\Pi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cPi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03A0; uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpi'><span><code class="code">\pi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03C0; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
<code class="code">\varpi</code>&nbsp;&#x03D6;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpm'><span><code class="code">\pm</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpm'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x00B1; Plus or minus (binary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cprec'><span><code class="code">\prec</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cprec'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x227A; Precedes (relation). Similar: less than&nbsp;<code class="code">&lt;</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpreceq'><span><code class="code">\preceq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpreceq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2AAF; Precedes or equals (relation). Similar: less than or
equals&nbsp;<code class="code">\leq</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cprime'><span><code class="code">\prime</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cprime'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2032; Prime, or minute in a time expression (ordinary).
Typically used as a superscript: <code class="code">$f^\prime$</code>; <code class="code">$f^\prime$</code>
and <code class="code">$f'$</code> produce the same result.  An advantage of the second
is that <code class="code">$f'''$</code> produces the desired symbol, that is, the same
result as <code class="code">$f^{\prime\prime\prime}$</code>, but uses rather less
typing.  You can only use <code class="code">\prime</code> in math mode.  Using the right
single quote&nbsp;<code class="code">'</code> in text mode produces a different character
(apostrophe).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cprod'><span><code class="code">\prod</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cprod'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x220F; Product (operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpropto'><span><code class="code">\propto</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpropto'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x221D; Is proportional to (relation)
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cPsi'><span><code class="code">\Psi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cPsi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03A8; uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpsi'><span><code class="code">\psi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpsi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03C8; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crangle'><span><code class="code">\rangle</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crangle'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x27E9; Right angle, or sequence, bracket (closing).
Similar: greater than&nbsp;<code class="code">&gt;</code>. Matches:<code class="code">\langle</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crbrace'><span><code class="code">\rbrace</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crbrace'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x007D; Right curly brace
(closing). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\}</code>. Matches&nbsp;<code class="code">\lbrace</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crbrack'><span><code class="code">\rbrack</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crbrack'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x005D; Right square bracket
(closing). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">]</code>. Matches&nbsp;<code class="code">\lbrack</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crceil'><span><code class="code">\rceil</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crceil'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2309; Right ceiling bracket (closing). Matches&nbsp;<code class="code">\lceil</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cRe'><span><code class="code">\Re</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cRe'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x211C; Real part, real numbers, cursive capital R (ordinary). Related:
double-line, or blackboard bold, R&nbsp;<code class="code">\mathbb{R}</code>; to access
this, load the <code class="code">amsfonts</code> package.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crestriction'><span><code class="code">\restriction</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crestriction'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21BE;, Restriction of a function (relation). Synonym:
<code class="code">\upharpoonright</code>.  Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the <code class="code">amssymb</code> package.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crevemptyset'><span><code class="code">\revemptyset</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crevemptyset'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x29B0;, Reversed empty set symbol (ordinary).  Related:
<code class="code">\varnothing</code>. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the <samp class="file">stix</samp> package.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crfloor'><span><code class="code">\rfloor</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crfloor'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x230B; Right floor bracket, a right square bracket with the top cut
off (closing). Matches&nbsp;<code class="code">\lfloor</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crhd'><span><code class="code">\rhd</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crhd'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x25C1; Arrowhead, that is, triangle, pointing right (binary).
For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead
load <code class="code">amssymb</code> and use&nbsp;<code class="code">\vartriangleright</code> (which is a
relation and so gives better spacing).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crho'><span><code class="code">\rho</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crho'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03C1; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).  The variant form is
<code class="code">\varrho</code>&nbsp;&#x03F1;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cRightarrow'><span><code class="code">\Rightarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cRightarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21D2; Implies, right-pointing double line arrow
(relation). Similar: right single-line arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\rightarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crightarrow'><span><code class="code">\rightarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crightarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2192; Right-pointing single line arrow (relation).
Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\to</code>. Similar: right double line
arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\Rightarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crightharpoondown'><span><code class="code">\rightharpoondown</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crightharpoondown'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21C1; Right-pointing harpoon with barb below
the line (relation). 
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crightharpoonup'><span><code class="code">\rightharpoonup</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crightharpoonup'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21C0; Right-pointing harpoon with barb above the
line (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crightleftharpoons'><span><code class="code">\rightleftharpoons</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crightleftharpoons'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21CC; Right harpoon up above left harpoon down
(relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csearrow'><span><code class="code">\searrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csearrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2198; Arrow pointing southeast (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csetminus'><span><code class="code">\setminus</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csetminus'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x29F5; Set difference, reverse solidus or reverse slash,
like \ (binary). Similar: backslash&nbsp;<code class="code">\backslash</code> and also
<code class="code">\textbackslash</code> outside of math mode.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csharp'><span><code class="code">\sharp</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csharp'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x266F; Musical sharp (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cSigma'><span><code class="code">\Sigma</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cSigma'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03A3; uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csigma'><span><code class="code">\sigma</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csigma'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03C3; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
<code class="code">\varsigma</code>&nbsp;&#x03C2;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csim'><span><code class="code">\sim</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csim'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x223C; Similar, in a relation (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csimeq'><span><code class="code">\simeq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csimeq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2243; Similar or equal to, in a relation (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csmallint'><span><code class="code">\smallint</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csmallint'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x222B; Integral sign that does not change to a larger size in a
display (operator).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csmile'><span><code class="code">\smile</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csmile'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2323; Upward curving arc, smile (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cspadesuit'><span><code class="code">\spadesuit</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cspadesuit'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2660; Spade card suit (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csqcap'><span><code class="code">\sqcap</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csqcap'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2293; Square intersection symbol (binary). Similar:
intersection&nbsp;<code class="code">cap</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csqcup'><span><code class="code">\sqcup</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csqcup'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2294; Square union symbol (binary). Similar:
union&nbsp;<code class="code">cup</code>. Related: variable-sized
operator&nbsp;<code class="code">\bigsqcup</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csqsubset'><span><code class="code">\sqsubset</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csqsubset'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x228F;, Square subset symbol (relation). Similar:
subset&nbsp;<code class="code">\subset</code>. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the <code class="code">amssymb</code> package.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csqsubseteq'><span><code class="code">\sqsubseteq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csqsubseteq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2291; Square subset or equal symbol (binary). Similar: subset or
equal to&nbsp;<code class="code">\subseteq</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csqsupset'><span><code class="code">\sqsupset</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csqsupset'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2290;, Square superset symbol (relation). Similar:
superset&nbsp;<code class="code">\supset</code>. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the <code class="code">amssymb</code> package.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csqsupseteq'><span><code class="code">\sqsupseteq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csqsupseteq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2292; Square superset or equal symbol (binary).
Similar: superset or equal&nbsp;<code class="code">\supseteq</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cstar'><span><code class="code">\star</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cstar'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22C6; Five-pointed star, sometimes used as a general binary
operation but sometimes reserved for cross-correlation (binary).
Similar: the synonyms asterisk&nbsp;<code class="code">*</code> and <code class="code">\ast</code>, which
are six-pointed, and more often appear as a superscript or subscript,
as with the Kleene star.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csubset'><span><code class="code">\subset</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csubset'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2282; Subset (occasionally, is implied by) (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csubseteq'><span><code class="code">\subseteq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csubseteq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2286; Subset or equal to (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csucc'><span><code class="code">\succ</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csucc'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x227B; Comes after, succeeds (relation). Similar: is less
than&nbsp;<code class="code">&gt;</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csucceq'><span><code class="code">\succeq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csucceq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2AB0; Succeeds or is equal to (relation). Similar: less
than or equal to&nbsp;<code class="code">\leq</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csum'><span><code class="code">\sum</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csum'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2211; Summation (operator). Similar: Greek capital
sigma&nbsp;<code class="code">\Sigma</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csupset'><span><code class="code">\supset</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csupset'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2283; Superset (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csupseteq'><span><code class="code">\supseteq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csupseteq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2287; Superset or equal to (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csurd'><span><code class="code">\surd</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csurd'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x221A; Radical symbol (ordinary).  The LaTeX command
<code class="code">\sqrt{...}</code> typesets the square root of the argument, with a bar
that extends to cover the argument.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cswarrow'><span><code class="code">\swarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cswarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2199; Southwest-pointing  arrow (relation).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctau'><span><code class="code">\tau</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctau'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03C4; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctheta'><span><code class="code">\theta</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctheta'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03B8; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary). The variant form is
<code class="code">\vartheta</code>&nbsp;&#x03D1;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctimes'><span><code class="code">\times</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctimes'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x00D7; Primary school multiplication sign (binary). See
also&nbsp;<code class="code">\cdot</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cto'><span><code class="code">\to</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cto'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2192; Right-pointing single line arrow (relation).
Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\rightarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctop'><span><code class="code">\top</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctop'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22A4; Top, greatest element of a partially ordered set
(ordinary). See also&nbsp;<code class="code">\bot</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctriangle'><span><code class="code">\triangle</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctriangle'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x25B3; Triangle (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctriangleleft'><span><code class="code">\triangleleft</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctriangleleft'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x25C1; Not-filled triangle pointing left
(binary). Similar:&nbsp;<code class="code">\lhd</code>. For the normal subgroup symbol you
should load <code class="code">amssymb</code> and use&nbsp;<code class="code">\vartriangleleft</code> (which
is a relation and so gives better spacing).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctriangleright'><span><code class="code">\triangleright</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctriangleright'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x25B7; Not-filled triangle pointing right
(binary). For the normal subgroup symbol you should instead load
<code class="code">amssymb</code> and use&nbsp;<code class="code">\vartriangleright</code> (which is a
relation and so gives better spacing).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cunlhd'><span><code class="code">\unlhd</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cunlhd'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22B4; Left-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is,
triangle, with a line under (binary). For the
normal subgroup symbol load <code class="code">amssymb</code> and
use&nbsp;<code class="code">\vartrianglelefteq</code> (which is a relation and so gives
better spacing).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cunrhd'><span><code class="code">\unrhd</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cunrhd'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22B5; Right-pointing not-filled underlined arrowhead, that is,
triangle, with a line under (binary). For the
normal subgroup symbol load <code class="code">amssymb</code> and
use&nbsp;<code class="code">\vartrianglerighteq</code> (which is a relation and so gives
better spacing).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cUparrow'><span><code class="code">\Uparrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cUparrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21D1; Double-line upward-pointing arrow
(relation). Similar: single-line up-pointing
arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\uparrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cuparrow'><span><code class="code">\uparrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cuparrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2191; Single-line upward-pointing arrow, diverges
(relation). Similar: double-line up-pointing
arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\Uparrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cUpdownarrow'><span><code class="code">\Updownarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cUpdownarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21D5; Double-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow
(relation). Similar: single-line upward-and-downward-pointing
arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\updownarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cupdownarrow'><span><code class="code">\updownarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cupdownarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2195; Single-line upward-and-downward-pointing arrow
(relation). Similar: double-line upward-and-downward-pointing
arrow&nbsp;<code class="code">\Updownarrow</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cupharpoonright'><span><code class="code">\upharpoonright</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cupharpoonright'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x21BE;, Up harpoon, with barb on right side
(relation). Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\restriction</code>.
Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the <code class="code">amssymb</code> package.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cuplus'><span><code class="code">\uplus</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cuplus'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x228E; Multiset union, a union symbol with a plus symbol in
the middle (binary). Similar: union&nbsp;<code class="code">\cup</code>. Related:
variable-sized operator&nbsp;<code class="code">\biguplus</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cUpsilon'><span><code class="code">\Upsilon</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cUpsilon'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03A5; uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cupsilon'><span><code class="code">\upsilon</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cupsilon'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03C5; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvarepsilon'><span><code class="code">\varepsilon</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvarepsilon'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03B5; Small letter script epsilon (ordinary).  This is
more widely used in mathematics than the non-variant lunate epsilon form
<code class="code">\epsilon</code>&nbsp;&#x03F5;. Related: set
membership&nbsp;<code class="code">\in</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvanothing'><span><code class="code">\vanothing</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvanothing'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2205;, Empty set symbol. Similar: <code class="code">\emptyset</code>. Related:
<code class="code">\revemptyset</code>. Not available in plain TeX. In LaTeX you need to load the <code class="code">amssymb</code> package.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvarphi'><span><code class="code">\varphi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvarphi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03C6; Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
The non-variant form is <code class="code">\phi</code>&nbsp;&#x03D5;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvarpi'><span><code class="code">\varpi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvarpi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03D6; Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
The non-variant form is <code class="code">\pi</code>&nbsp;&#x03C0;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvarrho'><span><code class="code">\varrho</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvarrho'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03F1; Variant on the lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
The non-variant form is <code class="code">\rho</code>&nbsp;&#x03C1;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvarsigma'><span><code class="code">\varsigma</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvarsigma'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03C2; Variant on the lowercase Greek letter
(ordinary).  The non-variant form is
<code class="code">\sigma</code>&nbsp;&#x03C3;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvartheta'><span><code class="code">\vartheta</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvartheta'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03D1; Variant on the lowercase Greek letter
(ordinary).  The non-variant form is
<code class="code">\theta</code>&nbsp;&#x03B8;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvdash'><span><code class="code">\vdash</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvdash'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x22A2; Provable; turnstile, vertical and a dash
(relation). Similar: turnstile rotated a
half-circle&nbsp;<code class="code">\dashv</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvee'><span><code class="code">\vee</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvee'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2228; Logical or; a downwards v shape (binary). Related:
logical and&nbsp;<code class="code">\wedge</code>. Similar: variable-sized
operator&nbsp;<code class="code">\bigvee</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cVert'><span><code class="code">\Vert</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cVert'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2016; Vertical double bar (ordinary).  See <a class="xref" href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a>,
for how to use the <code class="code">mathtools</code> package to create flexibly-sized
norm symbols.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvert'><span><code class="code">\vert</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvert'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x007C; Single line vertical bar (ordinary).  For &ldquo;such
that&rdquo;, as in the definition of a set, use&nbsp;<code class="code">\mid</code> because it
is a relation. See <a class="xref" href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a>, for how to use the <code class="code">mathtools</code>
package to create flexibly-sized absolute-value symbols.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cwedge'><span><code class="code">\wedge</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cwedge'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2227; Logical and (binary).  Synonym:&nbsp;<code class="code">\land</code>.  See also
logical or <code class="code">\vee</code>. Similar: variable-sized
operator&nbsp;<code class="code">\bigwedge</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cwp'><span><code class="code">\wp</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cwp'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2118; Weierstrass p (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cwr'><span><code class="code">\wr</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cwr'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x2240; Wreath product (binary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cXi'><span><code class="code">\Xi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cXi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x039E; uppercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cxi'><span><code class="code">\xi</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cxi'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03BE; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005czeta'><span><code class="code">\zeta</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005czeta'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>&#x03B6; Lowercase Greek letter (ordinary).
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>The following symbols are most often used in plain text but LaTeX
provides versions to use in mathematical text.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cmathdollar'><span><code class="code">\mathdollar</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathdollar'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Dollar sign in math mode: $.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmathparagraph'><span><code class="code">\mathparagraph</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathparagraph'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Paragraph sign (pilcrow) in math mode, &#x00B6;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmathsection'><span><code class="code">\mathsection</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathsection'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Section sign in math mode: &#x00A7;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmathsterling'><span><code class="code">\mathsterling</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathsterling'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Sterling sign in math mode: &pound;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmathunderscore'><span><code class="code">\mathunderscore</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathunderscore'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Underscore in math mode: _.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>



<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Arrows" accesskey="1">Arrows</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\boldmath</code> &amp; <code class="code">\unboldmath</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#Blackboard-bold" accesskey="3">Blackboard bold</a></li>
<li><a href="#Calligraphic" accesskey="4">Calligraphic</a></li>
<li><a href="#Delimiters" accesskey="5">Delimiters</a></li>
<li><a href="#Dots" accesskey="6">Dots, horizontal or vertical</a></li>
<li><a href="#Greek-letters" accesskey="7">Greek letters</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Arrows">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\boldmath</code> &amp; <code class="code">\unboldmath</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Math-symbols" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math symbols</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Arrows-1">16.2.1 Arrows</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-arrows"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-symbols_002c-arrows"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math_002c-arrows"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsfonts-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsfonts-package-1"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-latexsym"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-latexsym-package"></a>

<p>These are the arrows that come with standard LaTeX.  The
<code class="code">latexsym</code> and <code class="code">amsfonts</code> packages contain many more.
</p>
<table class="multitable">
<thead><tr><th width="10%">Symbol</th><th width="40%">Command</th><th width="50%"></th></tr></thead>
<tbody><tr><td width="10%">&#x021D3;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\Downarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x02193;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\downarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x021A9;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\hookleftarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x021AA;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\hookrightarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x2190;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\leftarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x021D0;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\Leftarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x021D4;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\Leftrightarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x02194;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\leftrightarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x027F5;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\longleftarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x027F8;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\Longleftarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x027F7;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\longleftrightarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x027FA;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\Longleftrightarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x027FC;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\longmapsto</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x027F9;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\Longrightarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x027F6;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\longrightarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x021A6;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\mapsto</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x02197;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\nearrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x02196;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\nwarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x021D2;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\Rightarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x02192;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\rightarrow</code>, or <code class="code">\to</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x02198;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\searrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x02199;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\swarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x02191;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\uparrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x021D1;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\Uparrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x02195;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\updownarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x021D5;</td><td width="40%"><code class="code">\Updownarrow</code></td><td width="50%"></td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

<p>An example of the difference between <code class="code">\to</code> and <code class="code">\mapsto</code>
is: <code class="code">\( f\colon D\to C \) given by \( n\mapsto n^2 \)</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amscd"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amscd-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-tikz_002dcd"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tikz_002dcd-package"></a>

<p>For commutative diagrams there are a number of packages, including
<code class="code">tikz-cd</code> and <code class="code">amscd</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Blackboard-bold" accesskey="n" rel="next">Blackboard bold</a>, Previous: <a href="#Arrows" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Arrows</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-symbols" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math symbols</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath-1">16.2.2 <code class="code">\boldmath</code> &amp; <code class="code">\unboldmath</code></h4>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cboldmath"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cunboldmath"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cboldmath"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cunboldmath"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-boldface-mathematics"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mathematics_002c-boldface"></a>

<p>Synopsis (used in paragraph mode or LR mode):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\boldmath \( <var class="var">math</var> \)
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\unboldmath \( <var class="var">math</var> \)
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cboldmath-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cunboldmath-1"></a>
<p>Declarations to change the letters and symbols in <var class="var">math</var> to be in
a bold font, or to countermand that and bring back the regular
(non-bold) default, respectively. They must be used when <em class="emph">not</em> in
math mode or display math mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>). Both commands are
fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>In this example each <code class="code">\boldmath</code> command takes place inside an
<code class="code">\mbox</code>,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">we have $\mbox{\boldmath \( v \)} = 5\cdot\mbox{\boldmath \( u \)$}$
</pre></div>

<p>which means <code class="code">\boldmath</code> is only called in a text mode, here LR
mode, and explains why we must switch LaTeX into math mode to set
<code class="code">v</code> and <code class="code">u</code>.
</p>
<p>If you use either command inside math mode, as with <code class="code">Trouble: \(
\boldmath x \)</code>, then you get something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Font Warning:
Command \boldmath invalid in math mode</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Font Warning:
Command \mathversion invalid in math mode</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#bm" accesskey="1"><code class="code">bm</code>: Individual bold math symbols</a></li>
<li><a href="#OpenType-bold-math" accesskey="2">OpenType bold math</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsubsection-level-extent" id="bm">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#OpenType-bold-math" accesskey="n" rel="next">OpenType bold math</a>, Up: <a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\boldmath</code> &amp; <code class="code">\unboldmath</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsubsection" id="bm_003a-Individual-bold-math-symbols">16.2.2.1 <code class="code">bm</code>: Individual bold math symbols</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-bm"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bm-package"></a>
 
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-symbols_002c-boldface"></a>

<p>Specifying <code class="code">\boldmath</code> is the best method for typesetting a whole
math expression in bold. But to typeset individual symbols within an
expression in bold, the <code class="code">bm</code> package provided by the LaTeX
Project team is better.  Its usage is outside the scope of this
document (see its documentation at <a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/bm">https://ctan.org/pkg/bm</a> or in
your installation) but the spacing in the output of this small example
will show that it is an improvement over <code class="code">\boldmath</code> within an
expression:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{bm}   % in preamble
...
we have $\bm{v} = 5\cdot\bm{u}$
</pre></div>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsubsection-level-extent" id="OpenType-bold-math">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#bm" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">bm</code>: Individual bold math symbols</a>, Up: <a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\boldmath</code> &amp; <code class="code">\unboldmath</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsubsection" id="OpenType-bold-math-1">16.2.2.2 OpenType bold math</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-fontspec-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fontspec-package-1"></a>


<p>Unfortunately, when using the Unicode engines (XeLaTeX,
LuaLaTeX), neither <code class="code">\boldmath</code> nor <code class="code">bm</code> usually work
well, because the OpenType math fonts normally used with those engines
rarely come with a bold companion, and both <code class="code">\boldmath</code> and
<code class="code">bm</code> require this. (The implementation of <code class="code">bm</code> relies
on <code class="code">\boldmath</code>, so the requirements are the same.) If you do have
a bold math font, though, then <code class="code">\boldmath</code> and <code class="code">bm</code> work
fine.
</p>
<p>If no such font is available, one alternative is to construct fake
bold fonts with the <code class="code">fontspec</code> package&rsquo;s <code class="code">FakeBold=1</code>
parameter (see its documentation,
<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/fontspec">https://ctan.org/pkg/fontspec</a>).  This may be acceptable for
drafting or informal distribution, but the results are far from a true
bold font.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-unicode_002dmath"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-unicode_002dmath-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csymbf"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csymbfit"></a>
<p>Another alternative to handling bold for OpenType math fonts is to use
the <code class="code">\symbf</code> (bold), <code class="code">\symbfit</code> (bold italic), and related
commands from the <code class="code">unicode-math</code> package.  These do not change
the current font, but rather change the (Unicode) &ldquo;alphabet&rdquo; used,
which in practice is more widely supported than a separate bold font.
Many variations are possible, and so there are subtleties to getting the
desired output.  As usual, see the package documentation
(<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/unicode-math">https://ctan.org/pkg/unicode-math</a>).
</p>
<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Blackboard-bold">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Calligraphic" accesskey="n" rel="next">Calligraphic</a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\boldmath</code> &amp; <code class="code">\unboldmath</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Math-symbols" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math symbols</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Blackboard-bold-1">16.2.3 Blackboard bold</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-blackboard-bold"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-doublestruck"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{amssymb}   % in preamble
  ... 
\mathbb{<var class="var">uppercase-letter</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Provide blackboard bold symbols, sometimes also known as doublestruck
letters, used to denote number sets such as the natural numbers, the
integers, etc.
</p>
<p>Here 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\( \forall n \in \mathbb{N}, n^2 \geq 0 \)
</pre></div>

<p>the <code class="code">\mathbb{N}</code> gives blackboard bold symbol &#x2115;,
representing the natural numbers.
</p>
<p>If the argument contains something other than an uppercase letter, you
do not get an error but you do get strange results, including
unexpected characters.
</p>
<p>There are packages that give access to symbols other than just the
capital letters; look on CTAN.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Calligraphic">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Delimiters" accesskey="n" rel="next">Delimiters</a>, Previous: <a href="#Blackboard-bold" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Blackboard bold</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-symbols" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math symbols</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Calligraphic-1">16.2.4 Calligraphic</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-calligraphic-fonts"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-script-fonts"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fonts_002c-script"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\mathcal{<var class="var">uppercase-letters</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Use a script-like font.
</p>
<p>In this example the graph identifier is output in a cursive font.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Let the graph be \( \mathcal{G} \).
</pre></div>

<p>If you use something other than an uppercase letter then you do not get
an error but you also do not get math calligraphic output.  For instance,
<code class="code">\mathcal{g}</code> outputs a close curly brace symbol.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Delimiters">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Dots" accesskey="n" rel="next">Dots, horizontal or vertical</a>, Previous: <a href="#Calligraphic" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Calligraphic</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-symbols" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math symbols</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Delimiters-1">16.2.5 Delimiters</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-delimiters"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-parentheses"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-braces"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-curly-braces"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-brackets"></a>

<p>Delimiters are parentheses, braces, or other characters used to mark
the start and end of subformulas.  This formula has three sets of
parentheses delimiting the three subformulas.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">(z-z_0)^2 = (x-x_0)^2 + (y-y_0)^2
</pre></div>

<p>The delimiters do not need to match, so you can enter <code class="code">\( [0,1) \)</code>.
</p>
<p>Here are the common delimiters:
</p>
<table class="multitable">
<thead><tr><th width="11%">Delimiter</th><th width="20%">Command</th><th width="40%">Name</th></tr></thead>
<tbody><tr><td width="11%">(</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">(</code></td><td width="40%">Left parenthesis</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">)</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">)</code></td><td width="40%">Right parenthesis</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">\}</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">{</code> or <code class="code">\lbrace</code></td><td width="40%">Left brace</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">\{</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">}</code> or <code class="code">\rbrace</code></td><td width="40%">Right brace</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">[</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">[</code> or <code class="code">\lbrack</code></td><td width="40%">Left bracket</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">]</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">]</code> or <code class="code">\rbrack</code></td><td width="40%">Right bracket</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">&#x230A;</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">\lfloor</code></td><td width="40%">Left floor bracket</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">&#x230B;</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">\rfloor</code></td><td width="40%">Right floor bracket</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">&#x2308;</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">\lceil</code></td><td width="40%">Left ceiling bracket</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">&#x2309;</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">\rceil</code></td><td width="40%">Right ceiling bracket</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">&#x27E8;</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">\langle</code></td><td width="40%">Left angle bracket</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">&#x27E9;</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">\rangle</code></td><td width="40%">Right angle bracket</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">/</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">/</code></td><td width="40%">Slash, or forward slash</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">\</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">\backslash</code></td><td width="40%">Reverse slash, or backslash</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">|</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">|</code> or <code class="code">\vert</code></td><td width="40%">Vertical bar</td></tr>
<tr><td width="11%">&#x2016;</td><td width="20%"><code class="code">\|</code> or <code class="code">\Vert</code></td><td width="40%">Double vertical bar</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-mathtools-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mathtools-package-1"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">mathtools</code> package allows you to create commands for paired
delimiters.  For instance, if you put
<code class="code">\DeclarePairedDelimiter\abs{\lvert}{\rvert}</code> in your preamble
then you get two commands for single-line vertical bars (they only work
in math mode).  The starred form, such as
<code class="code">\abs*{\frac{22}{7}}</code>, has the height of the vertical bars
match the height of the argument.  The unstarred form, such as
<code class="code">\abs{\frac{22}{7}}</code>, has the bars fixed at a default height.
This form accepts an optional argument, as in <code class="code">\abs[<var class="var">size
command</var>]{\frac{22}{7}}</code>, where the height of the bars is given in
<var class="var">size command</var>, such as <code class="code">\Bigg</code>. Using instead <code class="code">\lVert</code>
and <code class="code">\rVert</code> as the symbols will give you a norm symbol with the
same behavior.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\left</code> &amp; <code class="code">\right</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cbigl-_0026-_005cbigr-etc_002e" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\bigl</code>, <code class="code">\bigr</code>, etc.</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsubsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cbigl-_0026-_005cbigr-etc_002e" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\bigl</code>, <code class="code">\bigr</code>, etc.</a>, Up: <a href="#Delimiters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Delimiters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsubsection" id="g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright-1">16.2.5.1 <code class="code">\left</code> &amp; <code class="code">\right</code></h4>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cleft"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cright"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cleft"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cright"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-delimiters_002c-paired"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paired-delimiters"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-matching-parentheses"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-matching-brackets"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-null-delimiter"></a>


<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\left <var class="var">delimiter1</var> ... \right <var class="var">delimiter2</var>
</pre></div>

<p>Make matching parentheses, braces, or other delimiters.  LaTeX makes
the delimiters tall enough to just cover the size of the formula that
they enclose.
</p>
<p>This makes a unit vector surrounded by parentheses tall enough to cover
the entries.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  \left(\begin{array}{c}
    1   \\
    0   \\
  \end{array}\right)
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a>, for a list of the common delimiters.
</p>
<p>Every <code class="code">\left</code> must have a matching <code class="code">\right</code>.  In the above
example, leaving out the <code class="code">\left(</code> gets the error message
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Extra \right</samp>&rsquo;.  Leaving out the <code class="code">\right)</code> gets &lsquo;<samp class="samp">You
can't use `\eqno' in math mode</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-6"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-6"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-mathtools-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mathtools-package-2"></a>

<p>However, <var class="var">delimiter1</var> and <var class="var">delimiter2</var> need not match.  A common
case is that you want an unmatched brace, as below. Use a period,
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">.</samp>&rsquo;, as a <em class="dfn">null delimiter</em>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  f(n)=\left\{\begin{array}{ll}
                1             &amp;\mbox{--if \(n=0\)} \\
                f(n-1)+3n^2   &amp;\mbox{--else}       
       \end{array}\right.
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>Note that to get a curly brace as a delimiter you must prefix it with a
backslash, <code class="code">\{</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a>).  (The packages
<code class="code">amsmath</code> and <code class="code">mathtools</code> allow you to get the above
construct through in a <code class="code">cases</code> environment.)
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\left ... \right</code> pair make a group.  One consequence is that
the formula enclosed in the <code class="code">\left ... \right</code> pair cannot have
line breaks in the output.  This includes both manual line breaks and
LaTeX-generated automatic ones.  In this example, LaTeX breaks the
equation to make the formula fit the margins.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet
\( (a+b+c+d+e+f+g+h+i+j+k+l+m+n+o+p+q+r+s+t+u+v+w+x+y+z) \)
</pre></div>

<p>But with <code class="code">\left</code> and <code class="code">\right</code>
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet
\( \left(a+b+c+d+e+f+g+h+i+j+k+l+m+n+o+p+q+r+s+t+u+v+w+x+y+z\right) \)
</pre></div>

<p>LaTeX won&rsquo;t break the line, causing the formula to extend into the
margin.
</p>
<p>Because <code class="code">\left ... \right</code> make a group, all the usual grouping
rules hold.  Here, the value of <code class="code">\testlength</code> set inside the
equation will be forgotten, and the output is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1.2pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newlength{\testlength} \setlength{\testlength}{1.2pt}
\begin{equation}
  \left( a+b=c \setlength{\testlength}{3.4pt} \right)
  \the\testlength
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">\left ... \right</code> pair affect the horizontal spacing of the
enclosed formula, in two ways.  The first is that in <code class="code">\( \sin(x) =
\sin\left(x\right) \)</code> the one after the equals sign has more space
around the <code class="code">x</code>.  That&rsquo;s because <code class="code">\left( ... \right)</code> inserts
an inner node while <code class="code">( ... )</code> inserts an opening node.  The second
way that the pair affect the horizontal spacing is that because they
form a group, the enclosed subformula will be typeset at its natural
width, with no stretching or shrinking to make the line fit better.
</p>
<p>TeX scales the delimiters according to the height and depth of the
enclosed formula.  Here LaTeX grows the brackets to extend the full
height of the integral.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  \left[ \int_{x=r_0}^{\infty} -G\frac{Mm}{r^2}\, dr \right] 
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>Manual sizing is often better.  For instance, although below the rule
has no depth, TeX will create delimiters that extend far below the
rule.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  \left( \rule{1pt}{1cm} \right)
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>TeX can choose delimiters that are too small, as in <code class="code">\( \left|
|x|+|y| \right| \)</code>.  It can also choose delimiters that are too large,
as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  \left( \sum_{0\leq i&lt;n} i^k \right)
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>A third awkward case is when a long displayed formula is on more than
one line and you must match the sizes of the opening and closing
delimiter; you can&rsquo;t use <code class="code">\left</code> on the first line and
<code class="code">\right</code> on the last because they must be paired.
</p>
<p>To size the delimiters manually, see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cbigl-_0026-_005cbigr-etc_002e"><code class="code">\bigl</code>, <code class="code">\bigr</code>, etc.</a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsubsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cbigl-_0026-_005cbigr-etc_002e">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\left</code> &amp; <code class="code">\right</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Delimiters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Delimiters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsubsection" id="g_t_005cbigl_002c-_005cbigr_002c-etc_002e">16.2.5.2 <code class="code">\bigl</code>, <code class="code">\bigr</code>, etc.</h4>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cbigl"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cbigr"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbigl"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbigr"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\bigl<var class="var">delimiter1</var> ... \bigr<var class="var">delimiter2</var>
\Bigl<var class="var">delimiter1</var> ... \bigr<var class="var">delimiter2</var>
\biggl<var class="var">delimiter1</var> ... \biggr<var class="var">delimiter2</var>
\Biggl<var class="var">delimiter1</var> ... \Biggr<var class="var">delimiter2</var>  
</pre></div>

<p>(as with <code class="code">\bigl[...\bigr]</code>; strictly speaking they need not be
paired, see below), or one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\bigm<var class="var">delimiter</var>
\Bigm<var class="var">delimiter</var>
\biggm<var class="var">delimiter</var>
\Biggm<var class="var">delimiter</var>
</pre></div>

<p>(as with <code class="code">\bigm|</code>), or one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\big<var class="var">delimiter</var>
\Big<var class="var">delimiter</var>
\bigg<var class="var">delimiter</var>
\Bigg<var class="var">delimiter</var>
</pre></div>

<p>(as with <code class="code">\big[</code>).
</p>
<p>Produce manually-sized delimiters.  For delimiters that are
automatically sized see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright"><code class="code">\left</code> &amp; <code class="code">\right</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This produces slightly larger outer vertical bars.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">  \bigl| |x|+|y| \bigr|
</pre></div>

<p>The commands above are listed in order of increasing size.  You can use
the smallest size such as <code class="code">\bigl...\bigr</code> in a paragraph without
causing LaTeX to spread the lines apart.  The larger sizes are meant
for displayed equations.
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a>, for a list of the common delimiters.  In the family of
commands with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">l</samp>&rsquo; or&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp class="samp">r</samp>&rsquo;, <var class="var">delimiter1</var> and
<var class="var">delimiter2</var> need not match together.
</p>
<p>The &lsquo;<samp class="samp">l</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">r</samp>&rsquo; commands produce open and close delimiters
that insert no horizontal space between a preceding atom and the
delimiter, while the commands without &lsquo;<samp class="samp">l</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">r</samp>&rsquo; insert some
space (because each delimiter is set as an ordinary variable).  Compare
these two.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{l}
  \(\displaystyle \sin\biggl(\frac{1}{2}\biggr) \)  \\  % good
  \(\displaystyle \sin\bigg(\frac{1}{2}\bigg)  \)   \\  % bad
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>The traditional typographic treatment is on the first line.  On the
second line the output will have some extra space between the
<code class="code">\sin</code> and the open parenthesis.
</p>
<p>Commands without &lsquo;<samp class="samp">l</samp>&rsquo; or&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp class="samp">r</samp>&rsquo; do give correct spacing in
some circumstances, as with this large vertical line
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  \int_{x=a}^b x^2\,dx = \frac{1}{3} x^3 \Big|_{x=a}^b
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-7"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-7"></a>

<p>(many authors would replace <code class="code">\frac</code> with the <code class="code">\tfrac</code> command
from the <code class="code">amsmath</code> package), and as with this larger slash.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  \lim_{n\to\infty}\pi(n) \big/ (n/\log n) = 1
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>Unlike the <code class="code">\left...\right</code> pair (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright"><code class="code">\left</code> &amp; <code class="code">\right</code></a>), the
commands here with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">l</samp>&rsquo; or&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp class="samp">r</samp>&rsquo; do not make a group.
Strictly speaking they need not be matched so you can write something
like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  \Biggl[ \pi/6 ] 
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>The commands with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">m</samp>&rsquo; are for relations, which are in the middle of
formulas, as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  \biggl\{ a\in B \biggm| a=\sum_{0\leq i&lt;n}3i^2+4 \biggr\}
\end{equation}  
</pre></div>



<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Dots">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Greek-letters" accesskey="n" rel="next">Greek letters</a>, Previous: <a href="#Delimiters" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Delimiters</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-symbols" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math symbols</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Dots_002c-horizontal-or-vertical">16.2.6 Dots, horizontal or vertical</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ellipses"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dots"></a>

<p>Ellipses are the three dots (usually three) indicating that a pattern
continues.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{array}{cccc}
  a_{0,0}    &amp;a_{0,1}   &amp;a_{0,2} &amp;\ldots \\
  a_{1,0}    &amp;\ddots                     \\
  \vdots
\end{array}
</pre></div>

<p>LaTeX provides these.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="ellipses-cdots"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccdots'><span><code class="code">\cdots</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccdots'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line, as
in &#x22EF;.  Used as: <code class="code">\( a_0\cdot a_1\cdots a_{n-1}
\)</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="ellipses-ddots"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cddots'><span><code class="code">\ddots</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cddots'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Diagonal ellipsis, &#x22F1;.  See the above array example for a
usage.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="ellipses-ldots"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cldots'><span><code class="code">\ldots</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cldots'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cmathellipsis'><span><code class="code">\mathellipsis</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathellipsis'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cdots'><span><code class="code">\dots</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdots'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Ellipsis on the baseline, &#x2026;.  Used as: <code class="code">\(
x_0,\ldots x_{n-1} \)</code>.  Another example is the above array example.
Synonyms are <code class="code">\mathellipsis</code> and <code class="code">\dots</code>.  A synonym from
the <code class="code">amsmath</code> package is <code class="code">\hdots</code>.
</p>
<p>You can also use this command outside of mathematical text, as in
<code class="code">The gears, brakes, \ldots{} are all broken</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="ellipses-vdots"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvdots'><span><code class="code">\vdots</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvdots'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Vertical ellipsis, &#x22EE;.  See the above array example for a
usage.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-8"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-8"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">amsmath</code> package has the command <code class="code">\dots</code> to semantically
mark up ellipses.  This example produces two different-looking outputs
for the first two uses of the <code class="code">\dots</code> command.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{amsmath}  % in preamble
  ...
Suppose that \( p_0, p_1, \dots, p_{n-1} \) lists all of the primes.
Observe that \( p_0\cdot p_1 \dots \cdot p_{n-1} +1 \) is not a
  multiple of any \( p_i \).
Conclusion: there are infinitely many primes \( p_0, p_1, \dotsc \).
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cdotsc"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cdotsb"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cdotsi"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cdots-1"></a>
<p>In the first line LaTeX looks to the comma following <code class="code">\dots</code> to
determine that it should output an ellipsis on the baseline.  The second
line has a <code class="code">\cdot</code> following <code class="code">\dots</code> so LaTeX outputs an
ellipsis that is on the math axis, vertically centered.  However, the
third usage has no follow-on character so you have to tell LaTeX what
to do.  You can use one of the commands: <code class="code">\dotsc</code> if you need the
ellipsis appropriate for a comma following, <code class="code">\dotsb</code> if you need
the ellipses that fits when the dots are followed by a binary operator
or relation symbol, <code class="code">\dotsi</code> for dots with integrals, or
<code class="code">\dotso</code> for others.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-unicode_002dmath-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-unicode_002dmath-package-1"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">\dots</code> command from <code class="code">amsmath</code> differs from the
LaTeX kernel&rsquo;s <code class="code">\dots</code> command in another way: it outputs a
thin space after the ellipsis. Furthermore, the <code class="code">unicode-math</code>
package automatically loads <code class="code">amsmath</code>, so <code class="code">amsmath</code>&rsquo;s
<code class="code">\dots</code> may be active even when you did not explicitly load it,
thus changing the output from <code class="code">\dots</code> in both text and math mode.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ellipsis_002c-in-Unicode-_0028U_002b2026_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ellipsis_002c-traditional-_0028three-periods_0029"></a>
<p>Yet more about the ellipsis commands: when running under Unicode
engines (<code class="code">lualatex</code>, <code class="code">xelatex</code>), LaTeX will use the
Unicode ellipsis character (U+2026) in the font if it&rsquo;s available;
under traditional TeX engines (<code class="code">pdflatex</code>, <code class="code">latex</code>), it
will typeset three spaced periods. Generally, the Unicode
single-character ellipsis has almost no space between the three
periods, while the spacing of the non-Unicode ellipsis is looser, more
in accordance with traditional typography.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Greek-letters">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Dots" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Dots, horizontal or vertical</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-symbols" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math symbols</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Greek-letters-1">16.2.7 Greek letters</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Greek-letters"></a>

<p>The upper case versions of these Greek letters are only shown when they
differ from Roman upper case letters.
</p>
<table class="multitable">
<thead><tr><th width="10%">Symbol</th><th width="30%">Command</th><th width="15%">Name</th><th width="45%"></th></tr></thead>
<tbody><tr><td width="10%">&#x03B1;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\alpha</code></td><td width="15%">Alpha</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03B2;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\beta</code></td><td width="15%">Beta</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03B3;, &#x0393;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\gamma</code>, <code class="code">\Gamma</code></td><td width="15%">Gamma</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03B4;, &#x0394;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\delta</code>, <code class="code">\Delta</code></td><td width="15%">Delta</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03B5;, &#x03F5;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\varepsilon</code>, <code class="code">\epsilon</code></td><td width="15%">Epsilon</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03B6;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\zeta</code></td><td width="15%">Zeta</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03B7;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\eta</code></td><td width="15%">Eta</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03B8;, &#x03D1;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\theta</code>, <code class="code">\vartheta</code></td><td width="15%">Theta</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03B9;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\iota</code></td><td width="15%">Iota</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03BA;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\kappa</code></td><td width="15%">Kappa</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03BB;, &#x039B;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\lambda</code>, <code class="code">\Lambda</code></td><td width="15%">Lambda</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03BC;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\mu</code></td><td width="15%">Mu</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03BD;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\nu</code></td><td width="15%">Nu</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03BE;, &#x039E;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\xi</code>, <code class="code">\Xi</code></td><td width="15%">Xi</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03C0;, &#x03A0;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\pi</code>, <code class="code">\Pi</code></td><td width="15%">Pi</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03C1;, &#x03F1;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\rho</code>, <code class="code">\varrho</code></td><td width="15%">Rho</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03C3;, &#x03A3;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\sigma</code>, <code class="code">\Sigma</code></td><td width="15%">Sigma</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03C4;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\tau</code></td><td width="15%">Tau</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03D5;, &#x03C6;, &#x03A6;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\phi</code>, <code class="code">\varphi</code>, <code class="code">\Phi</code></td><td width="15%">Phi</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03C7;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\chi</code></td><td width="15%">chi</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03C8;, &#x03A8;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\psi</code>, <code class="code">\Psi</code></td><td width="15%">Psi</td></tr>
<tr><td width="10%">&#x03C9;, &#x03A9;</td><td width="30%"><code class="code">\omega</code>, <code class="code">\Omega</code></td><td width="15%">Omega</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-unicode_002dmath-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-unicode_002dmath-package-2"></a>

<p>For omicron, if you are using LaTeX&rsquo;s default Computer Modern font
then enter omicron just as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">o</samp>&rsquo; or &lsquo;<samp class="samp">O</samp>&rsquo;.  If you like having the
name or if your font shows a difference then you can use something like
<code class="code">\newcommand\omicron{o}</code>.  The package <code class="code">unicode-math</code> has
<code class="code">\upomicron</code> for upright omicron and <code class="code">\mitomicron</code> for math
italic.
</p>
<p>While the set membership relation symbol &#x2208; generated by
<code class="code">\in</code> is related to epsilon, it is never used for a variable.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Math-functions">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Math-accents" accesskey="n" rel="next">Math accents</a>, Previous: <a href="#Math-symbols" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Math symbols</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-formulas" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math formulas</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Math-functions-1">16.3 Math functions</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-functions"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-functions_002c-math"></a>

<p>These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper
spacing.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005carccos'><span><code class="code">\arccos</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005carccos'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Inverse cosine
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005carcsin'><span><code class="code">\arcsin</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005carcsin'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Inverse sine
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005carctan'><span><code class="code">\arctan</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005carctan'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Inverse tangent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005carg'><span><code class="code">\arg</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005carg'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Angle between the real axis and a point in the complex plane
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbmod'><span><code class="code">\bmod</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbmod'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Binary modulo operator, used as in <code class="code">\( 5\bmod 3=2 \)</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccos'><span><code class="code">\cos</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccos'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Cosine
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccosh'><span><code class="code">\cosh</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccosh'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Hyperbolic cosine
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccot'><span><code class="code">\cot</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccot'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Cotangent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccoth'><span><code class="code">\coth</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccoth'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Hyperbolic cotangent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccsc'><span><code class="code">\csc</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccsc'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Cosecant
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdeg'><span><code class="code">\deg</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdeg'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Degrees
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdet'><span><code class="code">\det</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdet'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Determinant
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdim'><span><code class="code">\dim</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdim'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Dimension
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cexp'><span><code class="code">\exp</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cexp'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Exponential
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cgcd'><span><code class="code">\gcd</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cgcd'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Greatest common divisor
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005chom'><span><code class="code">\hom</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005chom'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Homomorphism
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cinf'><span><code class="code">\inf</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cinf'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Infimum
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cker'><span><code class="code">\ker</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cker'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Kernel
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clg'><span><code class="code">\lg</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clg'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Base 2 logarithm
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clim'><span><code class="code">\lim</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clim'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Limit
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005climinf'><span><code class="code">\liminf</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005climinf'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Limit inferior
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005climsup'><span><code class="code">\limsup</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005climsup'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Limit superior
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cln'><span><code class="code">\ln</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cln'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Natural logarithm
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clog'><span><code class="code">\log</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clog'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Logarithm
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmax'><span><code class="code">\max</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmax'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Maximum
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmin'><span><code class="code">\min</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmin'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Minimum
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpmod'><span><code class="code">\pmod</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpmod'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Parenthesized modulus, as used in <code class="code">\( 5\equiv 2\pmod 3 \)</code>
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cPr'><span><code class="code">\Pr</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cPr'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Probability
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csec'><span><code class="code">\sec</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csec'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Secant
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csin'><span><code class="code">\sin</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csin'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Sine
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csinh'><span><code class="code">\sinh</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csinh'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Hyperbolic sine
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005csup'><span><code class="code">\sup</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csup'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Supremum
sup
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctan'><span><code class="code">\tan</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctan'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Tangent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctanh'><span><code class="code">\tanh</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctanh'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Hyperbolic tangent
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-9"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-9"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">amsmath</code> package adds improvements on some of these, and
also allows you to define your own.  The full documentation is on CTAN,
but briefly, you can define an identity operator with
<code class="code">\DeclareMathOperator{\identity}{id}</code> that is like the ones
above but prints as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">id</samp>&rsquo;.  The starred form
<code class="code">\DeclareMathOperator*{\op}{op}</code> sets any superscript or
subscript to be above and below, as is traditional with <code class="code">\lim</code>,
<code class="code">\sup</code>, or <code class="code">\max</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Math-accents">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining" accesskey="n" rel="next">Over- and Underlining</a>, Previous: <a href="#Math-functions" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Math functions</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-formulas" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math formulas</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Math-accents-1">16.4 Math accents</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-accents"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-accents_002c-mathematical"></a>

<p>LaTeX provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters
in math.  These are different from accents in normal text
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Accents">Accents</a>).
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cacute'><span><code class="code">\acute</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cacute'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-acute-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math acute accent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbar'><span><code class="code">\bar</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbar'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bar_002dover-accent_002c-math"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-macron-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math bar-over accent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbreve'><span><code class="code">\breve</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbreve'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-breve-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math breve accent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ccheck'><span><code class="code">\check</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccheck'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-check-accent_002c-math"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hacek-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math h&aacute;&#269;ek (check) accent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cddot'><span><code class="code">\ddot</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cddot'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-dot-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math dieresis accent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdot'><span><code class="code">\dot</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdot'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-overdot-accent_002c-math"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dot-over-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math dot accent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cgrave'><span><code class="code">\grave</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cgrave'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-grave-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math grave accent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005chat'><span><code class="code">\hat</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005chat'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hat-accent_002c-math"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-circumflex-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math hat (circumflex) accent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmathring'><span><code class="code">\mathring</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmathring'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ring-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math ring accent  </p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctilde'><span><code class="code">\tilde</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctilde'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tilde-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math tilde accent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cvec'><span><code class="code">\vec</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cvec'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-vector-symbol_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math vector symbol
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cwidehat'><span><code class="code">\widehat</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cwidehat'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-wide-hat-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math wide hat accent
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cwidetilde'><span><code class="code">\widetilde</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cwidetilde'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-wide-tilde-accent_002c-math"></a>
<p>Math wide tilde accent
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>When you are putting an accent on an i or a j, the tradition is to use
one without a dot, <code class="code">\imath</code> or <code class="code">jmath</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Over_002d-and-Underlining">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode" accesskey="n" rel="next">Spacing in math mode</a>, Previous: <a href="#Math-accents" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Math accents</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-formulas" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math formulas</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Over_002d-and-Underlining-1">16.5 Over- and Underlining</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-overlining"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-underlining"></a>

<p>LaTeX provides commands for making overlines or underlines, or
putting braces over or under some material.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cunderline_007btext_007d'><span><code class="code">\underline{<var class="var">text</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cunderline_007btext_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Underline <var class="var">text</var>.  Works inside math mode, and outside.
The line is always completely below the text, taking account of
descenders, so in <code class="code">\(\underline{y}\)</code> the line is lower than in
<code class="code">\(\underline{x}\)</code>.  This command is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-ulem"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ulem-package"></a>

<p>Note that the package <code class="code">ulem</code> does text mode underlining and allows
line breaking as well as a number of other features.  See the
documentation on CTAN.  See also&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill"><code class="code">\hrulefill</code> &amp; <code class="code">\dotfill</code></a> for
producing a line, for such things as a signature.
</p>        
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005coverline_007btext_007d'><span><code class="code">\overline{<var class="var">text</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005coverline_007btext_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Put a horizontal line over <var class="var">text</var>.  Works inside math mode, and
outside.  For example, <code class="code">\overline{x+y}</code>.
Note that this differs from the command <code class="code">\bar</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cunderbrace_007bmath_007d'><span><code class="code">\underbrace{<var class="var">math</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cunderbrace_007bmath_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Put a brace under <var class="var">math</var>. For example, this
<code class="code">(1-\underbrace{1/2)+(1/2}-1/3)</code> emphasizes the telescoping part.
Attach text to the brace by using the subscript command, <code class="code">_</code>, or
superscript, <code class="code">^</code>, as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{displaymath}
  1+1/2+\underbrace{1/3+1/4}_{&gt;1/2}+
       \underbrace{1/5+1/6+1/7+1/8}_{&gt;1/2}+\cdots
\end{displaymath}
</pre></div>

<p>The superscript appears on top of the expression, and so can look
unconnected to the underbrace.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005coverbrace_007bmath_007d'><span><code class="code">\overbrace{<var class="var">math</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005coverbrace_007bmath_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Put a brace over <var class="var">math</var>, as with
<code class="code">\overbrace{x+x+\cdots+x}^{\mbox{\(k\) times}}</code>.  See also
<code class="code">\underbrace</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-mathtools-3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mathtools-package-3"></a>

<p>The package <code class="code">mathtools</code> adds an over- and underbrace, as well as
some improvements on the braces.  See the documentation on CTAN.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Spacing-in-math-mode">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Math-styles" accesskey="n" rel="next">Math styles</a>, Previous: <a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Over- and Underlining</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-formulas" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math formulas</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Spacing-in-math-mode-1">16.6 Spacing in math mode</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-spacing-within-math-mode"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-mode_002c-spacing"></a>

<p>When typesetting mathematics, LaTeX puts in spacing according to the
normal rules for mathematics texts.  If you enter <code class="code">y=m x</code> then
LaTeX ignores the space and in the output the m is next to the x,
as <em class="math">y=mx</em>.
</p>
<p>But LaTeX&rsquo;s rules occasionally need tweaking.  For example, in an
integral the tradition is to put a small extra space between the
<code class="code">f(x)</code> and the <code class="code">dx</code>, here done with the <code class="code">\,</code> command:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\int_0^1 f(x)\,dx
</pre></div>

<p>LaTeX provides the commands that follow for use in math mode.  Many
of these spacing definitions are expressed in terms of the math unit
<em class="dfn">mu</em>.  It is defined as 1/18<span class="dmn">em</span>, where the em is taken from the
current math symbols family (see <a class="pxref" href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>).  Thus, a
<code class="code">\thickspace</code> is something like 5/18 times the width of
a&nbsp;&lsquo;<samp class="samp">M</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-_005c_003b'><span><code class="code">\;</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_003b'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cthickspace"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="spacing-in-math-mode-thickspace"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-10"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-10"></a>

<p>Synonym: <code class="code">\thickspace</code>.  Normally <code class="code">5.0mu plus 5.0mu</code>.  With
the <code class="code">amsmath</code> package, or as of the 2020-10-01 LaTeX release,
can be used in text mode as well as math mode; otherwise, in math mode
only.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cnegthickspace'><span><code class="code">\negthickspace</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cnegthickspace'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Normally <code class="code">-5.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu</code>.  With the <code class="code">amsmath</code>
package, or as of the 2020-10-01 LaTeX release, can be used in text
mode as well as math mode; otherwise, in math mode only.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_003a'><span><code class="code">\:</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_003a'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\&gt;</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_003e-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmedspace"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="spacing-in-math-mode-medspace"></a><p>Synonym: <code class="code">\medspace</code>.  Normally <code class="code">4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus
4.0mu</code>.  With the <code class="code">amsmath</code> package, or as of the 2020-10-01
LaTeX release, can be used in text mode as well as math mode; before
that, in math mode only.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cnegmedspace'><span><code class="code">\negmedspace</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cnegmedspace'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Normally <code class="code">-4.0mu plus 2.0mu minus 4.0mu</code>.  With the <code class="code">amsmath</code>
package, or as of the 2020-10-01 LaTeX release, can be used in text
mode as well as math mode; before that, in math mode only.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_002c'><span><code class="code">\,</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_002c'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cthinspace"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-thin-space"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="Spacing-in-math-mode_002f_005cthinspace"></a><a class="anchor" id="spacing-in-math-mode-thinspace"></a><p>Synonym: <code class="code">\thinspace</code>.  Normally <code class="code">3mu</code>, which is 1/6<span class="dmn">em</span>.
Can be used in both math mode and text mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace"><code class="code">\thinspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\negthinspace</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This space is widely used, for instance between the function and the
infinitesimal in an integral <code class="code">\int f(x)\,dx</code> and, if an author does
this, before punctuation in a displayed equation.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The antiderivative is
\begin{equation}
  3x^{-1/2}+3^{1/2}\,.
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_0021'><span><code class="code">\!</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_0021'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnegthinspace"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-thin-space_002c-negative"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="spacing-in-math-mode-negthinspace"></a><p>Synonym: <code class="code">\negthinspace</code>. A negative thin space. Normally
<code class="code">-3mu</code>.  With the <code class="code">amsmath</code> package, or as of the 2020-10-01
LaTeX release, can be used in text mode as well as math mode;
otherwise, the <code class="code">\!</code> command is math mode only but the
<code class="code">\negthinspace</code> command has always also worked in text mode
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace"><code class="code">\thinspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\negthinspace</code></a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-quad'><span><code class="code">\quad</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-quad'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cquad"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="spacing-in-math-mode-quad"></a><p>This is 18<span class="dmn">mu</span>, that is, 1<span class="dmn">em</span>. This is often used for space
surrounding equations or expressions, for instance for the space between
two equations inside a <code class="code">displaymath</code> environment.  It is available
in both text and math mode.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cqquad'><span><code class="code">\qquad</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cqquad'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="spacing-in-math-mode-qquad"></a><p>A length of 2 quads, that is, 36<span class="dmn">mu</span> = 2<span class="dmn">em</span>.  It is available in
both text and math mode.
</p></dd>
</dl>



<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005csmash" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\smash</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\phantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\vphantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\hphantom</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cmathstrut" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\mathstrut</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005csmash">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\phantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\vphantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\hphantom</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spacing in math mode</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005csmash-1">16.6.1 <code class="code">\smash</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-vertical-spacing_002c-math-mode"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-mode_002c-vertical-space"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\smash{<var class="var">subformula</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Typeset <var class="var">subformula</var> as if its height and depth were zero.
</p>
<p>In this example the exponential is so tall that without the
<code class="code">\smash</code> command LaTeX would separate its line from the line
above it, and the uneven line spacing might be unsightly.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">To compute the tetration $\smash{2^{2^{2^2}}}$,
evaluate from the top down, as $2^{2^4}=2^{16}=65536$.
</pre></div>

<p>(Because of the <code class="code">\smash</code> the printed expression could run into the
line above so you may want to wait until the final version of the
document to make such adjustments.)
</p>
<p>This pictures the effect of <code class="code">\smash</code> by using <code class="code">\fbox</code> to
surround the box that LaTeX will put on the line.  The
<code class="code">\blackbar</code> command makes a bar extending from 10&nbsp;points below
the baseline to 20&nbsp;points above.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\blackbar}{\rule[-10pt]{5pt}{30pt}}
\fbox{\blackbar}
\fbox{\smash{\blackbar}}
</pre></div>

<p>The first box that LaTeX places is 20&nbsp;points high and
10&nbsp;points deep.  But the second box is treated by LaTeX as
having zero height and zero depth, despite that the ink printed on the
page still extends well above and below the line.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\smash</code> command appears often in mathematics to adjust the
size of an element that surrounds a subformula.  Here the first radical
extends below the baseline while the second lies just on the baseline.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
\sqrt{\sum_{0\leq k&lt; n} f(k)}
\sqrt{\vphantom{\sum}\smash{\sum_{0\leq k&lt; n}} f(k)}
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>Note the use of <code class="code">\vphantom</code> to give the <code class="code">\sqrt</code> command an
argument with the height of the <code class="code">\sum</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom"><code class="code">\phantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\vphantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\hphantom</code></a>).
</p>
<p>While most often used in mathematics, the <code class="code">\smash</code> command can
appear in other contexts.  However, it doesn&rsquo;t change into horizontal
mode.  So if it starts a paragraph then you should first put a
<code class="code">\leavevmode</code>, as in the bottom line below.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">xxx xxx xxx

\smash{yyy}  % no paragraph indent

\leavevmode\smash{zzz}  % usual paragraph indent
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-mathtools-4"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mathtools-package-4"></a>

<p>The package <code class="code">mathtools</code> has operators that provide even finer
control over smashing a subformula box.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cmathstrut" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\mathstrut</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csmash" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\smash</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spacing in math mode</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom-1">16.6.2 <code class="code">\phantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\vphantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\hphantom</code></h4>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cphantom"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cvphantom"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005chphantom"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cphantom"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cvphantom"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005chphantom"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-spacing_002c-math-mode"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-horizontal-spacing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-vertical-spacing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-mode_002c-spacing-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-invisible-character"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-character_002c-invisible"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\phantom{<var class="var">subformula</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\vphantom{<var class="var">subformula</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\hphantom{<var class="var">subformula</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">\phantom</code> command creates a box with the same height, depth,
and width as <var class="var">subformula</var>, but empty.  That is, this command causes
LaTeX to typeset the space but not fill it with the material.  Here
LaTeX will put a blank line that is the correct width for the answer,
but will not show that answer.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{displaymath}
  \int x^2\,dx=\mbox{\underline{$\phantom{(1/3)x^3+C}$}} 
\end{displaymath}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">\vphantom</code> variant produces an invisible box with the same
vertical size as <var class="var">subformula</var>, the same height and depth, but having
zero width.  And <code class="code">\hphantom</code> makes a box with the same width as
<var class="var">subformula</var> but with zero height and depth.
</p>
<p>In this example, the tower of exponents in the second summand expression
is so tall that TeX places this expression further down than its
default.  Without adjustment, the two summand expressions would be at
different levels.  The <code class="code">\vphantom</code> in the first expression tells
TeX to leave as much vertical room as it does for the tower, so the
two expressions come out at the same level.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{displaymath}
    \sum_{j\in\{0,\ldots\, 10\}\vphantom{3^{3^{3^j}}}}
      \sum_{i\in\{0,\ldots\, 3^{3^{3^j}}\}} i\cdot j
\end{displaymath}
</pre></div>

<p>These commands are often used in conjunction with <code class="code">\smash</code>.
See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005csmash"><code class="code">\smash</code></a>, which includes another example of <code class="code">\vphantom</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-mathtools-5"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mathtools-package-5"></a>

<p>The three phantom commands appear often but note that LaTeX provides
a suite of other commands to work with box sizes that may be more
convenient, including <code class="code">\makebox</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>) as well
as <code class="code">\settodepth</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csettodepth"><code class="code">\settodepth</code></a>), <code class="code">\settoheight</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csettoheight"><code class="code">\settoheight</code></a>), and <code class="code">\settowidth</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csettowidth"><code class="code">\settowidth</code></a>).
In addition, the <code class="code">mathtools</code> package has many commands that offer
fine-grained control over spacing.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-11"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-11"></a>

<p>All three commands produce an ordinary box, without any special
mathematics status.  So to do something like attaching a superscript you
should give it such a status, for example with the <code class="code">\operatorname</code>
command from the package <code class="code">amsmath</code>.
</p>
<p>While most often used in mathematics, these three can appear in other
contexts.  However, they don&rsquo;t cause LaTeX to change into horizontal
mode.  So if one of these starts a paragraph then you should prefix it
with <code class="code">\leavevmode</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cmathstrut">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\phantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\vphantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\hphantom</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spacing in math mode</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cmathstrut-1">16.6.3 <code class="code">\mathstrut</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmathstrut"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-spacing_002c-math-mode-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-vertical-spacing-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-mode_002c-spacing-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-invisible-character-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-character_002c-invisible-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-strut_002c-math"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\mathstrut
</pre></div>

<p>The analogue of <code class="code">\strut</code> for mathematics.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cstrut"><code class="code">\strut</code></a>.
</p>
<p>The input <code class="code">$\sqrt{x} + \sqrt{x^i}$</code> gives output where the
second radical is taller than the first.  To add extra vertical space
without any horizontal space, so that the two have the same height, use
<code class="code">$\sqrt{x\mathstrut} + \sqrt{x^i\mathstrut}$</code>.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\mathstrut</code> command adds the vertical height of an open
parenthesis, <code class="code">(</code>, but no horizontal space.  It is defined as
<code class="code">\vphantom{(}</code>, so see <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom"><code class="code">\phantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\vphantom</code> &amp; <code class="code">\hphantom</code></a> for
more.  An advantage over <code class="code">\strut</code> is that <code class="code">\mathstrut</code> adds no
depth, which is often the right thing for formulas.  Using the height of
an open parenthesis is just a convention; for complete control over the
amount of space, use <code class="code">\rule</code> with a width of zero.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005crule"><code class="code">\rule</code></a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Math-styles">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Math-miscellany" accesskey="n" rel="next">Math miscellany</a>, Previous: <a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Spacing in math mode</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-formulas" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math formulas</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Math-styles-1">16.7 Math styles</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-styles"></a>

<p>TeX&rsquo;s rules for typesetting a formula depend on the context.  For
example, inside a displayed equation, the input <code class="code">\sum_{0\leq
i&lt;n}k^m=\frac{n^{m+1}}{m+1}+\mbox{lower order terms}</code> will give
output with the summation index centered below the summation symbol.
But if that input is inline then the summation index is off to the right
rather than below, so it won&rsquo;t push the lines apart.  Similarly, in a
displayed context, the symbols in the numerator and denominator will be
larger than for an inline context, and in display math subscripts and
superscripts are further apart then they are in inline math.
</p>
<p>TeX uses four math styles.
</p>
<ul class="itemize mark-bullet">
<li><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-display-style"></a>
Display style is for a formula displayed on a line by itself, such as
with <code class="code">\begin{equation} ... \end{equation}</code>.

</li><li><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-text-style"></a>
Text style is for an inline formula, as with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">so we have $ ... $</samp>&rsquo;.

</li><li><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-script-style"></a>
Script style is for parts of a formula in a subscript or superscript.

</li><li><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-scriptscript-style"></a>
Scriptscript style is for parts of a formula at a second level (or more)
of subscript or superscript.

</li></ul>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cdisplaystyle"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctextstyle"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cscriptstyle"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cscriptscriptstyle"></a>
<p>TeX determines a default math style but you can override it with a
declaration of <code class="code">\displaystyle</code>, or <code class="code">\textstyle</code>, or
<code class="code">\scriptstyle</code>, or <code class="code">\scriptscriptstyle</code>.
</p>
<p>In this example, the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Arithmetic</samp>&rsquo; line&rsquo;s fraction will look
scrunched.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{r|cc}
  \textsc{Name}  &amp;\textsc{Series}  &amp;\textsc{Sum}  \\  \hline
  Arithmetic     &amp;$a+(a+b)+(a+2b)+\cdots+(a+(n-1)b)$
                   &amp;$na+(n-1)n\cdot\frac{b}{2}$  \\
  Geometric      &amp;$a+ab+ab^2+\cdots+ab^{n-1}$
                   &amp;$\displaystyle a\cdot\frac{1-b^n}{1-b}$  \\
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>But because of the <code class="code">\displaystyle</code> declaration,
the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Geometric</samp>&rsquo; line&rsquo;s fraction will be easy to read, with
characters the same size as in the rest of the line.
</p>
<p>Another example is that, compared to the same input without the
declaration, the result of
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">we get
$\pi=2\cdot{\displaystyle\int_{x=0}^1 \sqrt{1-x^2}\,dx}$
</pre></div>

<p>will have an integral sign that is much taller.  Note that here the
<code class="code">\displaystyle</code> applies to only part of the formula, and it is
delimited by being inside curly braces, as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">{\displaystyle ...}</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>The last example is a continued fraction.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
a_0+\frac{1}{
       \displaystyle a_1+\frac{\mathstrut 1}{
       \displaystyle a_2+\frac{\mathstrut 1}{
       \displaystyle a_3}}}
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>Without the <code class="code">\displaystyle</code> declarations, the denominators would be
set in script style and scriptscript style.  (The <code class="code">\mathstrut</code>
improves the height of the denominators; see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmathstrut"><code class="code">\mathstrut</code></a>.)
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Math-miscellany">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Math-styles" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Math styles</a>, Up: <a href="#Math-formulas" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math formulas</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Math-miscellany-1">16.8 Math miscellany</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-miscellany"></a>

<p>LaTeX contains a wide variety of mathematics facilities.  Here are
some that don&rsquo;t fit into other categories.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon" accesskey="1">Colon character <code class="code">:</code> &amp; <code class="code">\colon</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005c_002a" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\*</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cfrac" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\frac</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csqrt" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\sqrt</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cstackrel" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\stackrel</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005c_002a" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\*</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Math-miscellany" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math miscellany</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Colon-character-_003a-_0026-_005ccolon">16.8.1 Colon character <code class="code">:</code> &amp; <code class="code">\colon</code></h4>

<a class="anchor" id="colon"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-colon-character"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_003a-_0028for-math_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccolon"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">:
\colon
</pre></div>

<p>In mathematics, the colon character, <code class="code">:</code>, is a relation.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">With side ratios \( 3:4 \) and \( 4:5 \), the triangle is right.
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-12"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-12"></a>

<p>Ordinary LaTeX defines <code class="code">\colon</code> to produce the colon character
with the spacing appropriate for punctuation, as in set-builder notation
<code class="code">\{x\colon 0\leq x&lt;1\}</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-13"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-13"></a>

<p>But the widely-used <code class="code">amsmath</code> package defines <code class="code">\colon</code> for use
in the definition of functions <code class="code">f\colon D\to C</code>.  So if you want
the colon character as a punctuation then use <code class="code">\mathpunct{:}</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005c_002a">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cfrac" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\frac</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Colon character <code class="code">:</code> &amp; <code class="code">\colon</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Math-miscellany" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math miscellany</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005c_002a-1">16.8.2 <code class="code">\*</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-multiplication_002c-discretionary"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-breaks_002c-multiplication-discretionary"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-line-breaks_002c-multiplication-discretionary"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-discretionary-breaks_002c-multiplication"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_002a"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\*
</pre></div>

<p>A multiplication symbol that allows a line break.  If there is a break
then LaTeX puts a <code class="code">\times</code> symbol, &#x00D7;, before
that break.
</p>
<p>In <code class="code">\( A_1\* A_2\* A_3\* A_4 \)</code>, if there is no line break then
LaTeX outputs it as though it were <code class="code">\( A_1 A_2 A_3 A_4 \)</code>.  If
a line break does happen, for example between the two middle ones, then
LaTeX sets it like <code class="code">\( A_1 A_2 \times \)</code>, followed by the
break, followed by <code class="code">\( A_3 A_4 \)</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cfrac">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csqrt" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\sqrt</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005c_002a" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\*</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Math-miscellany" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math miscellany</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cfrac-1">16.8.3 <code class="code">\frac</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fraction"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfrac"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\frac{<var class="var">numerator</var>}{<var class="var">denominator</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Produces the fraction.  Used as: <code class="code">\begin{displaymath}
\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi\sigma}} \end{displaymath}</code>.  In inline math
mode it comes out small; see the discussion of <code class="code">\displaystyle</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005csqrt">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cstackrel" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\stackrel</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cfrac" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\frac</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Math-miscellany" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math miscellany</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005csqrt-1">16.8.4 <code class="code">\sqrt</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-square-root"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-roots"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-radical"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csqrt"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\sqrt{<var class="var">arg</var>}
\sqrt[<var class="var">root-number</var>]{<var class="var">arg</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>The square root, or optionally other roots, of <var class="var">arg</var>.  The optional
argument <var class="var">root-number</var> gives the root, i.e., enter the cube root of
<code class="code">x+y</code> as <code class="code">\sqrt[3]{x+y}</code>.
The size of the radical grows with that of <var class="var">arg</var> (as the height of
the radical grows, the angle on the leftmost part gets steeper, until
for a tall enough <code class="code">arg</code>, it is vertical).
</p>
<p>LaTeX has a separate <code class="code">\surd</code> symbol for making a square root
without <var class="var">arg</var> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cstackrel">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csqrt" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\sqrt</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Math-miscellany" accesskey="u" rel="up">Math miscellany</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cstackrel-1">16.8.5 <code class="code">\stackrel</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-stack-math"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-relation_002c-text-above"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cstackrel"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\stackrel{<var class="var">text</var>}{<var class="var">relation</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Put <var class="var">text</var> above <var class="var">relation</var>.  To put a function name above an
arrow enter <code class="code">\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Modes">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Page-styles" accesskey="n" rel="next">Page styles</a>, Previous: <a href="#Math-formulas" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Math formulas</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Modes-1">17 Modes</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-modes"></a>

<p>As LaTeX processes your document, at any point it is in one of six
modes.  They fall into three categories of two each, the horizontal
modes, the math modes, and the vertical modes. Some commands only work
in one mode or another (in particular, many commands only work in one of
the math modes), and error messages will refer to these.
</p>
<ul class="itemize mark-bullet">
<li><a class="anchor" id="modes-paragraph-mode"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph-mode"></a>
<em class="dfn">Paragraph mode</em> (in plain TeX this is called <em class="dfn">horizontal
mode</em>) is what LaTeX is in when processing ordinary text.  It breaks
the input text into lines and finds the positions of line breaks, so that
in vertical mode page breaks can be done.  This is the mode LaTeX is
in most of the time.

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-left_002dto_002dright-mode"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LR-mode"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="modes-lr-mode"></a><p><em class="dfn">LR mode</em> (for left-to-right mode; in plain TeX this is called
<em class="dfn">restricted horizontal mode</em>) is in effect when LaTeX starts
making a box with an <code class="code">\mbox</code> command.  As in paragraph mode,
LaTeX&rsquo;s output is a string of words with spaces between them.  Unlike
in paragraph mode, in LR mode LaTeX never starts a new line, it just
keeps going from left to right.  (Although LaTeX will not complain
that the LR box is too long, when it is finished and next tries to put
that box into a line, it might well complain that the finished LR
box won&rsquo;t fit there.)
</p>
</li><li><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-math-mode"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="modes-math-mode"></a><em class="dfn">Math mode</em> is when LaTeX is generating
an inline mathematical formula.

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-display-math-mode"></a>
<p><em class="dfn">Display math mode</em> is when LaTeX is generating a displayed
mathematical formula.  (Displayed formulas differ somewhat from inline
ones.  One example is that the placement of the subscript on <code class="code">\int</code>
differs in the two situations.)
</p>
</li><li><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-vertical-mode"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="modes-vertical-mode"></a><em class="dfn">Vertical mode</em> is when LaTeX is
building the list of lines and other material making the output page,
which comprises insertion of page breaks.  This is the mode LaTeX is
in when it starts a document.

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-internal-vertical-mode"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="modes-internal-vertical-mode"></a><p><em class="dfn">Internal vertical mode</em> is in effect when LaTeX starts making a
<code class="code">\vbox</code>. It has not such thing as page breaks, and as such is the
vertical analogue of LR mode.
</p>
</li></ul>

<p>For instance, if you begin a LaTeX article with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Let \( x \) be
...</samp>&rsquo; then these are the modes: first LaTeX starts every document in
vertical mode, then it reads the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">L</samp>&rsquo; and switches to paragraph
mode, then the next switch happens at the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">\(</samp>&rsquo; where LaTeX
changes to math mode, and then when it leaves the formula it pops
back to paragraph mode.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-inner-paragraph-mode"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-outer-paragraph-mode"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="modes-inner-paragraph-mode"></a><a class="anchor" id="modes-outer-paragraph-mode"></a><p>Paragraph mode has two subcases.  If you use a <code class="code">\parbox</code> command
or a <code class="code">minipage</code> then LaTeX is put into paragraph mode.  But it
will not put a page break here.  Inside one of these boxes, called a
<em class="dfn">parbox</em>, LaTeX is in <em class="dfn">inner paragraph mode</em>.  Its more usual
situation, where it can put page breaks, is <em class="dfn">outer paragraph mode</em>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Page-breaking">Page breaking</a>).
</p>

<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005censuremath" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\ensuremath</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005censuremath">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Up: <a href="#Modes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Modes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005censuremath-1">17.1 <code class="code">\ensuremath</code></h3>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\ensuremath{<var class="var">formula</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Ensure that <var class="var">formula</var> is typeset in math mode.
</p>
<p>For instance, you can redefine commands that ordinarily can be used only
in math mode, so that they can be used both in math and in plain text.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\dx}{\ensuremath{dx}}
In $\int f(x)\, \dx$, the \dx{} is an infinitesimal.
</pre></div>

<p>Caution: the <code class="code">\ensuremath</code> command is useful but not a panacea.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\alf}{\ensuremath{\alpha}}
You get an alpha in text mode: \alf.
But compare the correct spacing in $\alf+\alf$ with that in \alf+\alf.
</pre></div>

<p>Best is to typeset math things in a math mode.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Page-styles">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="n" rel="next">Spaces</a>, Previous: <a href="#Modes" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Modes</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Page-styles-1">18 Page styles</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-styles_002c-page"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-page-styles"></a>

<p>The style of a page determines where LaTeX places the components of
that page, such as headers and footers, and the text body.  This
includes pages in the main part of the document but also includes
special pages such as the title page of a book, a page from an index, or
the first page of an article.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-fancyhdr"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fancyhdr-package"></a>

<p>The package <code class="code">fancyhdr</code> is commonly used for constructing page
styles.  See its documentation.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\maketitle</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cpagenumbering" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\pagenumbering</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\pagestyle</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cthispagestyle" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\thispagestyle</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cmaketitle">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cpagenumbering" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\pagenumbering</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Page-styles" accesskey="u" rel="up">Page styles</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cmaketitle-1">18.1 <code class="code">\maketitle</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-titles_002c-making"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmaketitle"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\maketitle
</pre></div>

<p>Generate a title.  In the standard classes the title appears on a
separate page, except in the <code class="code">article</code> class where it is at the top
of the first page.  (See <a class="xref" href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a>, for information about
the <code class="code">titlepage</code> document class option.)
</p>
<p>This example shows <code class="code">\maketitle</code> appearing in its usual place,
immediately after <code class="code">\begin{document}</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{article}
\title{Constructing a Nuclear Reactor Using Only Coconuts}
\author{Jonas Grumby\thanks{%
    With the support of a Ginger Grant from the Roy Hinkley Society.} \\
  Skipper, \textit{Minnow}
  \and
  Willy Gilligan\thanks{%
    Thanks to the Mary Ann Summers foundation
    and to Thurston and Lovey Howell.}           \\
  Mate, \textit{Minnow}
  }
\date{1964-Sep-26}
\begin{document}
\maketitle
Just sit right back and you'll hear a tale, a tale of a fateful trip.
That started from this tropic port, aboard this tiny ship. The mate was
a mighty sailin' man, the Skipper brave and sure. Five passengers set
sail that day for a three hour tour. A three hour tour.
  ...
</pre></div>

<p>You tell LaTeX the information used to produce the title by making
the following declarations.  These must come before the
<code class="code">\maketitle</code>, either in the preamble or in the document body.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cauthor_007bname1-_005cand-name2-_005cand-_002e_002e_002e_007d'><span><code class="code">\author{<var class="var">name1</var> \and <var class="var">name2</var> \and ...}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cauthor_007bname1-_005cand-name2-_005cand-_002e_002e_002e_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-author_002c-for-titlepage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-_005cauthor_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cand-_0028for-_005cauthor_0029"></a>
<p>Required.  Declare the document author or authors.  The argument is a
list of authors separated by <code class="code">\and</code> commands.  To separate lines
within a single author&rsquo;s entry, for instance to give the author&rsquo;s
institution or address, use a double backslash, <code class="code">\\</code>.  If you omit
the <code class="code">\author</code> declaration then you get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Warning: No
\author given</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdate_007btext_007d'><span><code class="code">\date{<var class="var">text</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdate_007btext_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-date_002c-for-titlepage"></a>
<p>Optional.  Declare <var class="var">text</var> to be the document&rsquo;s date.  The <var class="var">text</var>
doesn&rsquo;t need to be in a date format; it can be any text at all.  If you
omit <code class="code">\date</code> then LaTeX uses the current date (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ctoday"><code class="code">\today</code></a>).
To have no date, instead use <code class="code">\date{}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cthanks_007btext_007d'><span><code class="code">\thanks{<var class="var">text</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cthanks_007btext_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-thanks_002c-for-titlepage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-credit-footnote"></a>
<p>Optional.  Produce a footnote.  You can use it in the author information
for acknowledgements as illustrated above, but you can also use it in
the title, or any place a footnote mark makes sense.  It can be any text
at all so you can use it for any purpose, such as to print an email
address.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctitle_007btext_007d'><span><code class="code">\title{<var class="var">text</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctitle_007btext_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-title_002c-for-titlepage"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-_005ctitle_0029"></a>
<p>Required.  Declare <var class="var">text</var> to be the title of the document.  Get line
breaks inside <var class="var">text</var> with a double backslash, <code class="code">\\</code>.  If you
omit the <code class="code">\title</code> declaration then the <code class="code">\maketitle</code> command
yields error &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: No \title given</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>To make your own title page, see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#titlepage"><code class="code">titlepage</code></a>. You can either
create this as a one-off or you can include it as part of a renewed
<code class="code">\maketitle</code> command.  (Many publishers will provide a class to use
in place of <code class="code">article</code> that formats the title according to their
house requirements.)
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cpagenumbering">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\pagestyle</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\maketitle</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Page-styles" accesskey="u" rel="up">Page styles</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cpagenumbering-1">18.2 <code class="code">\pagenumbering</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpagenumbering"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-page-numbering-style"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\pagenumbering{<var class="var">number-style</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Specifies the style of page numbers, and resets the page number.  The
numbering style is reflected on the page, and also in the table of
contents and other page references.  This declaration has global scope
so its effect is not stopped by an end of group such as a closing brace
or an end of environment.
</p>
<p>In this example, before the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Main</samp>&rsquo; section the pages are numbered
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">a</samp>&rsquo;, etc.  Starting on the page containing the
<code class="code">\pagenumbering</code> call in that section, the pages are numbered
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">1</samp>&rsquo;, etc.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{document}\pagenumbering{alph}
  ...
\section{Main}\pagenumbering{arabic}
  ...
</pre></div>

<p>The argument <var class="var">number-style</var> is one of the following (see
also&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol"><code class="code">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</code>: Printing counters</a>).
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">arabic</code></dt>
<dd><p>Arabic numerals: 1, 2, &hellip; 
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">roman</code></dt>
<dd><p>lowercase Roman numerals: i, ii, &hellip;
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">Roman</code></dt>
<dd><p>uppercase Roman numerals: I, II, &hellip;
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">alph</code></dt>
<dd><p>lowercase letters: a, b, &hellip; If you have more than 26 pages then you
get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Counter too large</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">Alph</code></dt>
<dd><p>uppercase letters: A, B, &hellip; If you have more than 26 pages then you
get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Counter too large</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-package_002c-hyperref-2'><span><code class="code">gobble</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-package_002c-hyperref-2'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hyperref-package-2"></a>
<p>LaTeX does not output a page number, although it
does get reset.  References to that page also are blank.  (This does not
work with the popular package <code class="code">hyperref</code> so to have the page number
not appear you may want to instead use <code class="code">\pagestyle{empty}</code> or
<code class="code">\thispagestyle{empty}</code>.)
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Traditionally, if a document has front matter&mdash;preface, table of
contents, etc.&mdash;then it is numbered with lowercase Roman numerals. The
main matter of a document uses arabic.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter"><code class="code">\frontmatter</code>, <code class="code">\mainmatter</code>, <code class="code">\backmatter</code></a>.
</p>
<p>If you want to change where the page number appears on the page,
see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cpagestyle"><code class="code">\pagestyle</code></a>.  If you want to change the value of the page
number, then you manipulate the <code class="code">page</code> counter (see <a class="pxref" href="#Counters">Counters</a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cpagestyle">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cthispagestyle" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\thispagestyle</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cpagenumbering" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\pagenumbering</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Page-styles" accesskey="u" rel="up">Page styles</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cpagestyle-1">18.3 <code class="code">\pagestyle</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cpagestyle"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-header-style"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-footer-style"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-running-header-and-footer-style"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\pagestyle{<var class="var">style</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Declaration that specifies how the page headers and footers are typeset,
from the current page onwards.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-fancyhdr-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fancyhdr-package-1"></a>

<p>A discussion with an example is below.  Note first that the package
<code class="code">fancyhdr</code> is now the standard way to manipulate headers and
footers.  New documents that need to do anything other than one of the
standard options below should use this package.  See its documentation
on CTAN.
</p>
<p>Values for <var class="var">style</var>:
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">plain</code></dt>
<dd><p>The header is empty.  The footer contains only a page number, centered.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">empty</code></dt>
<dd><p>The header and footer are both empty.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">headings</code></dt>
<dd><p>Put running headers and footers on each page.  The document style
specifies what goes in there; see the discussion below.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">myheadings</code></dt>
<dd><p>Custom headers, specified via the <code class="code">\markboth</code> or the
<code class="code">\markright</code> commands.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Some discussion of the motivation for LaTeX&rsquo;s mechanism will help you
work with the options <code class="code">headings</code> or <code class="code">myheadings</code>.  The
document source below produces an article, two-sided, with the pagestyle
<code class="code">headings</code>.  On this document&rsquo;s left hand pages, LaTeX wants (in
addition to the page number) the title of the current section.  On its
right hand pages LaTeX wants the title of the current subsection.
When it makes up a page, LaTeX gets this information from the
commands <code class="code">\leftmark</code> and <code class="code">\rightmark</code>.  So it is up to
<code class="code">\section</code> and <code class="code">\subsection</code> to store that information there.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass[twoside]{article}
\pagestyle{headings}
\begin{document}
  ... \section{Section 1} ... \subsection{Subsection 1.1} ...
\section{Section 2}
  ...
\subsection{Subsection 2.1}
  ...
\subsection{Subsection 2.2}
  ...
</pre></div>

<p>Suppose that the second section falls on a left page.  Although when the
page starts it is in the first section, LaTeX will put
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Section&nbsp;2</samp>&rsquo; in the left page header.  As to the right header,
if no subsection starts before the end of the right page then LaTeX
blanks the right hand header.  If a subsection does appear before the
right page finishes then there are two cases.  If at least one
subsection starts on the right hand page then LaTeX will put in the
right header the title of the first subsection starting on that right
page.  If at least one of 2.1, 2.2, &hellip;, starts on the left page but
none starts on the right then LaTeX puts in the right hand header the
title of the last subsection to start, that is, the one in effect during
the right hand page.
</p>
<p>To accomplish this, in a two-sided article, LaTeX has <code class="code">\section</code>
issue a command <code class="code">\markboth</code>, setting <code class="code">\leftmark</code> to
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Section&nbsp;2</samp>&rsquo; and setting <code class="code">\rightmark</code> to an empty content.
And, LaTeX has <code class="code">\subsection</code> issue a command <code class="code">\markright</code>,
setting <code class="code">\rightmark</code> to &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Subsection&nbsp;2.1</samp>&rsquo;, etc.
</p>
<p>Here are the descriptions of <code class="code">\markboth</code> and <code class="code">\markright</code>:
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005cmarkboth_007bleft_002dhead_007d_007bright_002dhead_007d'><span><code class="code">\markboth{<var class="var">left-head</var>}{<var class="var">right-head</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmarkboth_007bleft_002dhead_007d_007bright_002dhead_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Sets both the right hand and left hand heading information for either a
page style of <code class="code">headings</code> or <code class="code">myheadings</code>.  A left hand page
heading <var class="var">left-head</var> is generated by the last <code class="code">\markboth</code>
command before the end of the page.  A right hand page heading
<var class="var">right-head</var> is generated by the first <code class="code">\markboth</code> or
<code class="code">\markright</code> that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by
the last one that came before that page.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmarkright_007bright_002dhead_007d'><span><code class="code">\markright{<var class="var">right-head</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmarkright_007bright_002dhead_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Sets the right hand page heading, leaving the left unchanged.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cthispagestyle">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\pagestyle</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Page-styles" accesskey="u" rel="up">Page styles</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cthispagestyle-1">18.4 <code class="code">\thispagestyle</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cthispagestyle"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-page-style_002c-this-page"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\thispagestyle{<var class="var">style</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Works in the same way as the <code class="code">\pagestyle</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cpagestyle"><code class="code">\pagestyle</code></a>),
except that it changes to <var class="var">style</var> for the current page only.  This
declaration has global scope, so its effect is not delimited by braces
or environments.
</p>
<p>Often the first page of a chapter or section has a different style.  For
example, this LaTeX book document has the first page of the first
chapter in <code class="code">plain</code> style, as is the default (see <a class="pxref" href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{book}
\pagestyle{headings}
\begin{document}
\chapter{First chapter}
  ...
\chapter{Second chapter}\thispagestyle{empty}
  ...
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">plain</code> style has a page number on it, centered in the footer.
To make the page entirely empty, the command
<code class="code">\thispagestyle{empty}</code> immediately follows the second
<code class="code">\chapter</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Spaces">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Boxes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Boxes</a>, Previous: <a href="#Page-styles" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Page styles</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Spaces-1">19 Spaces</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-spaces"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-white-space"></a>

<p>LaTeX has many ways to produce white space, or filled space.  Some of
these are best suited to mathematical text; for these
see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a>.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\enspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\quad</code> &amp; <code class="code">\qquad</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005chspace" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\hspace</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005chfill" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\hfill</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005chss" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\hss</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cspacefactor" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029" accesskey="6">Backslash-space, <code class="code">\ </code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_007e" accesskey="7"><code class="code">~</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace" accesskey="8"><code class="code">\thinspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\negthinspace</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005c_002f" accesskey="9"><code class="code">\/</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill"><code class="code">\hrulefill</code> &amp; <code class="code">\dotfill</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip"><code class="code">\bigskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallskip</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak"><code class="code">\bigbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallbreak</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cstrut"><code class="code">\strut</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cvspace"><code class="code">\vspace</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cvfill"><code class="code">\vfill</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005caddvspace"><code class="code">\addvspace</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005chspace" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\hspace</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad-1">19.1 <code class="code">\enspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\quad</code> &amp; <code class="code">\qquad</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005censpace"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cquad"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cqquad"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005censpace"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cquad-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cqquad-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\enspace
\quad
\qquad
</pre></div>

<p>Insert a horizontal space of 1/2<span class="dmn">em</span>, 1<span class="dmn">em</span>, or 2<span class="dmn">em</span>. The
em is a length defined by a font designer, often thought of as being the
width of a capital&nbsp;M.  One advantage of describing space in ems is
that it can be more portable across documents than an absolute
measurement such as points (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths_002fem">Lengths/em</a>).
</p>
<p>This puts a suitable gap between two graphics.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center}
  \includegraphics{womensmile.png}%
  \qquad\includegraphics{mensmile.png}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a>, for <code class="code">\quad</code> and <code class="code">\qquad</code>.  These
are lengths from centuries of typesetting and so may be a better choice
in many circumstances than arbitrary lengths, such as you get with
<code class="code">\hspace</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005chspace">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005chfill" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\hfill</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\enspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\quad</code> &amp; <code class="code">\qquad</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005chspace-1">19.2 <code class="code">\hspace</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005chspace"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\hspace{<var class="var">length</var>}
\hspace*{<var class="var">length</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Insert the amount <var class="var">length</var> of horizontal space. The <var class="var">length</var> can
be positive, negative, or zero; adding a negative amount of space is
like backspacing.  It is a rubber length, that is, it may contain a
<code class="code">plus</code> or <code class="code">minus</code> component, or both (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
Because the space is stretchable and shrinkable, it is sometimes called
<em class="dfn">glue</em>.
</p>
<p>This makes a line with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Name:</samp>&rsquo; an inch from the right margin.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\noindent\makebox[\linewidth][r]{Name:\hspace{1in}}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">*</code>-form inserts horizontal space that is non-discardable.  More
precisely, when TeX breaks a paragraph into lines any white
space&mdash;glues and kerns&mdash;that come at a line break are discarded.  The
<code class="code">*</code>-form avoids that (technically, it adds a non-discardable
invisible item in front of the space).
</p>
<p>In this example
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\parbox{0.8\linewidth}{%
  Fill in each blank: Four \hspace*{1in} and seven years ago our
  fathers brought forth on this continent, a new \hspace*{1in},
  conceived in \hspace*{1in}, and dedicated to the proposition
  that all men are created \hspace*{1in}.}
</pre></div>

<p>the 1&nbsp;inch blank following &lsquo;<samp class="samp">conceived in</samp>&rsquo; falls at the start
of a line.  If you erase the <code class="code">*</code> then LaTeX discards the blank.
</p>
<p>Here, the <code class="code">\hspace</code> separates the three graphics.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center}
  \includegraphics{lion.png}%   comment keeps out extra space
  \hspace{1cm minus 0.25cm}\includegraphics{tiger.png}%
  \hspace{1cm minus 0.25cm}\includegraphics{bear.png}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>Because the argument to each <code class="code">\hspace</code> has <code class="code">minus 0.25cm</code>,
each can shrink a little if the three figures are too wide.  But each
space won&rsquo;t shrink more than 0.25<span class="dmn">cm</span> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005chfill">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005chss" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\hss</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005chspace" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\hspace</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005chfill-1">19.3 <code class="code">\hfill</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005chfill"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-stretch_002c-infinite-horizontal"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-infinite-horizontal-stretch"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\hfill
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a rubber length which has no natural space but that can stretch
horizontally as far as needed (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
</p>
<p>This creates a one-line paragraph with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Name:</samp>&rsquo; on the left side
of the page and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Quiz One</samp>&rsquo; on the right.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\noindent Name:\hfill Quiz One
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfill"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">\hfill</code> command is equivalent to <code class="code">\hspace{\fill}</code> and
so the space can be discarded at line breaks.  To avoid that instead use
<code class="code">\hspace*{\fill}</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005chspace"><code class="code">\hspace</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Here the graphs are evenly spaced in the middle of the figure.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}}
  ...
\begin{figure}
  \hspace*{\fill}%
  \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics{graph0.png}}%
    \hfill\vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics{graph1.png}}%
  \hspace*{\fill}%
  \caption{Comparison of two graphs} \label{fig:twographs}
\end{figure}
</pre></div>

<p>Note the <code class="code">\hspace*</code>&rsquo;s where the space could otherwise be dropped.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005chss">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cspacefactor" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005chfill" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\hfill</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005chss-1">19.4 <code class="code">\hss</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005chss"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-horizontal-space"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-horizontal-space_002c-stretchable"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-space_002c-inserting-horizontal"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\hss
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a horizontal space that is infinitely shrinkable as well as
infinitely stretchable (this command is a TeX primitive).  LaTeX
authors should reach first for the <code class="code">\makebox</code> command to get the
effects of <code class="code">\hss</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Here, the first line&rsquo;s <code class="code">\hss</code> makes the Z stick out to the right,
overwriting the Y.  In the second line the Z sticks out to the left,
overwriting the X.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">X\hbox to 0pt{Z\hss}Y
X\hbox to 0pt{\hss Z}Y
</pre></div>

<p>Without the <code class="code">\hss</code> you get something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Overfull \hbox
(6.11111pt too wide) detected at line 20</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cspacefactor">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029" accesskey="n" rel="next">Backslash-space, <code class="code">\ </code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005chss" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\hss</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cspacefactor-1">19.5 <code class="code">\spacefactor</code></h3>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\spacefactor=<var class="var">integer</var>
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cspacefactor"></a>
<p>Influence LaTeX&rsquo;s glue stretch and shrink behavior.  Most user-level
documents do not use this command.
</p>
<p>While LaTeX is laying out the material, it may stretch or shrink the
gaps between words.  (This space is not a character; it is called the
<em class="dfn">interword glue</em>; see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005chspace"><code class="code">\hspace</code></a>).  The <code class="code">\spacefactor</code> command
(from Plain&nbsp;TeX) allows you to, for instance, have the space
after a period stretch more than the space after a word-ending letter.
</p>
<p>After LaTeX places each character, or rule or other box, it sets a
parameter called the <em class="dfn">space factor</em>.  If the next thing in the input
is a space then this parameter affects how much stretching or shrinking
can happen.  A space factor that is larger than the normal value means
that the glue can stretch more and shrink less.  Normally, the space
factor is 1000. This value is in effect following most characters, and
any non-character box or math formula.  But it is 3000 after a period,
exclamation mark, or question mark, it is 2000 after a colon, 1500 after
a semicolon, 1250 after a comma, and 0 after a right parenthesis or
bracket, or closing double quote or single quote.  Finally, it is 999
after a capital letter.
</p>
<p>If the space factor&nbsp;<var class="var">f</var> is 1000 then the glue gap will be the
font&rsquo;s normal space value (for Computer Modern Roman 10 point this is
3.3333&nbsp;points).  Otherwise, if the space factor <var class="var">f</var> is greater
than 2000 then TeX adds the font&rsquo;s extra space value (for Computer
Modern Roman 10 point this is 1.11111&nbsp;points), and then the font&rsquo;s
normal stretch value is multiplied by <em class="math">f /1000</em> and the normal
shrink value is multiplied by <em class="math">1000/f</em> (for Computer Modern Roman
10 point these are 1.66666 and 1.11111&nbsp;points).
</p>
<p>For example, consider the period ending <code class="code">A man's best friend is his
dog.</code>  After it, TeX puts in a fixed extra space, and also allows the
glue to stretch 3 times as much and shrink 1/3 as much, as the glue
after <code class="code">friend</code>, which does not end in a period.
</p>
<p>The rules for space factors are even more complex because they play
additional roles.  In practice, there are two consequences.  First, if a
period or other punctuation is followed by a right parenthesis or
bracket, or right single or double quote then the spacing effect of that
period carries through those characters (that is, the following glue
will have increased stretch and shrink).  Second, if
punctuation comes after a capital letter then its effect is not in place
so you get an ordinary space.  This second case also affects abbreviations
that do not end in a capital letter (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_0040"><code class="code">\@</code></a>).
</p>
<p>You can only use <code class="code">\spacefactor</code> in paragraph mode or LR mode
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).  You can see the current value with
<code class="code">\the\spacefactor</code> or <code class="code">\showthe\spacefactor</code>.
</p>
<p>(Comment, not really related to <code class="code">\spacefactor</code>: if you get errors
like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical mode</samp>&rsquo;, or &lsquo;<samp class="samp">You
can't use `\spacefactor' in math mode.</samp>&rsquo;, or &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Improper \spacefactor</samp>&rsquo;
then you have probably tried to redefine an internal command.
See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother"><code class="code">\makeatletter</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makeatother</code></a>.)
</p>



<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005c_0040" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\@</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cfrenchspacing-_0026-_005cnonfrenchspacing" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\frenchspacing</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nonfrenchspacing</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnormalsfcodes" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\normalsfcodes</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005c_0040">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cfrenchspacing-_0026-_005cnonfrenchspacing" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\frenchspacing</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nonfrenchspacing</code></a>, Up: <a href="#g_t_005cspacefactor" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005c_0040-1">19.5.1 <code class="code">\@</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0040"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-at_002dsign"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-period_002c-sentence_002dending"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-period_002c-abbreviation_002dending"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-period_002c-spacing-after"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cAT"></a>
<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"><var class="var">capital-letter</var>\@.    
</pre></div>

<p>Treat a period as sentence-ending, where LaTeX would otherwise think
it is part of an abbreviation.  LaTeX thinks that a period ends an
abbreviation if the period comes after a capital letter, and otherwise
thinks the period ends the sentence.  By default, in justifying a line
LaTeX adjusts the space after a sentence-ending period (or a question
mark, exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than it adjusts the space
between words (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cspacefactor"><code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This example shows the two cases to remember.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The songs \textit{Red Guitar}, etc.\ are by Loudon Wainwright~III\@.
</pre></div>

<p>The second period ends the sentence, despite that it is preceded by a
capital.  We tell LaTeX that it ends the sentence by putting
<code class="code">\@</code> before it.  The first period ends the abbreviation
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">etc.</samp>&rsquo; but not the sentence.  The backslash-space, <code class="code">\ </code>,
produces a mid-sentence space.
</p>
<p>So: if you have a capital letter followed by a period that ends the
sentence, then put <code class="code">\@</code> before the period.  This holds even if
there is an intervening right parenthesis or bracket, or right single or
double quote, because the spacing effect of that period carries through
those characters.  For example, this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Use the \textit{Instructional Practices Guide},
(a book by the MAA)\@.
</pre></div>

<p>will have correct inter-sentence spacing after the period.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\@</code> command is only for a text mode. If you use it outside of
a text mode then you get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">You can't use `\spacefactor' in vertical
mode</samp>&rsquo; (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).
</p>
<p>Comment: the converse case is a period ending an abbreviation whose last
letter is not a capital letter, and that abbreviation is not the last
word in the sentence.  For that case follow the period with a
backslash-space, (<code class="code">\ </code>), or a tie, (<code class="code">~</code>), or <code class="code">\@</code>.
Examples are <code class="code">Nat.\ Acad.\ Science</code>, and <code class="code">Mr.~Bean</code>, and
<code class="code">(manure, etc.\@) for sale</code> (note in the last one that the
<code class="code">\@</code> comes before the closing parenthesis).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cfrenchspacing-_0026-_005cnonfrenchspacing">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnormalsfcodes" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\normalsfcodes</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005c_0040" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\@</code></a>, Up: <a href="#g_t_005cspacefactor" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cfrenchspacing"></a><h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cfrenchspacing-_0026-_005cnonfrenchspacing-1">19.5.2 <code class="code">\frenchspacing</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nonfrenchspacing</code></h4>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cnonfrenchspacing"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfrenchspacing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnonfrenchspacing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-spacing_002c-inter_002dsentence"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\frenchspacing
\nonfrenchspacing
</pre></div>

<p>The first declaration causes LaTeX to handle spacing between
sentences in the same way as spacing between words in the middle of a
sentence.  The second switches back to the default handling in which
spacing between sentences stretches or shrinks more
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cspacefactor"><code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Some typographic traditions, including English, prefer to adjust the
space between sentences (or spaces following a question mark,
exclamation point, comma, or colon) more than the space between words
that are in the middle of a sentence.  Declaring <code class="code">\frenchspacing</code>
(the command is from plain TeX) switches to the tradition that all
spaces are treated equally.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnormalsfcodes">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cfrenchspacing-_0026-_005cnonfrenchspacing" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\frenchspacing</code> &amp; <code class="code">\nonfrenchspacing</code></a>, Up: <a href="#g_t_005cspacefactor" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cnormalsfcodes-1">19.5.3 <code class="code">\normalsfcodes</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnormalsfcodes"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-spacing_002c-inter_002dsentence-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\normalsfcodes
</pre></div>

<p>Reset the LaTeX space factors to the default values
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cspacefactor"><code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_007e" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">~</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cspacefactor" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Backslash_002dspace_002c-_005c-">19.6 Backslash-space, <code class="code">\ </code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cNEWLINE"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cSPACE"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cTAB"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c-_0028backslash_002dspace_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cSPACE-1"></a>

<p>This section refers to the command consisting of two characters, a
backslash followed by a space.<br>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\ <!-- /@w -->
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a space. By default it produces white space of length
3.33333<span class="dmn">pt</span> plus 1.66666<span class="dmn">pt</span> minus 1.11111<span class="dmn">pt</span>.
</p>
<p>When you type one or more blanks between words, LaTeX produces white
space.  But that is different than an explicit space.  This illustrates.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{rl}
One blank:&amp; makes some space \\
Three blanks:&amp;   in a row \\
Three spaces:&amp;\ \ \ in a row \\
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>On the first line LaTeX puts some space after the colon.  On the
second line LaTeX collapses the three blanks to output one
whitespace, so you end with the same space after the colon as in the
first line.  LaTeX would similarly collapse them to a single
whitespace if one, two or all of the three blanks were replaced by a
tab, or by a newline.  However, the bottom line asks for three spaces so
the white area is wider.  That is, the backslash-space command creates a
fixed amount of horizontal space.  (Note that you can define a
horizontal space of any width at all with <code class="code">\hspace</code>;
see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005chspace"><code class="code">\hspace</code></a>.)
</p>
<p>The backslash-space command has two main uses.  It is often used after
control sequences to keep them from gobbling the blank that follows, as
after <code class="code">\TeX</code> in <code class="code">\TeX\ (or \LaTeX)</code>.  (But using curly braces
has the advantage of still working whether the next character is a blank
or any other non-letter, as in <code class="code">\TeX{} (or \LaTeX{})</code> in which
<code class="code">{}</code> can be added after <code class="code">\LaTeX</code> as well as after
<code class="code">\TeX</code>.)  The other common use is that it marks a period as ending
an abbreviation instead of ending a sentence, as in <code class="code">Prof.\ Smith</code>
or <code class="code">Jones et al.\ (1993)</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_0040"><code class="code">\@</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Under normal circumstances, <code class="code">\</code><kbd class="key">TAB</kbd> and <code class="code">\</code><kbd class="key">NEWLINE</kbd>
are equivalent to backslash-space, <code class="code">\ </code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="Leading-blanks"></a><p>Please also note that in order to allow source code indentation, under
normal circumstances, TeX ignores leading blanks in a line. So the
following prints &lsquo;<samp class="samp">one word</samp>&rsquo;:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">one
 word
</pre></div>

<p>where the white space between &lsquo;<samp class="samp">one</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">word</samp>&rsquo; is produced by
the newline after &lsquo;<samp class="samp">one</samp>&rsquo;, not by the space before &lsquo;<samp class="samp">word</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_007e">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\thinspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\negthinspace</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Backslash-space, <code class="code">\ </code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_007e-1">19.7 <code class="code">~</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_007e"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tie"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-space_002c-unbreakable"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hard-space"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-unbreakable-space"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-NBSP"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"><var class="var">before</var>~<var class="var">after</var>
</pre></div>

<p>The <em class="dfn">tie</em> character, <code class="code">~</code>, produces a space between <var class="var">before</var> and
<var class="var">after</var> at which the line will not be broken. By default the white
space has length 3.33333<span class="dmn">pt</span> plus 1.66666<span class="dmn">pt</span> minus
1.11111<span class="dmn">pt</span> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
</p>
<p>Note that the word &lsquo;<samp class="samp">tie</samp>&rsquo; has this meaning in the TeX/Texinfo
community; this differs from the typographic term &ldquo;tie&rdquo;, which
is a diacritic in the shape of an arc, called a &ldquo;tie-after&rdquo; accent
in <cite class="cite">The TeXbook</cite>.
</p>
<p>Here LaTeX will not break the line between the final two words:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Thanks to Prof.~Lerman.
</pre></div>

<p>In addition, despite the period, LaTeX does not use the
end-of-sentence spacing (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_0040"><code class="code">\@</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Ties prevent the end of line separation of things where that could
cause confusion. They also still allow hyphenation (of either of the
tied words), so they are generally preferable to putting consecutive
words in an <code class="code">\mbox</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>). 
</p>
<p>They are also matters of taste, sometimes alarmingly dogmatic taste,
among readers. Nevertheless, here are some usage models, many of them
from <cite class="cite">The TeXbook</cite>.
</p>
<ul class="itemize mark-bullet">
<li>Between an enumerator label and number, such as in references:
<code class="code">Chapter~12</code>, or <code class="code">Theorem~\ref{th:Wilsons}</code>, or
<code class="code">Figure~\ref{fig:KGraph}</code>.

</li><li>When cases are enumerated inline: <code class="code">(b)~Show that $f(x)$ is
(1)~continuous, and (2)~bounded</code>.

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-siunitx-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-siunitx-package-1"></a>

</li><li>Between a number and its unit: <code class="code">$745.7.8$~watts</code> (the
<code class="code">siunitx</code> package has a special facility for this) or
<code class="code">144~eggs</code>. This includes between a month and day number in a date:
<code class="code">October~12</code> or <code class="code">12~Oct</code>. In general, in any expressions where
numbers and abbreviations or symbols are separated by a space:
<code class="code">AD~565</code>, or <code class="code">2:50~pm</code>, or <code class="code">Boeing~747</code>, or
<code class="code">268~Plains Road</code>, or <code class="code">\$$1.4$~billion</code>. Other common
choices here are a thin space (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace"><code class="code">\thinspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\negthinspace</code></a>) and
no space at all.

</li><li>When mathematical phrases are rendered in words: <code class="code">equals~$n$</code>, or
<code class="code">less than~$\epsilon$</code>, or <code class="code">given~$X$</code>, or <code class="code">modulo~$p^e$
for all large~$n$</code> (but compare <code class="code">is~$15$</code> with <code class="code">is $15$~times
the height</code>). Between mathematical symbols in apposition with nouns:
<code class="code">dimension~$d$</code> or <code class="code">function~$f(x)$</code> (but compare <code class="code">with
length $l$~or more</code>). When a symbol is a tightly bound object of a
preposition: <code class="code">of~$x$</code>, or <code class="code">from $0$ to~$1$</code>, or <code class="code">in
common with~$m$</code>.

</li><li>Between symbols in series: <code class="code">$1$,~$2$, or~$3$</code> or <code class="code">$1$,~$2$,
\ldots,~$n$</code>.

</li><li>Between a person&rsquo;s given names and between multiple surnames:
<code class="code">Donald~E. Knuth</code>, or <code class="code">Luis~I. Trabb~Pardo</code>, or
<code class="code">Charles~XII</code>&mdash;but you must give TeX places to break the line
so you might do <code class="code">Charles Louis Xavier~Joseph de~la
Vall\'ee~Poussin</code>.

</li></ul>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005c_002f" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\/</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_007e" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">~</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace-1">19.8 <code class="code">\thinspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\negthinspace</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cthinspace"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cnegthinspace"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cthinspace-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnegthinspace-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-thin-space-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-space_002c-thin"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-thin-space_002c-negative-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-space_002c-negative-thin"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\thinspace
\negthinspace
</pre></div>

<p>These produce unbreakable and unstretchable spaces of 1/6<span class="dmn">em</span> and
-1/6<span class="dmn">em</span>, respectively.  These are the text mode equivalents of
<code class="code">\,</code> and <code class="code">\!</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Spacing-in-math-mode_002f_005cthinspace">Spacing in math mode/\thinspace</a>).
</p>
<p>You can use <code class="code">\,</code> as a synonym for <code class="code">\thinspace</code> in text mode.
</p>
<p>One common use of <code class="code">\thinspace</code> is as the space between nested
quotes:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Killick replied, ``I heard the Captain say, `Ahoy there.'\thinspace''
</pre></div>

<p>Another use is that some style guides call for a <code class="code">\thinspace</code>
between an ellipsis and a sentence ending period (other style guides,
think the three dots and/or four dots are plenty).  Another
style-specific use is between initials, as in <code class="code">D.\thinspace E.\
Knuth</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsmath-14"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsmath-package-14"></a>

<p>LaTeX provides a variety of similar spacing commands for math mode
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a>).  With the <code class="code">amsmath</code> package, or as
of the 2020-10-01 LaTeX release, they can be used in text mode as
well as math mode, including <code class="code">\!</code> for <code class="code">\negthinspace</code>; but
otherwise, they are available only in math mode.
</p>
<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005c_002f">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\hrulefill</code> &amp; <code class="code">\dotfill</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\thinspace</code> &amp; <code class="code">\negthinspace</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005c_002f-1">19.9 <code class="code">\/</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_002f"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-italic-correction"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"><var class="var">before-character</var>\/<var class="var">after-character</var>
</pre></div>

<p>Insert an <em class="dfn">italic correction</em>, a small space defined by the font
designer for each character (possibly zero), to avoid the character
colliding with whatever follows. When you use <code class="code">\/</code>, LaTeX
takes the correction from the font metric file, scales it by any
scaling that has been applied to the font, and then inserts that much
horizontal space.
</p>
<p>Here, were it not for the <code class="code">\/</code>, the <var class="var">before-character</var>
italic&nbsp;f would hit the <var class="var">after-character</var> roman&nbsp;H
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\companylogo}{{\it f}\/H}
</pre></div>

<p>because the italic letter f leans far to the right.
</p>
<p>If <var class="var">after-character</var> is a period or comma then don&rsquo;t insert an
italic correction since those punctuation symbols are so low to the
baseline already.  However, with semicolons or colons, as well as with
normal letters, the italic correction can help. It is typically used
between a switch from italic or slanted fonts to an upright font.
</p>
<p>When you use commands such as <code class="code">\emph</code> and <code class="code">\textit</code> and
<code class="code">\textsl</code> to change fonts, LaTeX automatically inserts the
italic correction when needed (see <a class="pxref" href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a>).  However,
declarations such as <code class="code">\em</code> and <code class="code">\itshape</code> and
<code class="code">\slshape</code> do not automatically insert italic corrections.
</p>
<p>Upright characters can also have an italic correction.  An example
where this is needed is the name <code class="code">pdf\/\TeX</code>. However, most
upright characters have a zero italic correction. Some font creators
do not include italic correction values even for italic fonts.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfontdimen1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-font-dimension_002c-slant"></a>
<p>Technically, LaTeX uses another font-specific value, the so-called
<em class="dfn">slant parameter</em> (namely <code class="code">\fontdimen1</code>), to determine whether
to possibly insert an italic correction, rather than tying the action to
particular font commands.
</p>
<p>There is no concept of italic correction in math mode; math spacing is
done in a different way.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\bigskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallskip</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005c_002f" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\/</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill-1">19.10 <code class="code">\hrulefill</code> &amp; <code class="code">\dotfill</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005chrulefill"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cdotfill"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005chrulefill"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cdotfill"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\hrulefill
\dotfill
</pre></div>

<p>Produce an infinite horizontal rubber length (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>) that
LaTeX fills with a rule (that is, a line) or with dots, instead of
white space.
</p>
<p>This outputs a line 2 inches long.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Name:~\makebox[2in]{\hrulefill}
</pre></div>

<p>This example, when placed between blank lines, creates a paragraph that
is left and right justified and where the middle is filled with evenly
spaced dots.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\noindent John Aubrey, RN \dotfill{} Melbury Lodge
</pre></div>

<p>To make the rule or dots go to the line&rsquo;s end use <code class="code">\null</code> at the
start or end.  
</p>
<p>To change the rule&rsquo;s thickness, copy the definition and adjust it, as
here
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand{\hrulefill}{%
  \leavevmode\leaders\hrule height 1pt\hfill\kern0pt }
</pre></div>

<p>which changes the default thickness of 0.4<span class="dmn">pt</span> to 1<span class="dmn">pt</span>.
Similarly, adjust the dot spacing as with
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand{\dotfill}{%
  \leavevmode\cleaders\hbox to 1.00em{\hss .\hss }\hfill\kern0pt }
</pre></div>

<p>which changes the default length of 0.33<span class="dmn">em</span> to 1.00<span class="dmn">em</span>.
</p>
<p>This example produces a line for a signature.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{minipage}{4cm}
  \centering
  \hrulefill\\
  Signed
\end{minipage}
</pre></div>

<p>The line is 4<span class="dmn">cm</span> long.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\bigbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallbreak</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\hrulefill</code> &amp; <code class="code">\dotfill</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip-1">19.11 <code class="code">\bigskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallskip</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cbigskip"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cmedskip"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005csmallskip"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbigskip"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmedskip"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csmallskip"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\bigskip
\medskip
\smallskip
</pre></div>

<p>Produce an amount of vertical space, large or medium-sized or
small. These commands are fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Here the skip suggests the passage of time (from <i class="i">The Golden Ocean</i> by
O&rsquo;Brian).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Mr Saumarez would have something rude to say to him, no doubt: he
was at home again, and it was delightful.

\bigskip
``A hundred and fifty-seven miles and one third, in twenty-four hours,''
said Peter.
</pre></div>

<p>Each command is associated with a length defined in the document class
file.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="bigskip"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cbigskip-1'><span><code class="code">\bigskip</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cbigskip-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbigskipamount"></a>
<p>The same as <code class="code">\vspace{\bigskipamount}</code>, ordinarily about one line
space, with stretch and shrink.  The default for the <code class="code">book</code> and
<code class="code">article</code> classes is <code class="code">12pt plus 4pt minus 4pt</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="medskip"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cmedskip-1'><span><code class="code">\medskip</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cmedskip-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmedskipamount"></a>
<p>The same as <code class="code">\vspace{\medskipamount}</code>, ordinarily about half of a
line space, with stretch and shrink.  The default for the <code class="code">book</code>
and <code class="code">article</code> classes is <code class="code">6pt plus 2pt minus 2pt</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="smallskip"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005csmallskip-1'><span><code class="code">\smallskip</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005csmallskip-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csmallskipamount"></a>
<p>The same as <code class="code">\vspace{\smallskipamount}</code>, ordinarily about a
quarter of a line space, with stretch and shrink.  The default for the
<code class="code">book</code> and <code class="code">article</code> classes is <code class="code">3pt plus 1pt minus 1pt</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>Because each command is a <code class="code">\vspace</code>, if you use it in mid-paragraph
then it will insert its vertical space between the line in which you use
it and the next line, not necessarily at the place that you use it.  So
these are best between paragraphs.
</p>
<p>The commands <code class="code">\bigbreak</code>, <code class="code">\medbreak</code>, and <code class="code">\smallbreak</code>
are similar but also suggest to LaTeX that this is a good place to
put a page break (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak"><code class="code">\bigbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallbreak</code></a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cstrut" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\strut</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\bigskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallskip</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak-1">19.12 <code class="code">\bigbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallbreak</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cbigbreak"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cmedbreak"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005csmallbreak"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cbigbreak"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmedbreak"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csmallbreak"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\bigbreak
\medbreak
\smallbreak
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a vertical space that is big or medium-sized or small, and
suggest to LaTeX that this is a good place to break the page.  (The
associated penalties are respectively &minus;200, &minus;100, and
&minus;50.)
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip"><code class="code">\bigskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallskip</code></a>, for more.  These commands
produce the same vertical space but differ in that they also remove a
preceding vertical space if it is less than what they would insert (as
with <code class="code">\addvspace</code>).  In addition, they terminate a paragraph where
they are used: this example
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">abc\bigbreak def ghi

jkl mno pqr
</pre></div>

<p>will output three paragraphs, the first ending in &lsquo;<samp class="samp">abc</samp>&rsquo; and the
second starting, after an extra vertical space and a paragraph indent,
with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">def</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cstrut">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cvspace" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\vspace</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\bigbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medbreak</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallbreak</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cstrut-1">19.13 <code class="code">\strut</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cstrut"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-strut-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\strut
</pre></div>

<p>Ensure that the current line has height at least <code class="code">0.7\baselineskip</code>
and depth at least <code class="code">0.3\baselineskip</code>.  Essentially, LaTeX
inserts into the line a rectangle having zero width,
<code class="code">\rule[-0.3\baselineskip]{0pt}{\baselineskip}</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005crule"><code class="code">\rule</code></a>).
The <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> changes with the current font or fontsize.
</p>
<p>In this example the <code class="code">\strut</code> keeps the box inside the frame from
having zero height.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\framebox[2in]{\strut}
</pre></div>

<p>This example has four lists.  In the first there is a much bigger gap
between items 2 and&nbsp;3 than there is between items 1 and&nbsp;2.
The second list fixes that with a <code class="code">\strut</code> at the end of its first
item&rsquo;s second line.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}
\noindent\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
\begin{enumerate}
  \item \parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test}
  \item test
  \item test
\end{enumerate}
\end{minipage}%
\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
\begin{enumerate}
  \item \parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test\strut}
  \item test
  \item test
\end{enumerate}
\end{minipage}%
\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
\begin{enumerate}
  \item \fbox{\parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test}}
  \item \fbox{test}
  \item \fbox{test}
\end{enumerate}
\end{minipage}%
\begin{minipage}[t]{0.2\linewidth}
\begin{enumerate}
  \item \fbox{\parbox[t]{15pt}{test \\ test\strut}}
  \item \fbox{test}
  \item \fbox{test}
\end{enumerate}
\end{minipage}%
</pre></div>

<p>The final two lists use <code class="code">\fbox</code> to show what&rsquo;s happening.  The
first item <code class="code">\parbox</code> of the third list goes only to the bottom of
its second &lsquo;<samp class="samp">test</samp>&rsquo;, which happens not have any characters that
descend below the baseline.  The fourth list adds the strut that gives
the needed extra below-baseline space.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-TikZ-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-TikZ-package-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-Asymptote-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Asymptote-package-1"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">\strut</code> command is often useful in graphics, such as in
<code class="code">TikZ</code> or <code class="code">Asymptote</code>.  For instance, you may have a command
such as <code class="code">\graphnode{<var class="var">node-name</var>}</code> that fits a circle around
<var class="var">node-name</var>.  However, unless you are careful the <var class="var">node-name</var>&rsquo;s
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">x</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">y</samp>&rsquo; will produce different-diameter circles because
the characters are different sizes.  A careful <code class="code">\graphnode</code> might
insert a <code class="code">\strut</code>, then <var class="var">node-name</var>, and then draw the circle.
</p>
<p>The general approach of using a zero width <code class="code">\rule</code> is useful in
many circumstances.  In this table, the zero-width rule keeps the top of
the first integral from hitting the <code class="code">\hline</code>.  Similarly, the
second rule keeps the second integral from hitting the first.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{rl}
  \textsc{Integral}   &amp;\textsc{Value}           \\
  \hline
  $\int_0^x t\, dt$   &amp;$x^2/2$  \rule{0em}{2.5ex} \\  
  $\int_0^x t^2\, dt$ &amp;$x^3/3$  \rule{0em}{2.5ex}
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>(Although the line-ending double backslash command has an available
optional argument to change the corresponding baseline skip, that won&rsquo;t
solve this issue.  Changing the first double backslash to something like
<code class="code">\\[2.5ex]</code> will put more room between the header line and the
<code class="code">\hline</code> rule, and the integral would still hit the rule.)
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cvspace">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cvfill" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\vfill</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cstrut" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\strut</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cvspace-1">19.14 <code class="code">\vspace</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cvspace"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-vertical-space"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-space_002c-vertical"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\vspace{<var class="var">length</var>}
\vspace*{<var class="var">length</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Add the vertical space <var class="var">length</var>.  The <var class="var">length</var> can be positive,
negative, or zero.  It is a rubber length&mdash;it may contain a <code class="code">plus</code>
or <code class="code">minus</code> component (see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
</p>
<p>This puts space between the two paragraphs.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">And I slept.

\vspace{1ex plus 0.5ex}
The new day dawned cold.
</pre></div>

<p>(See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip"><code class="code">\bigskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\medskip</code> &amp; <code class="code">\smallskip</code></a>, for common inter-paragraph
spaces.)
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">*</code>-form inserts vertical space that is non-discardable.  More
precisely, LaTeX discards vertical space at a page break and the
<code class="code">*</code>-form causes the space to stay.  This example leaves space
between the two questions.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Question: Find the integral of \( 5x^4+5 \).

\vspace*{2cm plus 0.5cm}
Question: Find the derivative of \( x^5+5x+9 \).
</pre></div>

<p>That space will be present even if the page break happens to fall
between the questions.
</p>
<p>If you use <code class="code">\vspace</code> in the middle of a paragraph (i.e., in
horizontal mode) then the space is inserted after the line containing
the <code class="code">\vspace</code> command; it does not start a new paragraph at the
<code class="code">\vspace</code> command.
</p>
<p>In this example the two questions will be evenly spaced vertically on
the page, with at least one inch of space below each.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{document}
1) Who put the bomp in the bomp bah bomp bah bomp?
\vspace{1in plus 1fill}

2) Who put the ram in the rama lama ding dong?
\vspace{1in plus 1fill}
\end{document}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cvfill">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005caddvspace" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\addvspace</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cvspace" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\vspace</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cvfill-1">19.15 <code class="code">\vfill</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cvfill"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-stretch_002c-infinite-vertical"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-infinite-vertical-stretch"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\vfill
</pre></div>

<p>End the current paragraph and insert a vertical rubber length that is
infinite, so it can stretch or shrink as far as needed
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
</p>
<p>It is often used in the same way as <code class="code">\vspace{\fill}</code>, except that
<code class="code">\vfill</code> ends the current paragraph whereas <code class="code">\vspace{\fill}</code>
adds the infinite vertical space below its line, irrespective of the
paragraph structure.  In both cases that space will disappear at a page
boundary; to circumvent this see the starred option
in&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cvspace"><code class="code">\vspace</code></a>.
</p>
<p>In this example the page is filled, so the top and bottom lines contain
the text &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Lost Dog!</samp>&rsquo; and the second &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Lost Dog!</samp>&rsquo; is exactly
halfway between them.
</p> 
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{document}
Lost Dog!
\vfill
Lost Dog!  % perfectly in the middle
\vfill
Lost Dog!
\end{document}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005caddvspace">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cvfill" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\vfill</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="u" rel="up">Spaces</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005caddvspace-1">19.16 <code class="code">\addvspace</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005caddvspace"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-vertical-space-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-space_002c-inserting-vertical"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\addvspace{<var class="var">vert-length</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Add a vertical space of <var class="var">vert-length</var>.  However, if there are two or
more <code class="code">\addvspace</code>&rsquo;s in a sequence then together they only add the
space needed to make the natural length equal to the maximum of the
<var class="var">vert-length</var>&rsquo;s in that sequence. This command is fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).  The <var class="var">vert-length</var> is a rubber length
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).
</p>
<p>This example illustrates.  The <code class="code">picture</code> draws a scale over which
to rules are placed.  In a standard LaTeX article the length
<code class="code">\baselineskip</code> is 12<span class="dmn">pt</span>.  As shown by the scale, the two
rules are 22<span class="dmn">pt</span> apart: the sum of the <code class="code">\baselineskip</code> and the
10<span class="dmn">pt</span> from the first <code class="code">\addvspace</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{color}
\begin{document}
\setlength{\unitlength}{2pt}%
\noindent\begin{picture}(0,0)%
  \multiput(0,0)(0,-1){25}{{\color{blue}\line(1,0){1}}}
  \multiput(0,0)(0,-5){6}{{\color{red}\line(1,0){2}}}
\end{picture}%
\rule{0.25\linewidth}{0.1pt}% 
\par\addvspace{10pt}% \addvspace{20pt}%
\par\noindent\rule{0.25\linewidth}{0.1pt}%
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>Now uncomment the second <code class="code">\addvspace</code>.  It does not make the gap
20<span class="dmn">pt</span> longer; instead the gap is the sum of <code class="code">\baselineskip</code>
and 20<span class="dmn">pt</span>.  So <code class="code">\addvspace</code> in a sense does the opposite of
its name&mdash;it makes sure that multiple vertical spaces do not
accumulate, but instead that only the largest one is used.
</p>
<p>LaTeX uses this command to adjust the vertical space above or below
an environment that starts a new paragraph.  For instance, a
<code class="code">theorem</code> environment begins and ends with <code class="code">\addvspace</code> so
that two consecutive <code class="code">theorem</code>&rsquo;s are separated by one vertical
space, not two.
</p>
<p>A error &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Something's wrong--perhaps a missing \item</samp>&rsquo; pointing to an
<code class="code">\addvspace</code> means that you were not in vertical mode when you hit
this command. One way to change that is to precede <code class="code">\addvspace</code>
with a <code class="code">\par</code> command (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cpar"><code class="code">\par</code></a>), as in the above example.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Boxes">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Color" accesskey="n" rel="next">Color</a>, Previous: <a href="#Spaces" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Spaces</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Boxes-1">20 Boxes</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-boxes"></a>

<p>At its core, LaTeX puts things in boxes and then puts the boxes on a
page.  So these commands are central.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-adjustbox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-adjustbox-package"></a>

<p>There are many packages on CTAN that are useful for manipulating boxes.
One useful adjunct to the commands here is <code class="code">adjustbox</code>.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\fbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\framebox</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cparbox" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\parbox</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005craisebox" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\raisebox</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\sbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\savebox</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#lrbox" accesskey="6"><code class="code">lrbox</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cusebox" accesskey="7"><code class="code">\usebox</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\fbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\framebox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Boxes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Boxes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox-1">20.1 <code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cmbox"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cmakebox"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmbox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmakebox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-box"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-make-a-box"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hyphenation_002c-preventing"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\mbox{<var class="var">text</var>}
\makebox{<var class="var">text</var>}
\makebox[<var class="var">width</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
\makebox[<var class="var">width</var>][<var class="var">position</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a box, a container for material.  The <var class="var">text</var> is typeset in
LR mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>) so it is not broken into lines.  The
<code class="code">\mbox</code> command is robust, while <code class="code">\makebox</code> is fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Because <code class="code">text</code> is not broken into lines, you can use <code class="code">\mbox</code>
to prevent hyphenation.  In this example, LaTeX will not hyphenate
the tank name, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">T-34</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The soviet tank \mbox{T-34} is a symbol of victory against nazism.
</pre></div>

<p>The first two command invocations shown, <code class="code">\mbox</code> and
<code class="code">\makebox</code>, are roughly the same.  They create a box just wide
enough to contain the <var class="var">text</var>.  (They are like plain TeX&rsquo;s
<code class="code">\hbox</code>.)
</p>
<p>In the third version the optional argument <var class="var">width</var> specifies the
width of the box.  Note that the space occupied by the text need not
equal the width of the box.  For one thing, <var class="var">text</var> can be too small;
this creates a full-line box
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\makebox[\linewidth]{Chapter Exam}
</pre></div>

<p>with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Chapter Exam</samp>&rsquo; centered.  But <var class="var">text</var> can also be too wide
for <var class="var">width</var>.  See the example below of zero-width boxes.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="mbox-makebox-depth"></a><a class="anchor" id="mbox-makebox-height"></a><a class="anchor" id="mbox-makebox-width"></a><a class="anchor" id="mbox-makebox-totalheight"></a><p>In the <var class="var">width</var> argument you can use the following lengths that refer
to the dimension of the box that LaTeX gets on typesetting
<var class="var">text</var>: <code class="code">\depth</code>, <code class="code">\height</code>, <code class="code">\width</code>,
<code class="code">\totalheight</code> (this is the box&rsquo;s height plus its depth).  For
example, to make a box with the text stretched to double the natural
size you can say this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}
</pre></div>

<p>For the fourth command synopsis version the optional argument <var class="var">position</var>
gives position of the text within the box. It may take the following
values:
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">c</code></dt>
<dd><p>The <var class="var">text</var> is centered (default).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">l</code></dt>
<dd><p>The <var class="var">text</var> is flush left.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">r</code></dt>
<dd><p>Flush right.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">s</code></dt>
<dd><p>Stretch the interword space in <var class="var">text</var> across the entire <var class="var">width</var>.
The <var class="var">text</var> must contain stretchable space for this to work.  For
instance, this could head a press release:
<code class="code">\noindent\makebox[\textwidth][s]{\large\hfil IMMEDIATE\hfil
RELEASE\hfil}</code>
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>A common use of <code class="code">\makebox</code> is to make zero-width text boxes.  This
puts the value of the quiz questions to the left of those questions.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\pts}[1]{\makebox[0em][r]{#1 points\hspace*{1em}}}
\pts{10}What is the air-speed velocity of an unladen swallow?

\pts{90}An African or European swallow?
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-TikZ-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-TikZ-package-2"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-Asymptote-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Asymptote-package-2"></a>

<p>The right edge of the output &lsquo;<samp class="samp">10 points </samp>&rsquo; (note the ending space
after &lsquo;<samp class="samp">points</samp>&rsquo;) will be just before the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">What</samp>&rsquo;.  You can use
<code class="code">\makebox</code> similarly when making graphics, such as in <code class="code">TikZ</code>
or <code class="code">Asymptote</code>, where you put the edge of the text at a known
location, regardless of the length of that text.
</p>
<p>For boxes with frames see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox"><code class="code">\fbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\framebox</code></a>. For colors
see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#Colored-boxes">Colored boxes</a>.
</p>
<p>There is a related version of <code class="code">\makebox</code> that is used within the
<code class="code">picture</code> environment, where the length is given in terms of
<code class="code">\unitlength</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029"><code class="code">\makebox</code> (picture)</a>).
</p>
<p>As <var class="var">text</var> is typeset in LR mode, neither a double backslash
<code class="code">\\</code> nor <code class="code">\par</code> will give you a new line; for instance
<code class="code">\makebox{abc def \\ ghi}</code> outputs &lsquo;<samp class="samp">abc defghi</samp>&rsquo; while
<code class="code">\makebox{abc def \par ghi}</code> outputs &lsquo;<samp class="samp">abc def ghi</samp>&rsquo;, both on
a single line.  To get multiple lines see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cparbox"><code class="code">\parbox</code></a>
and&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#minipage"><code class="code">minipage</code></a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cparbox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\parbox</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Boxes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Boxes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox-1">20.2 <code class="code">\fbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\framebox</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cfbox"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cframebox"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfbox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cframebox-1"></a>

<p>Synopses, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\fbox{<var class="var">text</var>}
\framebox{<var class="var">text</var>}
\framebox[<var class="var">width</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
\framebox[<var class="var">width</var>][<var class="var">position</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Create a box with an enclosing frame, four rules surrounding the <var class="var">text</var>.
These commands are the same as <code class="code">\mbox</code> and <code class="code">\makebox</code> except
for the frame (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>). The <code class="code">\fbox</code> command is
robust, the <code class="code">\framebox</code> command is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\fbox{Warning! No work shown, no credit given.}
</pre></div>

<p>LaTeX puts the text into a box, the text cannot be hyphenated.
Around that box, separated from it by a small gap, are four rules making
a frame.
</p>
<p>The first two command invocations, <code class="code">\fbox{...}</code> and
<code class="code">\framebox{...}</code>, are roughly the same.  As to the third and
fourth invocations, the optional arguments allow you to specify the box
width as <var class="var">width</var> and the position of the text inside that box as
<var class="var">position</var>.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>, for the full description but
here is an example creating an empty box that is 1/4<span class="dmn">in</span> wide.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}\framebox[0.25in]{\strut}}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">\strut</code> ensures a total height of <code class="code">\baselineskip</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cstrut"><code class="code">\strut</code></a>).
</p>
<p>These parameters determine the frame layout.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="fbox-framebox-fboxrule"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfboxrule-2'><span><code class="code">\fboxrule</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfboxrule-2'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-frame_002c-line-width"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-frame-rule-width"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfboxrule"></a>
<p>The thickness of the rules around the enclosed box.  The default is
0.2<span class="dmn">pt</span>.  Change it with a command such as
<code class="code">\setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt}</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csetlength"><code class="code">\setlength</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="fbox-framebox-fboxsep"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-_005cfboxsep-2'><span><code class="code">\fboxsep</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cfboxsep-2'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-frame_002c-separation-from-contents"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cfboxsep"></a>
<p>The distance from the frame to the enclosed box. The default is 3<span class="dmn">pt</span>.
Change it with a command such as <code class="code">\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csetlength"><code class="code">\setlength</code></a>).  Setting it to 0<span class="dmn">pt</span> is useful sometimes:
this will put a frame around the picture with no white border.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">{\setlength{\fboxsep}{0pt}%
 \framebox{%
   \includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{prudence.jpg}}}
</pre></div>

<p>The extra curly braces keep the effect of the <code class="code">\setlength</code> local.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>As with <code class="code">\mbox</code> and <code class="code">\makebox</code>, LaTeX will not break lines
in <var class="var">text</var>.  But this example has LaTeX break lines to make a
paragraph, and then frame the result.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\framebox{%
  \begin{minipage}{0.6\linewidth}
    My dear, here we must run as fast as we can, just to stay in place.
    And if you wish to go anywhere you must run twice as fast as that.
  \end{minipage}}
</pre></div>

<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Colored-boxes">Colored boxes</a>, for colors other than black and white.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">picture</code> environment has a version of the <code class="code">\framebox</code>
command where the units depend on <code class="code">picture</code>&rsquo;s <code class="code">\unitlength</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029"><code class="code">\framebox</code> (picture)</a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cparbox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005craisebox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\raisebox</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\fbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\framebox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Boxes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Boxes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cparbox-1">20.3 <code class="code">\parbox</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cparbox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph-mode-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph_002c-in-a-box"></a>

<p>Synopses, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\parbox{<var class="var">width</var>}{<var class="var">contents</var>}
\parbox[<var class="var">position</var>]{<var class="var">width</var>}{<var class="var">contents</var>}
\parbox[<var class="var">position</var>][<var class="var">height</var>]{<var class="var">width</var>}{<var class="var">contents</var>}
\parbox[<var class="var">position</var>][<var class="var">height</var>][<var class="var">inner-pos</var>]{<var class="var">width</var>}{<var class="var">contents</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a box of text that is <var class="var">width</var> wide. Use this command to make
a box of small pieces of text, of a single paragraph.  This command is
fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{picture}(0,0)
  ...
  \put(1,2){\parbox{1.75in}{\raggedright Because the graph is a line on
                         this semilog paper, the relationship is
                         exponential.}}
\end{picture}
</pre></div>

<p>The <var class="var">contents</var> are processed in a text mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>) so
LaTeX will break lines to make a paragraph.  But it won&rsquo;t make
multiple paragraphs; for that, use a <code class="code">minipage</code> environment
(see <a class="pxref" href="#minipage"><code class="code">minipage</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The options for <code class="code">\parbox</code> (except for <var class="var">contents</var>) are the same
as those for <code class="code">minipage</code>.  For convenience a summary of the options
is here but see&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#minipage"><code class="code">minipage</code></a> for a complete description.
</p>
<p>There are two required arguments.  The <var class="var">width</var> is a rigid length
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  It sets the width of the box into which LaTeX
typesets <var class="var">contents</var>.  The <var class="var">contents</var> is the text that is placed
in that box.  It should not have any paragraph-making components.
</p>
<p>There are three optional arguments, <var class="var">position</var>, <var class="var">height</var>, and
<var class="var">inner-pos</var>.  The <var class="var">position</var> gives the vertical alignment of the
<em class="dfn">parbox</em> with respect to the surrounding material.  The supported
values are <code class="code">c</code> or <code class="code">m</code> to make the vertical center of the
parbox lines up with the center of the adjacent text line (this is the
default), or <code class="code">t</code> to match the top line of the parbox with
the baseline of the surrounding material, or <code class="code">b</code> to match the
bottom line.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">height</var> overrides the natural height of the
box.
</p>
<p>The optional argument <var class="var">inner-pos</var> controls the placement of
<var class="var">content</var> inside the <code class="code">parbox</code>. Its default is the value of
<var class="var">position</var>.  Its possible values are: <code class="code">t</code> to put the
<var class="var">content</var> at the top of the box, <code class="code">c</code> to put it in the vertical
center, <code class="code">b</code> to put it at the bottom of the box, and <code class="code">s</code> to
stretch it out vertically (for this, the text must contain vertically
stretchable space).
</p>
<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005craisebox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\sbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\savebox</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cparbox" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\parbox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Boxes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Boxes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005craisebox-1">20.4 <code class="code">\raisebox</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005craisebox"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\raisebox{<var class="var">distance</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}
\raisebox{<var class="var">distance</var>}[<var class="var">height</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
\raisebox{<var class="var">distance</var>}[<var class="var">height</var>][<var class="var">depth</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Raise or lower <var class="var">text</var>. This command is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This example makes a command for denoting the restriction of a function
by lowering the vertical bar symbol.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand*\restricted[1]{\raisebox{-.5ex}{$|$}_{#1}}
$f\restricted{A}$
</pre></div>

<p>The first mandatory argument <var class="var">distance</var> specifies how far to raise
the second mandatory argument <var class="var">text</var>. This is a rigid length
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  If it is negative then it lowers <var class="var">text</var>.  The
<var class="var">text</var> is processed in LR mode so it cannot contain line breaks
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).
</p>
<p>The optional arguments <var class="var">height</var> and <var class="var">depth</var> are dimensions.  If
they are specified, they override the natural height and depth of the
box LaTeX gets by typesetting <var class="var">text</var>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="raisebox-depth"></a><a class="anchor" id="raisebox-height"></a><a class="anchor" id="raisebox-width"></a><a class="anchor" id="raisebox-totalheight"></a><p>In the arguments <var class="var">distance</var>, <var class="var">height</var>, and <var class="var">depth</var> you can
use the following lengths that refer to the dimension of the box that
LaTeX gets on typesetting <var class="var">text</var>: <code class="code">\depth</code>, <code class="code">\height</code>,
<code class="code">\width</code>, <code class="code">\totalheight</code> (this is the box&rsquo;s height plus its
depth).
</p>
<p>This will align two graphics on their top (see <a class="pxref" href="#Graphics">Graphics</a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{graphicx,calc}  % in preamble
   ...
\begin{center}
  \raisebox{1ex-\height}{%
    \includegraphics[width=0.4\linewidth]{lion.png}}
  \qquad
  \raisebox{1ex-\height}{%
    \includegraphics[width=0.4\linewidth]{meta.png}}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>The first <code class="code">\height</code> is the height of <samp class="file">lion.png</samp> while the
second is the height of <samp class="file">meta.png</samp>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#lrbox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">lrbox</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005craisebox" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\raisebox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Boxes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Boxes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox-1">20.5 <code class="code">\sbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\savebox</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005csbox"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005csavebox"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csbox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csavebox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-box_002c-save"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\sbox{<var class="var">box-cmd</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}
\savebox{<var class="var">box-cmd</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}
\savebox{<var class="var">box-cmd</var>}[<var class="var">width</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
\savebox{<var class="var">box-cmd</var>}[<var class="var">width</var>][<var class="var">pos</var>]{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Typeset <var class="var">text</var> just as with <code class="code">\makebox</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>) except that LaTeX does not output it but instead saves it
in a box register referred to by a variable named <var class="var">box-cmd</var>.  The
variable name <var class="var">box-cmd</var> begins with a backslash, <code class="code">\</code>.  You must
have previously allocated the box register <var class="var">box-cmd</var> with <code class="code">\newsavebox</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewsavebox"><code class="code">\newsavebox</code></a>). The <code class="code">\sbox</code> command is robust while
<code class="code">\savebox</code> is fragile (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This creates and uses a box register.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newsavebox{\fullname}
\sbox{\fullname}{John Jacob Jingleheimer Schmidt}
  ...
\usebox{\fullname}! His name is my name, too!
Whenever we go out, the people always shout!
There goes \usebox{\fullname}!  Ya da da da da da da.
</pre></div>

<p>One advantage of using and reusing a box register over a
<code class="code">\newcommand</code> macro variable is efficiency, that LaTeX need not
repeatedly retypeset the contents.  See the example below.
</p>
<p>The first two command invocations shown above,
<code class="code">\sbox{<var class="var">box-cmd</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}</code> and
<code class="code">\savebox{<var class="var">box-cmd</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}</code>, are roughly the same.
As to the third and fourth, the optional arguments allow you to
specify the box width as <var class="var">width</var>, and the position of the text
inside that box as <var class="var">position</var>.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox"><code class="code">\mbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\makebox</code></a>, for the
full description.
</p>
<p>In the <code class="code">\sbox</code> and <code class="code">\savebox</code> commands the <var class="var">text</var> is
typeset in LR mode so it does not have line breaks (see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).  If
you use these then LaTeX doesn&rsquo;t give you an error but it ignores
what you want: if you enter <code class="code">\sbox{\newreg}{test \\ test}</code> and
<code class="code">\usebox{\newreg}</code> then you get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">testtest</samp>&rsquo;, while if you
enter <code class="code">\sbox{\newreg}{test \par test}</code> and
<code class="code">\usebox{\newreg}</code> then you get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">test test</samp>&rsquo;, but no error or
warning.  To fix this use a <code class="code">\parbox</code> or <code class="code">minipage</code> as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newsavebox{\areg}
\savebox{\areg}{%
  \begin{minipage}{\linewidth}
    \begin{enumerate}
      \item First item
      \item Second item
    \end{enumerate}
  \end{minipage}}
  ...
\usebox{\areg}
</pre></div>

<p>As an example of the efficiency of reusing a register&rsquo;s contents, this puts
the same picture on each page of the document by putting it in the
header.  LaTeX only typesets it once.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{graphicx}  % all this in the preamble
\newsavebox{\sealreg}
\savebox{\sealreg}{%
  \setlength{\unitlength}{1in}%
  \begin{picture}(0,0)%
     \put(1.5,-2.5){%
       \begin{tabular}{c}
          \includegraphics[height=2in]{companylogo.png} \\
          Office of the President
       \end{tabular}}
  \end{picture}%
}
\markright{\usebox{\sealreg}}
\pagestyle{headings}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">picture</code> environment is good for fine-tuning the placement.
</p>
<p>If the register <code class="code">\noreg</code> has not already been defined then you get something like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Undefined control sequence. &lt;argument&gt; \noreg</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="lrbox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cusebox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\usebox</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\sbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\savebox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Boxes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Boxes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="lrbox-1">20.6 <code class="code">lrbox</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lrbox"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{lrbox}{<var class="var">box-cmd</var>} 
  <var class="var">text</var>
\end{lrbox}
</pre></div>

<p>This is the environment form of the <code class="code">\sbox</code> and <code class="code">\savebox</code>
commands, and is equivalent to them.  See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox"><code class="code">\sbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\savebox</code></a>, for the
full description.
</p>
<p>The <var class="var">text</var> inside the environment is saved in the box register
referred to by variable <code class="code"><var class="var">box-cmd</var></code>.  The variable name
<var class="var">box-cmd</var> must begin with a backslash, <code class="code">\</code>. You must allocate
this box register in advance with <code class="code">\newsavebox</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewsavebox"><code class="code">\newsavebox</code></a>).  In this example the environment is convenient
for entering the <code class="code">tabular</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newsavebox{\jhreg}
\begin{lrbox}{\jhreg}
  \begin{tabular}{c}
    \includegraphics[height=1in]{jh.png} \\
    Jim Hef{}feron
  \end{tabular}
\end{lrbox}    
  ...
\usebox{\jhreg}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cusebox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#lrbox" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">lrbox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Boxes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Boxes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cusebox-1">20.7 <code class="code">\usebox</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cusebox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-box_002c-use-saved-box"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usebox{<var class="var">box-cmd</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce the box most recently saved in the box register <var class="var">box-cmd</var> by
the commands <code class="code">\sbox</code> or <code class="code">\savebox</code>, or the <code class="code">lrbox</code>
environment.  For more information and examples, see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox"><code class="code">\sbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\savebox</code></a>.  (Note that the variable name <var class="var">box-cmd</var> starts with a
backslash, <code class="code">\</code>.)  This command is robust (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Color">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Graphics" accesskey="n" rel="next">Graphics</a>, Previous: <a href="#Boxes" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Boxes</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Color-1">21 Color</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-color"></a>

<p>You can add color to text, rules, etc.  You can also have color in a box
or on an entire page and write text on top of it.
</p>
<p>Color support comes as an additional package.  So put
<code class="code">\usepackage{color}</code> in your document preamble to use the
commands described here.
</p>
<p>Many other packages also supplement LaTeX&rsquo;s color abilities.
Particularly worth mentioning is <samp class="file">xcolor</samp>, which is widely used and
significantly extends the capabilities described here, including adding
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">HTML</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Hsb</samp>&rsquo; color models.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Color-package-options" accesskey="1"><code class="code">color</code> package options</a></li>
<li><a href="#Color-models" accesskey="2">Color models</a></li>
<li><a href="#Commands-for-color" accesskey="3">Commands for color</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Color-package-options">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Color-models" accesskey="n" rel="next">Color models</a>, Up: <a href="#Color" accesskey="u" rel="up">Color</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="color-package-options">21.1 <code class="code">color</code> package options</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-color-package-options"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-options_002c-color-package"></a>

<p>Synopsis (must be in the document preamble):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[<var class="var">comma-separated option list</var>]{color}
</pre></div>

<p>When you load the <samp class="file">color</samp> package there are two kinds of available
options.
</p>
<p>The first specifies the <em class="dfn">printer driver</em>.  LaTeX doesn&rsquo;t contain
information about different output systems but instead depends on
information stored in a file.  Normally you should not specify the
driver option in the document, and instead rely on your system&rsquo;s
default. One advantage of this is that it makes the document portable
across systems.  For completeness we include a list of the drivers.  The
currently relevant ones are: <samp class="file">dvipdfmx</samp>, <samp class="file">dvips</samp>,
<samp class="file">dvisvgm</samp>, <samp class="file">luatex</samp>, <samp class="file">pdftex</samp>, <samp class="file">xetex</samp>.  The two
<samp class="file">xdvi</samp> and <samp class="file">oztex</samp> are essentially aliases for <samp class="file">dvips</samp>
(and <samp class="file">xdvi</samp> is monochrome).  Ones that should not be used for new
systems are: <samp class="file">dvipdf</samp>, <samp class="file">dvipdfm</samp>, <samp class="file">dviwin</samp>,
<samp class="file">dvipsone</samp>, <samp class="file">emtex</samp>, <samp class="file">pctexps</samp>, <samp class="file">pctexwin</samp>,
<samp class="file">pctexhp</samp>, <samp class="file">pctex32</samp>, <samp class="file">truetex</samp>, <samp class="file">tcidvi</samp>,
<samp class="file">vtex</samp> (and <samp class="file">dviwindo</samp> is an alias for <samp class="file">dvipsone</samp>).
</p>
<p>The second kind of options, beyond the drivers, are below.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">monochrome</code></dt>
<dd><p>Disable the color commands, so that they do not generate errors but do
not generate color either.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">dvipsnames</code></dt>
<dd><p>Make available a list of 68 color names that are often used,
particularly in legacy documents.  These color names were originally
provided by the <samp class="file">dvips</samp> driver, giving the option name.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">nodvipsnames</code></dt>
<dd><p>Do not load that list of color names, saving LaTeX a tiny amount of
memory space.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Color-models">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Commands-for-color" accesskey="n" rel="next">Commands for color</a>, Previous: <a href="#Color-package-options" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">color</code> package options</a>, Up: <a href="#Color" accesskey="u" rel="up">Color</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Color-models-1">21.2 Color models</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-color-models"></a>

<p>A <em class="dfn">color model</em> is a way of representing colors.  LaTeX&rsquo;s
capabilities depend on the printer driver.  However, the <samp class="file">pdftex</samp>,
<samp class="file">xetex</samp>, and <samp class="file">luatex</samp> printer drivers are today by far the
most commonly used.  The models below work for those drivers.  All but
one of these is also supported by essentially all other printer drivers
used today.
</p>
<p>Note that color combination can be additive or subtractive.  Additive
mixes colors of light, so that for instance combining full intensities
of red, green, and blue produces white.  Subtractive mixes pigments,
such as with inks, so that combining full intensity of cyan, magenta,
and yellow makes black.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="color-models-cmyk"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">cmyk</code></dt>
<dd><p>A comma-separated list with four real numbers between 0 and 1,
inclusive.  The first number is the intensity of cyan, the second is
magenta, and the others are yellow and black.  A number value of 0 means
minimal intensity, while a 1 is for full intensity.  This model is often
used in color printing.  It is a subtractive model.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="color-models-gray"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">gray</code></dt>
<dd><p>A single real number between 0 and 1, inclusive.  The colors are shades
of grey.  The number 0 produces black while 1 gives white.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="color-models-rgb"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">rgb</code></dt>
<dd><p>A comma-separated list with three real numbers between 0 and 1,
inclusive.  The first number is the intensity of the red component, the
second is green, and the third the blue.  A number value of 0 means that
none of that component is added in, while a 1 means full intensity.
This is an additive model.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="color-models-RGB"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">RGB</code></dt>
<dd><p>(<samp class="file">pdftex</samp>, <samp class="file">xetex</samp>, <samp class="file">luatex</samp> drivers) A comma-separated
list with three integers between 0 and 255, inclusive.  This model is a
convenience for using <code class="code">rgb</code> since outside of LaTeX colors are
often described in a red-green-blue model using numbers in this range.
The values entered here are converted to the <code class="code">rgb</code> model by
dividing by 255.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="color-models-named"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">named</code></dt>
<dd><p>Colors are accessed by name, such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">PrussianBlue</samp>&rsquo;.  The list of
names depends on the driver, but all support the names &lsquo;<samp class="samp">black</samp>&rsquo;,
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">blue</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">cyan</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">green</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">magenta</samp>&rsquo;, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">red</samp>&rsquo;,
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">white</samp>&rsquo;, and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">yellow</samp>&rsquo; (See the <code class="code">dvipsnames</code> option in
<a class="ref" href="#Color-package-options"><code class="code">color</code> package options</a>).
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Commands-for-color">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Color-models" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Color models</a>, Up: <a href="#Color" accesskey="u" rel="up">Color</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Commands-for-color-1">21.3 Commands for color</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-color-package-commands"></a>

<p>These are the commands available with the <samp class="file">color</samp> package.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Define-colors" accesskey="1">Define colors</a></li>
<li><a href="#Colored-text" accesskey="2">Colored text</a></li>
<li><a href="#Colored-boxes" accesskey="3">Colored boxes</a></li>
<li><a href="#Colored-pages" accesskey="4">Colored pages</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Define-colors">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Colored-text" accesskey="n" rel="next">Colored text</a>, Up: <a href="#Commands-for-color" accesskey="u" rel="up">Commands for color</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Define-colors-1">21.3.1 Define colors</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-color-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-define-color"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-color_002c-define"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\definecolor{<var class="var">name</var>}{<var class="var">model</var>}{<var class="var">specification</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Give the name <var class="var">name</var> to the color.  For example, after this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\definecolor{silver}{rgb}{0.75,0.75,0.74}
</pre></div>

<p>you can use that color name with <code class="code">Hi ho,
\textcolor{silver}{Silver}!</code>.
</p>
<p>This example gives the color a more abstract name, so it could change and
not be misleading.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\definecolor{logocolor}{RGB}{145,92,131}    % RGB needs pdflatex
\newcommand{\logo}{\textcolor{logocolor}{Bob's Big Bagels}}
</pre></div>

<p>Often a document&rsquo;s colors are defined in the preamble, or in the class
or style, rather than in the document body.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Colored-text">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Colored-boxes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Colored boxes</a>, Previous: <a href="#Define-colors" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Define colors</a>, Up: <a href="#Commands-for-color" accesskey="u" rel="up">Commands for color</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Colored-text-1">21.3.2 Colored text</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-color-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-colored-text"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\textcolor{<var class="var">name</var>}{...}
\textcolor[<var class="var">color model</var>]{<var class="var">color specification</var>}{...}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\color{<var class="var">name</var>}
\color[<var class="var">color model</var>]{<var class="var">color specification</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>The affected text gets the color.  This line
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\textcolor{magenta}{My name is Ozymandias, King of Kings;}
Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!
</pre></div>

<p>causes the first half to be in magenta while the rest is in black.  You
can use a color declared with <code class="code">\definecolor</code> in exactly the same
way that we just used the builtin color &lsquo;<samp class="samp">magenta</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\definecolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{rgb}{1.0,0.11,0.0}
I'm thinking about getting a \textcolor{MidlifeCrisisRed}{sports car}.
</pre></div>

<p>The two <code class="code">\textcolor</code> and <code class="code">\color</code> differ in that the first is
a command form, enclosing the text to be colored as an argument.  Often
this form is more convenient, or at least more explicit.  The second
form is a declaration, as in <code class="code">The moon is made of {\color{green}
green} cheese</code>, so it is in effect until the end of the current group
or environment.  This is sometimes useful when writing macros or as
below where it colors everything inside the <code class="code">center</code> environment,
including the vertical and horizontal lines.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center} \color{blue}
  \begin{tabular}{l|r}
    UL &amp;UR \\ \hline
    LL &amp;LR 
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>You can use color in equations.  A document might have this definition
in the preamble
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\definecolor{highlightcolor}{RGB}{225,15,0}
</pre></div>

<p>and then contain this equation.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{equation}
  \int_a^b \textcolor{highlightcolor}{f'(x)}\,dx=f(b)-f(a)
\end{equation}
</pre></div>

<p>Typically the colors used in a document are declared in a class or style
but sometimes you want a one-off.  Those are the second forms in the
synopses.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Colors of \textcolor[rgb]{0.33,0.14,0.47}{Purple} and
{\color[rgb]{0.72,0.60,0.37}Gold} for the team.
</pre></div>

<p>The format of <var class="var">color specification</var> depends on the color model
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Color-models">Color models</a>).  For instance, while <code class="code">rgb</code> takes three
numbers, <code class="code">gray</code> takes only one.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">The selection was \textcolor[gray]{0.5}{grayed out}.
</pre></div>

<p>Colors inside colors do not combine.  Thus
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\textcolor{green}{kind of \textcolor{blue}{blue}}
</pre></div>

<p>has a final word that is blue, not a combination of blue and green.
</p>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Colored-boxes">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Colored-pages" accesskey="n" rel="next">Colored pages</a>, Previous: <a href="#Colored-text" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Colored text</a>, Up: <a href="#Commands-for-color" accesskey="u" rel="up">Commands for color</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Colored-boxes-1">21.3.3 Colored boxes</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-color-3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-colored-boxes"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-box_002c-colored"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\colorbox{<var class="var">name</var>}{...}
\colorbox[<var class="var">model name</var>]{<var class="var">box background color</var>}{...}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\fcolorbox{<var class="var">frame color</var>}{<var class="var">box background color</var>}{...}
\fcolorbox[<var class="var">model name</var>]{<var class="var">frame color</var>}{<var class="var">box background color</var>}{...}
</pre></div>

<p>Make a box with the stated background color.  The <code class="code">\fcolorbox</code>
command puts a frame around the box.  For instance this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Name:~\colorbox{cyan}{\makebox[5cm][l]{\strut}}
</pre></div>

<p>makes a cyan-colored box that is five centimeters long and gets its
depth and height from the <code class="code">\strut</code> (so the depth is
<code class="code">-.3\baselineskip</code> and the height is <code class="code">\baselineskip</code>).  This
puts white text on a blue background.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\colorbox{blue}{\textcolor{white}{Welcome to the machine.}}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">\fcolorbox</code> commands use the same parameters as <code class="code">\fbox</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox"><code class="code">\fbox</code> &amp; <code class="code">\framebox</code></a>), <code class="code">\fboxrule</code> and <code class="code">\fboxsep</code>, to
set the thickness of the rule and the boundary between the box interior
and the surrounding rule.  LaTeX&rsquo;s defaults are <code class="code">0.4pt</code> and
<code class="code">3pt</code>, respectively.
</p>
<p>This example changes the thickness of the border to 0.8 points.  Note
that it is surrounded by curly braces so that the change ends at the end
of the second line.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">{\setlength{\fboxrule}{0.8pt}
\fcolorbox{black}{red}{Under no circumstances turn this knob.}}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Colored-pages">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Colored-boxes" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Colored boxes</a>, Up: <a href="#Commands-for-color" accesskey="u" rel="up">Commands for color</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Colored-pages-1">21.3.4 Colored pages</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-color-4"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-colored-page"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-page_002c-colored"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-background_002c-colored"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\pagecolor{<var class="var">name</var>}
\pagecolor[<var class="var">color model</var>]{<var class="var">color specification</var>}
\nopagecolor
</pre></div>

<p>The first two set the background of the page, and all subsequent pages,
to the color.  For an explanation of the specification in the second
form see <a class="pxref" href="#Colored-text">Colored text</a>.  The third returns the background to normal,
which is a transparent background.  (If that is not supported use
<code class="code">\pagecolor{white}</code>, although that will make a white background
rather than the default transparent background.)
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"> ...
\pagecolor{cyan}
 ...
\nopagecolor
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Graphics">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="n" rel="next">Special insertions</a>, Previous: <a href="#Color" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Color</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Graphics-1">22 Graphics</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics-package"></a>

<p>You can use graphics such as PNG or PDF files in your LaTeX document.
You need an additional package, which comes standard with LaTeX.
This example is the short how-to.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\include{graphicx}  % goes in the preamble
  ...
\includegraphics[width=0.5\linewidth]{plot.pdf}
</pre></div>

<p>To use the commands described here your document preamble must contain
either <code class="code">\usepackage{graphicx}</code> or
<code class="code">\usepackage{graphics}</code>. Most of the time, <code class="code">graphicx</code> is the
better choice.
</p>
<p>Graphics come in two main types, raster and vector.  LaTeX can use
both.  In raster graphics the file contains an entry for each location
in an array, describing what color it is.  An example is a photograph
in JPG format.  In vector graphics, the file contains a list of
instructions such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">draw a circle with this radius and that
center</samp>&rsquo;.  An example is a line drawing produced by the Asymptote
program, in PDF format.  Generally vector graphics are more useful
because you can rescale their size without pixelation or other problems,
and because they often have a smaller size.
</p>
<p>There are systems particularly well-suited to make graphics for a
LaTeX document.  For example, these allow you to use the same fonts
as in your document.  LaTeX comes with a <code class="code">picture</code> environment
(see <a class="pxref" href="#picture"><code class="code">picture</code></a>) that has simple capabilities.  Besides that, there are
other ways to include the graphic-making commands in the document.  Two
such systems are the PSTricks and TikZ packages.  There are also systems
external to LaTeX, that generate a graphic that you include using the
commands of this chapter.  Two that use a programming language are
Asymptote and MetaPost.  One that uses a graphical interface is Xfig.
Full description of these systems is outside the scope of this document;
see their documentation on CTAN.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Graphics-package-options" accesskey="1"><code class="code">graphics</code> package options</a></li>
<li><a href="#Graphics-package-configuration" accesskey="2"><code class="code">graphics</code> package configuration</a></li>
<li><a href="#Commands-for-graphics" accesskey="3">Commands for graphics</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Graphics-package-options">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Graphics-package-configuration" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">graphics</code> package configuration</a>, Up: <a href="#Graphics" accesskey="u" rel="up">Graphics</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="graphics-package-options">22.1 <code class="code">graphics</code> package options</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics-package-options"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-options_002c-graphics-package"></a>

<p>Synopsis (must be in the document preamble):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[<var class="var">comma-separated option list</var>]{graphics}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[<var class="var">comma-separated option list</var>]{graphicx}
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">graphicx</code> package has a format for optional arguments to the
<code class="code">\includegraphics</code> command that is convenient (it is the key-value
format), so it is the better choice for new documents.  When you load
the <code class="code">graphics</code> or <code class="code">graphicx</code> package with <code class="code">\usepackage</code>
there are two kinds of available options.
</p>
<p>The first is that LaTeX does not contain information about different
output systems but instead depends on information stored in a
<em class="dfn">printer driver</em> file.  Normally you should not specify the driver
option in the document, and instead rely on your system&rsquo;s default. One
advantage of this is that it makes the document portable across systems.
</p>
<p>For completeness here is a list of the drivers.  The currently relevant
ones are: <samp class="file">dvipdfmx</samp>, <samp class="file">dvips</samp>, <samp class="file">dvisvgm</samp>, <samp class="file">luatex</samp>,
<samp class="file">pdftex</samp>, <samp class="file">xetex</samp>.  The two <samp class="file">xdvi</samp> and <samp class="file">oztex</samp> are
essentially aliases for <samp class="file">dvips</samp> (and <samp class="file">xdvi</samp> is monochrome).
Ones that should not be used for new systems are: <samp class="file">dvipdf</samp>,
<samp class="file">dvipdfm</samp>, <samp class="file">dviwin</samp>, <samp class="file">dvipsone</samp>, <samp class="file">emtex</samp>,
<samp class="file">pctexps</samp>, <samp class="file">pctexwin</samp>, <samp class="file">pctexhp</samp>, <samp class="file">pctex32</samp>,
<samp class="file">truetex</samp>, <samp class="file">tcidvi</samp>, <samp class="file">vtex</samp> (and <samp class="file">dviwindo</samp> is an
alias for <samp class="file">dvipsone</samp>).  These are stored in files with a
<samp class="file">.def</samp> extension, such as <samp class="file">pdftex.def</samp>.
</p>
<p>The second kind of options are below.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">demo</code></dt>
<dd><p>Instead of an image file, LaTeX puts in a 150&nbsp;pt by 100&nbsp;pt
rectangle (unless another size is specified in the
<code class="code">\includegraphics</code> command).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">draft</code></dt>
<dd><p>For each graphic file, it is not shown but instead its file name is
printed in a box of the correct size.  In order to determine the size,
the file must be present.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">final</code></dt>
<dd><p>(Default) Override any previous <code class="code">draft</code> option, so that the
document shows the contents of the graphic files.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">hiderotate</code></dt>
<dd><p>Do not show rotated text.  (This allows for the possibility that a
previewer does not have the capability to rotate text.)
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">hidescale</code></dt>
<dd><p>Do not show scaled text.  (This allows for the possibility that a
previewer does not have the capability to scale.)
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">hiresbb</code></dt>
<dd><p>In a PS or EPS file the graphic size may be specified in two ways.  The
<code class="code">%%BoundingBox</code> lines describe the graphic size using integer
multiples of a PostScript point, that is, integer multiples of 1/72
inch.  A later addition to the PostScript language allows decimal
multiples, such as 1.23, in <code class="code">%%HiResBoundingBox</code> lines.  This
option has LaTeX to read the size from the latter.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Graphics-package-configuration">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Commands-for-graphics" accesskey="n" rel="next">Commands for graphics</a>, Previous: <a href="#Graphics-package-options" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">graphics</code> package options</a>, Up: <a href="#Graphics" accesskey="u" rel="up">Graphics</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="graphics-package-configuration">22.2 <code class="code">graphics</code> package configuration</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics-package-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-configuration_002c-graphics-package"></a>

<p>These commands configure the way LaTeX searches the file system for
the graphic.
</p>
<p>The behavior of file system search code is necessarily platform
dependent.  In this document we cover GNU/Linux, Macintosh, and Windows, as
those systems are typically configured.  For other situations consult
the documentation in <samp class="file">grfguide.pdf</samp>, or the LaTeX source, or your
TeX distribution&rsquo;s documentation.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cgraphicspath" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\graphicspath</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsRule" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsRule</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cgraphicspath">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Graphics-package-configuration" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">graphics</code> package configuration</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cgraphicspath-1">22.2.1 <code class="code">\graphicspath</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cgraphicspath"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\graphicspath{<var class="var">list of directories inside curly braces</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Declare a list of directories to search for graphics files.  This allows
you to later say something like <code class="code">\includegraphics{lion.png}</code>
instead of having to give its path.
</p>
<p>LaTeX always looks for graphic files first in the current directory
(and the output directory, if specified; see <a class="pxref" href="#output-directory">output directory</a>).
The declaration below tells the system to then look in the
subdirectory <samp class="file">pix</samp>, and then <samp class="file">../pix</samp>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{graphicx}   % or graphics; put in preamble
  ...
\graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} }
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">\graphicspath</code> declaration is optional.  If you don&rsquo;t include
it then LaTeX&rsquo;s default is to search all of the places that it
usually looks for a file (it uses LaTeX&rsquo;s <code class="code">\input@path</code>).  In
particular, in this case one of the places it looks is the current
directory.
</p>
<p>Enclose each directory name in curly braces; for example, above it says
&lsquo;<samp class="samp"><code class="code">{pix}</code></samp>&rsquo;.  Do this even if there is only one directory.
Each directory name must end in a forward slash, <samp class="file">/</samp>.  This is true
even on Windows, where good practice is to use forward slashes for all
the directory separators since it makes the document portable to other
platforms.  If you have spaces in your directory name then use double
quotes, as with <code class="code">{&quot;my docs/&quot;}</code>. Getting one of these rules wrong
will cause LaTeX to report <code class="code">Error: File `<var class="var">filename</var>' not
found</code>.
</p>
<p>Basically, the algorithm is that with this example, after looking in the
current directory,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\graphicspath{ {pix/} {../pix/} }
...
\usepackage{lion.png}
</pre></div>

<p>for each of the listed directories, LaTeX concatenates it with the
filename and searches for the result, checking for <samp class="file">pix/lion.png</samp>
and then <samp class="file">../pix/lion.png</samp>.  This algorithm means that the
<code class="code">\graphicspath</code> command does not recursively search subdirectories:
if you issue <code class="code">\graphicspath{{a/}}</code> and the graphic is in
<samp class="file">a/b/lion.png</samp> then LaTeX will not find it.  It also means that
you can use absolute paths such as
<code class="code">\graphicspath{{/home/jim/logos/}}</code> or
<code class="code">\graphicspath{{C:/Users/Albert/Pictures/}}</code>.  However, using
these means that the document is not portable.  (You could preserve
portability by adjusting your TeX system settings configuration file
parameter <code class="code">TEXINPUTS</code>; see the documentation of your system.)
</p>
<p>You can use <code class="code">\graphicspath</code> anywhere in the document.  You can use
it more than once.  Show its value with
<code class="code">\makeatletter\typeout{\Ginput@path}\makeatother</code>.
</p>
<p>The directories are taken with respect to the base file.  That is,
suppose that you are working on a document based on <samp class="file">book/book.tex</samp>
and it contains <code class="code">\include{chapters/chap1}</code>.  If in
<samp class="file">chap1.tex</samp> you put <code class="code">\graphicspath{{plots/}}</code> then
LaTeX will not search for graphics in <samp class="file">book/chapters/plots</samp>, but
instead in <samp class="file">book/plots</samp>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsRule" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsRule</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cgraphicspath" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\graphicspath</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Graphics-package-configuration" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">graphics</code> package configuration</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions-1">22.2.2 <code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions{<var class="var">comma-separated list of file extensions</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Declare the filename extensions to try.  This allows you to specify the
order in which to choose graphic formats when you include graphic files
by giving the filename without the extension, as in
<code class="code">\includegraphics{functionplot}</code>.
</p>
<p>In this example, LaTeX will find files in the PNG format before PDF
files.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions{.png,PNG,.pdf,.PDF}
  ...
\includegraphics{lion}   % will find <samp class="file">lion.png</samp> before <samp class="file">lion.pdf</samp> 
</pre></div>

<p>Because the filename <samp class="file">lion</samp> does not have a period, LaTeX uses
the extension list.  For each directory in the graphics path
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cgraphicspath"><code class="code">\graphicspath</code></a>), LaTeX will try the extensions in the order
given.  If it does not find such a file after trying all the directories
and extensions then it reports &lsquo;<samp class="samp">! LaTeX Error: File `<samp class="file">lion</samp>'
not found</samp>&rsquo;.  Note that you must include the periods at the start of the
extensions.
</p>
<p>Because GNU/Linux and Macintosh filenames are case sensitive, the list of
file extensions is case sensitive on those platforms.  The Windows
platform is not case sensitive.
</p>
<p>You are not required to include <code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</code> in
your document; the printer driver has a sensible default.  For example,
the most recent <samp class="file">pdftex.def</samp> has this extension list.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">.pdf,.png,.jpg,.mps,.jpeg,.jbig2,.jb2,.PDF,.PNG,.JPG,.JPEG,.JBIG2,.JB2
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-grfext"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-grfext-package"></a>

<p>To change the order, use the <code class="code">grfext</code> package.
</p>
<p>You can use this command anywhere in the document.  You can use it more
than once.  Show its value with
<code class="code">\makeatletter\typeout{\Gin@extensions}\makeatother</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsRule">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Graphics-package-configuration" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">graphics</code> package configuration</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsRule-1">22.2.3 <code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsRule</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDeclareGraphicsRule"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareGraphicsRule{<var class="var">extension</var>}{<var class="var">type</var>}{<var class="var">size-file extension</var>}{<var class="var">command</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Declare how to handle graphic files whose names end in <var class="var">extension</var>.
</p>
<p>This example declares that all files with names of the form
<samp class="file">filename-without-dot.mps</samp> will be treated as output from MetaPost,
meaning that the printer driver will use its MetaPost-handling code to
input the file.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareGraphicsRule{.mps}{mps}{.mps}{}
</pre></div>

<p>This
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\DeclareGraphicsRule{*}{mps}{*}{}
</pre></div>

<p>tells LaTeX that it should handle as MetaPost output any file with an
extension not covered by another rule, so it covers <samp class="file">filename.1</samp>,
<samp class="file">filename.2</samp>, etc.
</p>
<p>This describes the four arguments.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><var class="var">extension</var></dt>
<dd><p>The file extension to which this rule applies. The extension is anything
after and including the first dot in the filename.  Use the Kleene star,
<code class="code">*</code>, to denote the default behavior for all undeclared extensions.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">type</var></dt>
<dd><p>The type of file involved.  This type is a string that must be defined
in the printer driver. For instance, files with extensions <samp class="file">.ps</samp>,
<samp class="file">.eps</samp>, or <samp class="file">.ps.gz</samp> may all be classed as type <code class="code">eps</code>.
All files of the same type will be input with the same internal command
by the printer driver. For example, the file types that <samp class="file">pdftex</samp>
recognizes are: <code class="code">jpg</code>, <code class="code">jbig2</code>, <code class="code">mps</code>, <code class="code">pdf</code>,
<code class="code">png</code>, <code class="code">tif</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">size-file extension</var></dt>
<dd><p>The extension of the file to be read to determine the size of the
graphic, if there is such a file. It may be the same as <var class="var">extension</var>
but it may be different.
</p>
<p>As an example, consider a PostScript graphic.  To make it smaller, it
might be compressed into a <samp class="file">.ps.gz</samp> file.  Compressed files are not
easily read by LaTeX so you can put the bounding box information in a
separate file. If <var class="var">size-file extension</var> is empty then you must
specify size information in the arguments of <code class="code">\includegraphics</code>.
</p>
<p>If the driver file has a procedure for reading size files for
<code class="code">type</code> then that will be used, otherwise it will use the procedure
for reading <samp class="file">.eps</samp> files.  (Thus you may specify the size of bitmap
files in a file with a PostScript style <code class="code">%%BoundingBox</code> line if no
other format is available.)
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">command</var></dt>
<dd><p>A command that will be applied to the file. This is often left
empty. This command must start with a single backward quote.  Thus,
<code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsRule{.eps.gz}{eps}{.eps.bb}{`gunzip -c
#1}</code> specifies that any file with the extension <samp class="file">.eps.gz</samp> should
be treated as an <code class="code">eps</code> file, with the BoundingBox information
stored in the file with extension <samp class="file">.eps.bb</samp>, and that the command
<code class="code">gunzip -c</code> will run on your platform to decompresses the file.
</p>
<p>Such a command is specific to your platform.  In addition, your TeX
system must allow you to run external commands; as a security measure
modern systems restrict running commands unless you explicitly allow it.
See the documentation for your TeX distribution.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Commands-for-graphics">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Graphics-package-configuration" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">graphics</code> package configuration</a>, Up: <a href="#Graphics" accesskey="u" rel="up">Graphics</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Commands-for-graphics-1">22.3 Commands for graphics</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics-package-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-commands_002c-graphics-package"></a>

<p>These are the commands available with the <code class="code">graphics</code> and
<code class="code">graphicx</code> packages.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\includegraphics</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005crotatebox" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\rotatebox</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cscalebox" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\scalebox</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cresizebox" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\resizebox</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cincludegraphics">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005crotatebox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\rotatebox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Commands-for-graphics" accesskey="u" rel="up">Commands for graphics</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cincludegraphics-1">22.3.1 <code class="code">\includegraphics</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics-package-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-including-graphics"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-importing-graphics"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-EPS-files"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-JPEG-files"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-JPG-files"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-PDF-graphic-files"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-PNG-files"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cincludegraphics"></a>

<p>Synopses for <code class="code">graphics</code> package:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\includegraphics{<var class="var">filename</var>}
\includegraphics[<var class="var">urx</var>,<var class="var">ury</var>]{<var class="var">filename</var>}
\includegraphics[<var class="var">llx</var>,<var class="var">lly</var>][<var class="var">urx</var>,<var class="var">ury</var>]{<var class="var">filename</var>}
\includegraphics*{<var class="var">filename</var>}
\includegraphics*[<var class="var">urx</var>,<var class="var">ury</var>]{<var class="var">filename</var>}
\includegraphics*[<var class="var">llx</var>,<var class="var">lly</var>][<var class="var">urx</var>,<var class="var">ury</var>]{<var class="var">filename</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Synopses for <code class="code">graphicx</code> package:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\includegraphics{<var class="var">filename</var>}
\includegraphics[<var class="var">key-value list</var>]{<var class="var">filename</var>}
\includegraphics*{<var class="var">filename</var>}
\includegraphics*[<var class="var">key-value list</var>]{<var class="var">filename</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Include a graphics file.  The starred form <code class="code">\includegraphics*</code> will
clip the graphic to the size specified, while for the unstarred form any
part of the graphic that is outside the box of the specified size will
over-print the surrounding area.
</p>
<p>This 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{graphicx}  % in preamble
  ...
\begin{center}
  \includegraphics{plot.pdf}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>will incorporate into the document the graphic in <samp class="file">plot.pdf</samp>,
centered and at its nominal size.  You can also give a path to the file,
as with <code class="code">\includegraphics{graphics/plot.pdf}</code>.  To specify a list
of locations to search for the file, see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cgraphicspath"><code class="code">\graphicspath</code></a>.
</p>
<p>If your filename includes spaces then put it in double quotes. An example
is <code class="code">\includegraphics{&quot;sister picture.jpg&quot;}</code>.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\includegraphics{<var class="var">filename</var>}</code> command decides on the
type of graphic by splitting <var class="var">filename</var> on the first dot.  You can
instead use <var class="var">filename</var> with no dot, as in
<code class="code">\includegraphics{turing}</code>, and then LaTeX tries a sequence of
extensions such as <code class="code">.png</code> and <code class="code">.pdf</code> until it finds a file
with that extension (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions"><code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</code></a>).
</p>
<p>If your file name contains dots before the extension then you can hide
them with curly braces, as in
<code class="code">\includegraphics{{plot.2018.03.12.a}.pdf}</code>.  Or, if you use
the <code class="code">graphicx</code> package then you can use the options <code class="code">type</code> and
<code class="code">ext</code>; see below.  This and other filename issues are also handled
with the package <samp class="file">grffile</samp>.
</p>
<p>This example puts a graphic in a <code class="code">figure</code> environment so LaTeX can
move it to the next page if fitting it on the current page is awkward
(see <a class="pxref" href="#figure"><code class="code">figure</code></a>).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{figure}
  \centering
  \includegraphics[width=3cm]{lungxray.jpg}
  \caption{The evidence is overwhelming: don't smoke.}  \label{fig:xray}
\end{figure}
</pre></div>

<p>This places a graphic that will not float, so it is sure to appear at
this point in the document even if makes LaTeX stretch the text or
resort to blank areas on the page.  It will be centered and will have a
caption.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{caption}  % in preamble
  ...
\begin{center}
  \includegraphics{pix/nix.png}
  \captionof{figure}{The spirit of the night} \label{pix:nix} % optional
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>This example puts a box with a graphic side by side with one having
text, with the two vertically centered.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand*{\vcenteredhbox}[1]{\begin{tabular}{@{}c@{}}#1\end{tabular}}
  ...
\begin{center}
  \vcenteredhbox{\includegraphics[width=0.4\textwidth]{plot}}
  \hspace{1em}
  \vcenteredhbox{\begin{minipage}{0.4\textwidth}
                   \begin{displaymath}
                     f(x)=x\cdot \sin (1/x)
                   \end{displaymath}
                 \end{minipage}}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>If you use the <code class="code">graphics</code> package then the only options involve the
size of the graphic (but see <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005crotatebox"><code class="code">\rotatebox</code></a> and <a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cscalebox"><code class="code">\scalebox</code></a>).
When one optional argument is present then it is
<code class="code">[<var class="var">urx</var>,<var class="var">ury</var>]</code> and it gives the coordinates of the top
right corner of the image, as a pair of TeX dimensions (see <a class="pxref" href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>).  If the units are omitted they default to <code class="code">bp</code>.  In
this case, the lower left corner of the image is assumed to be at (0,0).
If two optional arguments are present then the leading one is
<code class="code">[<var class="var">llx</var>,<var class="var">lly</var>]</code>, specifying the coordinates of the image&rsquo;s
lower left.  Thus, <code class="code">\includegraphics[1in,0.618in]{...}</code> calls for
the graphic to be placed so it is 1&nbsp;inch wide and 0.618&nbsp;inches
tall and so its origin is at (0,0).
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">graphicx</code> package gives you many more options.  Specify them
in a key-value form, as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center}
  \includegraphics[width=1in,angle=90]{lion}
  \hspace{2em}
  \includegraphics[angle=90,width=1in]{lion}
\end{center}
</pre></div>

<p>The options are read left-to-right. So the first graphic above is made
one inch wide and then rotated, while the second is rotated and then
made one inch wide.  Thus, unless the graphic is perfectly square, the
two will end with different widths and heights.
</p>
<p>There are many options.  The primary ones are listed first.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bounding-box"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-box_002c-bounding"></a>
<p>Note that a graphic is placed by LaTeX into a box, which is
traditionally referred to as its <em class="dfn">bounding box</em> (distinct from the
PostScript BoundingBox described below).  The graphic&rsquo;s printed area may
go beyond this box, or sit inside this box, but when LaTeX makes up a
page it puts together boxes and this is the box allocated for the
graphic.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-width"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">width</code></dt>
<dd><p>The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this width.  An example
is <code class="code">\includegraphics[width=1in]{plot}</code>.  You can use the standard
TeX dimensions (see <a class="pxref" href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>) and also convenient is
<code class="code">\linewidth</code>, or in a two-column document, <code class="code">\columnwidth</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a>).  An example is that by using the
<samp class="file">calc</samp> package you can make the graphic be 1&nbsp;cm narrower than
the width of the text with
<code class="code">\includegraphics[width=\linewidth-1.0cm]{hefferon.jpg}</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">height</code></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-height"></a><p>The graphic will be shown so its bounding box is this height.  You can
use the standard TeX dimensions (see <a class="pxref" href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>), and also
convenient are <code class="code">\pageheight</code> and <code class="code">\textheight</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a>).  For instance, the command
<code class="code">\includegraphics[height=0.25\textheight]{godel}</code> will make the
graphic a quarter of the height of the text area.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">totalheight</code></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-totalheight"></a><p>The graphic will be shown so its bounding box has this height plus
depth.  This differs from the height if the graphic was rotated. For
instance, if it has been rotated by -90 then it will have zero height
but a large depth.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">keepaspectratio</code></dt>
<dd><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-keepaspectratio"></a><p>If set to <code class="code">true</code>, or just specified as here
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"><code class="code">\includegraphics[...,keepaspectratio,...]{...}</code>
</pre></div>

<p>and you give as options both <code class="code">width</code> and <code class="code">height</code> (or
<code class="code">totalheight</code>), then LaTeX will make the graphic is as large as
possible without distortion. That is, LaTeX will ensure that neither
is the graphic wider than <code class="code">width</code> nor taller than <code class="code">height</code> (or
<code class="code">totalheight</code>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">scale</code></dt>
<dd><p>Factor by which to scale the graphic.  To make a graphic twice its
nominal size, enter <code class="code">\includegraphics[scale=2.0]{...}</code>.  This
number may be any value; a number between 0 and&nbsp;1 will shrink the
graphic and a negative number will reflect it.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">angle</code></dt>
<dd><p>Rotate the graphic.  The angle is taken in degrees and counterclockwise.
The graphic is rotated about its <code class="code">origin</code>; see that option.  For a
complete description of how rotated material is typeset,
see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005crotatebox"><code class="code">\rotatebox</code></a>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">origin</code></dt>
<dd><p>The point of the graphic about which the rotation happens.  Possible
values are any string containing one or two of: <code class="code">l</code> for left,
<code class="code">r</code> for right, <code class="code">b</code> for bottom, <code class="code">c</code> for center, <code class="code">t</code>
for top, and <code class="code">B</code> for baseline.  Thus, entering the command
<code class="code">\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=c]{moon}</code> will turn the
picture upside down about that picture&rsquo;s center, while the command
<code class="code">\includegraphics[angle=180,origin=lB]{LeBateau}</code> will turn its
picture upside down about its left baseline.  (The character <code class="code">c</code>
gives the horizontal center in <code class="code">bc</code> or <code class="code">tc</code>, but gives the
vertical center in <code class="code">lc</code> or <code class="code">rc</code>.)  The default is <code class="code">lB</code>.
</p>
<p>To rotate about an arbitrary point, see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005crotatebox"><code class="code">\rotatebox</code></a>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>These are lesser-used options.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-viewport"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">viewport</code></dt>
<dd><p>Pick out a subregion of the graphic to show.  Takes four arguments,
separated by spaces and given in TeX dimensions, as with
<code class="code">\includegraphics[.., viewport=0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}</code>.  When
the unit is omitted, the dimensions default to big
points,&nbsp;<code class="code">bp</code>.  They are taken relative to the origin specified
by the bounding box.  See also the <code class="code">trim</code> option.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-trim"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">trim</code></dt>
<dd><p>Gives parts of the graphic to not show.  Takes four arguments, separated
by spaces, that are given in TeX dimensions, as with
<code class="code">\includegraphics[.., trim= 0in 0.1in 0.2in 0.3in, ...]{...}</code>.
These give the amounts of the graphic not to show, that is, LaTeX
will crop the picture by 0&nbsp;inches on the left, 0.1&nbsp;inches on
the bottom, 0.2&nbsp;inches on the right, and 0.3&nbsp;inches on the
top.  See also the <code class="code">viewport</code> option.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-clip"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">clip</code></dt>
<dd><p>If set to <code class="code">true</code>, or just specified as here
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\includegraphics[...,clip,...]{...}
</pre></div>

<p>then the graphic is cropped to the bounding box.  This is the same as
using the starred form of the command,
<code class="code">\includegraphics*[...]{...}</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-page"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">page</code></dt>
<dd><p>Give the page number of a multi-page PDF file.  The default is
<code class="code">page=1</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-pagebox"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">pagebox</code></dt>
<dd><p>Specifies which bounding box to use for PDF files from among
<code class="code">mediabox</code>, <code class="code">cropbox</code>, <code class="code">bleedbox</code>, <code class="code">trimbox</code>, or
<code class="code">artbox</code>.  PDF files do not have the BoundingBox that PostScript
files have, but may specify up to four predefined rectangles. The
MediaBox gives the boundaries of the physical medium. The CropBox is the
region to which the contents of the page are to be clipped when
displayed.  The BleedBox is the region to which the contents of the page
should be clipped in production. The TrimBox is the intended dimensions
of the finished page.  The ArtBox is the extent of the page&rsquo;s meaningful
content.  The driver will set the image size based on CropBox if
present, otherwise it will not use one of the others, with a
driver-defined order of preference.  MediaBox is always present.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-interpolate"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">interpolate</code></dt>
<dd><p>Enable or disable interpolation of raster images by the viewer.  Can be
set with <code class="code">interpolate=true</code> or just specified as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\includegraphics[...,interpolate,...]{...}
</pre></div>

<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-quiet"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">quiet</code></dt>
<dd><p>Do not write information to the log.  You can set it with
<code class="code">quiet=true</code> or just specified it with
<code class="code">\includegraphics[...,quiet,...]{...}</code>,
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-draft"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">draft</code></dt>
<dd><p>If you set it with <code class="code">draft=true</code> or just specify it with
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\includegraphics[...,draft,...]{...}
</pre></div>

<p>then the graphic will not appear in the document, possibly saving color
printer ink.  Instead, LaTeX will put an empty box of the correct
size with the filename printed in it.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>These options address the bounding box for Encapsulated PostScript
graphic files, which have a size specified with a line
<code class="code">%%BoundingBox</code> that appears in the file.  It has four values,
giving the lower <em class="math">x</em> coordinate, lower <em class="math">y</em> coordinate, upper
<em class="math">x</em> coordinate, and upper <em class="math">y</em> coordinate.  The units are
PostScript points, equivalent to TeX&rsquo;s big points, 1/72&nbsp;inch.
For example, if an <samp class="file">.eps</samp> file has the line <code class="code">%%BoundingBox 10
20 40 80</code> then its natural size is 30/72&nbsp;inch wide by
60/72&nbsp;inch tall.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-bb"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">bb</code></dt>
<dd><p>Specify the bounding box of the displayed region.  The argument is four
dimensions separated by spaces, as with <code class="code">\includegraphics[.., bb=
0in 0in 1in 0.618in]{...}</code>.  Usually <code class="code">\includegraphics</code> reads the
BoundingBox numbers from the EPS file automatically, so this option is
only useful if the bounding box is missing from that file or if you want
to change it.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-bbllx"></a><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-bblly"></a><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-bburx"></a><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-bbury"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">bbllx, bblly, bburx, bbury</code></dt>
<dd><p>Set the bounding box.  These four are obsolete, but are retained for
compatibility with old packages.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-natwidth"></a><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-natheight"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">natwidth, natheight</code></dt>
<dd><p>An alternative for <code class="code">bb</code>.  Setting
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\includegraphics[...,natwidth=1in,natheight=0.618in,...]{...}
</pre></div>

<p>is the same as setting <code class="code">bb=0 0 1in 0.618in</code>.
</p> 
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-hiresbb"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">hiresbb</code></dt>
<dd><p>If set to <code class="code">true</code>, or just specified as with
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\includegraphics[...,hiresbb,...]{...}
</pre></div>

<p>then LaTeX will look for <code class="code">%%HiResBoundingBox</code> lines instead of
<code class="code">%%BoundingBox</code> lines.  (The <code class="code">BoundingBox</code> lines use only
natural numbers while the <code class="code">HiResBoundingBox</code> lines use decimals;
both use units equivalent to TeX&rsquo;s big points, 1/72&nbsp;inch.) To
override a prior setting of <code class="code">true</code>, you can set it to <code class="code">false</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<p>These following options allow a user to override LaTeX&rsquo;s method of
choosing the graphic type based on the filename extension.  An example
is that <code class="code">\includegraphics[type=png,ext=.xxx,read=.xxx]{lion}</code>
will read the file <samp class="file">lion.xxx</samp> as though it were
<samp class="file">lion.png</samp>. For more on these, see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsRule"><code class="code">\DeclareGraphicsRule</code></a>.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-type"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">type</code></dt>
<dd><p>Specify the graphics type.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-ext"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">ext</code></dt>
<dd><p>Specify the graphics extension.
Only use this in conjunction with the option <code class="code">type</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-read"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">read</code></dt>
<dd><p>Specify the file extension of the read file.
Only use this in conjunction with the option <code class="code">type</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="includegraphics-command"></a></dd>
<dt><code class="code">command</code></dt>
<dd><p>Specify a command to be applied to this file.  Only use this in
conjunction with the option <code class="code">type</code>.  See <a class="xref" href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a>,
for a discussion of enabling the <code class="code">\write18</code> functionality to run
external commands.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005crotatebox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cscalebox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\scalebox</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\includegraphics</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Commands-for-graphics" accesskey="u" rel="up">Commands for graphics</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005crotatebox-1">22.3.2 <code class="code">\rotatebox</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-rotation"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-rotating-graphics"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-rotating-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005crotatebox"></a>

<p>Synopsis if you use the <code class="code">graphics</code> package:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\rotatebox{<var class="var">angle</var>}{<var class="var">material</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Synopses if you use the <code class="code">graphicx</code> package:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\rotatebox{<var class="var">angle</var>}{<var class="var">material</var>}
\rotatebox[<var class="var">key-value list</var>]{<var class="var">angle</var>}{<var class="var">material</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Put <var class="var">material</var> in a box and rotate it <var class="var">angle</var> degrees
counterclockwise.
</p>
<p>This example rotates the table column heads forty-five degrees.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{tabular}{ll}
  \rotatebox{45}{Character} &amp;\rotatebox{45}{NATO phonetic}   \\
  A                         &amp;AL-FAH  \\
  B                         &amp;BRAH-VOH
\end{tabular}
</pre></div>

<p>The <var class="var">material</var> can be anything that goes in a box, including a graphic.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">  \rotatebox[origin=c]{45}{\includegraphics[width=1in]{lion}}
</pre></div>

<p>To place the rotated material, the first step is that LaTeX sets
<var class="var">material</var> in a box, with a reference point on the left baseline.
The second step is the rotation, by default about the reference point.
The third step is that LaTeX computes a box to bound the rotated
material.  Fourth, LaTeX moves this box horizontally so that the left
edge of this new bounding box coincides with the left edge of the box
from the first step (they need not coincide vertically).  This new
bounding box, in its new position, is what LaTeX uses as the box when
typesetting this material.
</p>
<p>If you use the <code class="code">graphics</code> package then the rotation is about the
reference point of the box. If you use the <code class="code">graphicx</code> package
then these are the options that can go in the <var class="var">key-value list</var>,
but note that you can get the same effect without needing this
package, except for the <code class="code">x</code> and <code class="code">y</code> options
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics"><code class="code">\includegraphics</code></a>).
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">origin</code></dt>
<dd><p>The point of the <var class="var">material</var>&rsquo;s box about which the rotation happens.
Possible value is any string containing one or two of: <code class="code">l</code> for
left, <code class="code">r</code> for right, <code class="code">b</code> for bottom, <code class="code">c</code> for center,
<code class="code">t</code> for top, and <code class="code">B</code> for baseline.  Thus, the first line here
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\rotatebox[origin=c]{180}{moon}
\rotatebox[origin=lB]{180}{LeBateau}
</pre></div>

<p>will turn the picture upside down from the center while the second will
turn its picture upside down about its left baseline.  (The character
<code class="code">c</code> gives the horizontal center in <code class="code">bc</code> or <code class="code">tc</code> but gives
the vertical center in <code class="code">lc</code> or <code class="code">rc</code>, and gives both in
<code class="code">c</code>.)  The default is <code class="code">lB</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">x, y</code></dt>
<dd><p>Specify an arbitrary point of rotation with
<code class="code">\rotatebox[x=<var class="var">TeX dimension</var>,y=<var class="var">TeX
dimension</var>]{...}</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a>).  These give the offset
from the box&rsquo;s reference point.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">units</code></dt>
<dd><p>This key allows you to change the default of degrees counterclockwise.
Setting <code class="code">units=-360</code> changes the direction to degrees clockwise and
setting <code class="code">units=6.283185</code> changes to radians counterclockwise.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cscalebox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cresizebox" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\resizebox</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005crotatebox" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\rotatebox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Commands-for-graphics" accesskey="u" rel="up">Commands for graphics</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cscalebox-1">22.3.3 <code class="code">\scalebox</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics_002c-scaling"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics_002c-resizing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-scaling"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-resizing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-text_002c-scaling"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-text_002c-resizing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cscalebox"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005creflectbox"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\scalebox{<var class="var">horizontal factor</var>}{<var class="var">material</var>}
\scalebox{<var class="var">horizontal factor</var>}[<var class="var">vertical factor</var>]{<var class="var">material</var>}
\reflectbox{<var class="var">material</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Scale the <var class="var">material</var>.
</p>
<p>This example halves the size, both horizontally and vertically, of the
first text and doubles the size of the second.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\scalebox{0.5}{DRINK ME} and \scalebox{2.0}{Eat Me}
</pre></div>

<p>If you do not specify the optional <var class="var">vertical factor</var> then it
defaults to the same value as the <var class="var">horizontal factor</var>.
</p>
<p>You can use this command to resize a graphic, as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\scalebox{0.5}{\includegraphics{lion}}
</pre></div>

<p>If you use the <code class="code">graphicx</code> package then you can accomplish the same
thing with optional arguments to <code class="code">\includegraphics</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics"><code class="code">\includegraphics</code></a>).
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\reflectbox</code> command abbreviates
<code class="code">\scalebox{-1}[1]{<var class="var">material</var>}</code>.  Thus, <code class="code">Able was
I\reflectbox{Able was I}</code> will show the phrase &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Able was I</samp>&rsquo;
immediately followed by its mirror reflection against a vertical axis.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cresizebox">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cscalebox" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\scalebox</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Commands-for-graphics" accesskey="u" rel="up">Commands for graphics</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cresizebox-1">22.3.4 <code class="code">\resizebox</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics_002c-scaling-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-graphics_002c-resizing-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-scaling-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-resizing-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-text_002c-scaling-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-text_002c-resizing-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cresizebox"></a>

<p>Synopses:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\resizebox{<var class="var">horizontal length</var>}{<var class="var">vertical length</var>}{<var class="var">material</var>}
\resizebox*{<var class="var">horizontal length</var>}{<var class="var">vertical length</var>}{<var class="var">material</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Given a size, such as <code class="code">3cm</code>, transform <var class="var">material</var> to make it
that size.  If either <var class="var">horizontal length</var> or <var class="var">vertical length</var>
is an exclamation point&nbsp;<code class="code">!</code>  then the other argument is used
to determine a scale factor for both directions.
</p>
<p>This example makes the graphic be a half inch wide and scales it
vertically by the same factor to keep it from being distorted.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\resizebox{0.5in}{!}{\includegraphics{lion}}
</pre></div>

<p>The unstarred form <code class="code">\resizebox</code> takes <var class="var">vertical length</var> to be
the box&rsquo;s height while the starred form <code class="code">\resizebox*</code> takes it to
be height+depth.  For instance, make the text have a height+depth of a
quarter-inch with <code class="code">\resizebox*{!}{0.25in}{\parbox{3.5in}{This
box has both height and depth.}}</code>.
</p>
<p>You can use <code class="code">\depth</code>, <code class="code">\height</code>, <code class="code">\totalheight</code>, and
<code class="code">\width</code> to refer to the original size of the box.  Thus, make the
text two inches wide but keep the original height with
<code class="code">\resizebox{2in}{\height}{Two inches}</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Special-insertions">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Splitting-the-input" accesskey="n" rel="next">Splitting the input</a>, Previous: <a href="#Graphics" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Graphics</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Special-insertions-1">23 Special insertions</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-special-insertions"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-insertions-of-special-characters"></a>

<p>LaTeX provides commands for inserting characters that have a
special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Reserved-characters" accesskey="1">Reserved characters</a></li>
<li><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case" accesskey="2">Upper and lower case</a></li>
<li><a href="#Symbols-by-font-position" accesskey="3">Symbols by font position</a></li>
<li><a href="#Text-symbols" accesskey="4">Text symbols</a></li>
<li><a href="#Accents" accesskey="5">Accents</a></li>
<li><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters" accesskey="6">Additional Latin letters</a></li>
<li><a href="#inputenc-package" accesskey="7"><code class="code">inputenc</code> package</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005crule" accesskey="8"><code class="code">\rule</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005ctoday" accesskey="9"><code class="code">\today</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Reserved-characters">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Upper-and-lower-case" accesskey="n" rel="next">Upper and lower case</a>, Up: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Special insertions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Reserved-characters-1">23.1 Reserved characters</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-reserved-characters"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-characters_002c-reserved"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-special-characters"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-characters_002c-special"></a>
<p>LaTeX sets aside the following characters for special purposes. For
example, the percent sign&nbsp;<code class="code">%</code> is for comments.  They are
called <em class="dfn">reserved characters</em> or <em class="dfn">special characters</em>. They are
all discussed elsewhere in this manual.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"># $ % &amp; { } _ ~ ^ \ 
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0023"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0024"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0025"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0026"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005f"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_007b"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_007d"></a>
<p>If you want a reserved character to be printed as itself, in the text
body font, for all but the final three characters in that list simply
put a backslash&nbsp;<code class="code">\</code> in front of the character.  Thus,
typing <code class="code">\$1.23</code> will produce&nbsp;<code class="code">$1.23</code> in your output.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_007e"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005e"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctextbackslash"></a>
<p>As to the last three characters, to get a tilde in the text body font
use <code class="code">\~{}</code> (omitting the curly braces would result in the next
character receiving a tilde accent).  Similarly, to get a text body
font circumflex use <code class="code">\^{}</code>.  To get a backslash in the font of
the text body, enter <code class="code">\textbackslash{}</code>.
</p>
<p>To produce the reserved characters in a typewriter font use
<code class="code">\verb!!</code> as below (the double backslash&nbsp;<code class="code">\\</code> in the
example is only there to split the lines in the output).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{center}
  \# \$ \% \&amp; \{ \} \_ \~{} \^{} \textbackslash \\
  \verb!# $ % &amp; { } _ ~ ^ \!
\end{center}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Upper-and-lower-case">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Symbols-by-font-position" accesskey="n" rel="next">Symbols by font position</a>, Previous: <a href="#Reserved-characters" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Reserved characters</a>, Up: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Special insertions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Upper-and-lower-case-1">23.2 Upper and lower case</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-uppercase"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-lowercase"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-characters_002c-case-of"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-changing-case-of-characters"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\uppercase{<var class="var">text</var>}
\lowercase{<var class="var">text</var>}
\MakeUppercase{<var class="var">text</var>}
\MakeLowercase{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Change the case of characters.  The TeX primitive commands
<code class="code">\uppercase</code> and <code class="code">\lowercase</code> are set up by default to work
only with the 26 letters a&ndash;z and A&ndash;Z. The LaTeX commands
<code class="code">\MakeUppercase</code> and <code class="code">\MakeLowercase</code> commands also change
characters accessed by commands such as <code class="code">\ae</code> or <code class="code">\aa</code>.  The
commands <code class="code">\MakeUppercase</code> and <code class="code">\MakeLowercase</code> are robust
but they have moving arguments (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>These commands do not change the case of letters used in the name of a
command within <var class="var">text</var>.  But they do change the case of every other
Latin letter inside the argument <var class="var">text</var>.  Thus,
<code class="code">\MakeUppercase{Let $y=f(x)$</code>} produces &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LET Y=F(X)</samp>&rsquo;.  Another
example is that the name of an environment will be changed, so that
<code class="code">\MakeUppercase{\begin{tabular} ... \end{tabular}}</code> will
produce an error because the first half is changed to
<code class="code">\begin{TABULAR}</code>.
</p>
<p>LaTeX uses the same fixed table for changing case throughout a
document, The table used is designed for the font encoding T1; this
works well with the standard TeX fonts for all Latin alphabets but
will cause problems when using other alphabets.
</p>
<p>To change the case of text that results from a macro inside <var class="var">text</var>
you need to do expansion.  Here the <code class="code">\Schoolname</code> produces
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">COLLEGE OF MATHEMATICS</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\schoolname}{College of Mathematics}
\newcommand{\Schoolname}{\expandafter\MakeUppercase
                           <!-- /@w -->\expandafter{\schoolname}}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-textcase"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-textcase-package"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">textcase</code> package brings some of the missing feature of the
standard LaTeX commands <code class="code">\MakeUppercase</code> and
<code class="code">\MakeLowerCase</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-mfirstuc"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mfirstuc-package"></a>

<p>To uppercase only the first letter of words, you can use the package
<code class="code">mfirstuc</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-expl3-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-expl3-package-1"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Wright_002c-Joseph"></a>
<p>Handling all the casing rules specified by Unicode, e.g., for
non-Latin scripts, is a much bigger job than anything envisioned in
the original TeX and LaTeX.  It has been implemented in the
<code class="code">expl3</code> package as of 2020. The article &ldquo;Case changing: From
TeX primitives to the Unicode algorithm&rdquo;, (Joseph Wright,
<cite class="cite">TUGboat</cite>&nbsp;41:1,
<a class="url" href="https://tug.org/TUGboat/tb41-1/tb127wright-case.pdf">https://tug.org/TUGboat/tb41-1/tb127wright-case.pdf</a>), gives a
good overview of the topic, past and present.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Symbols-by-font-position">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Text-symbols" accesskey="n" rel="next">Text symbols</a>, Previous: <a href="#Upper-and-lower-case" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Upper and lower case</a>, Up: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Special insertions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Symbols-by-font-position-1">23.3 Symbols by font position</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csymbol"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-accessing-any-character-of-a-font"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-font-symbols_002c-by-number"></a>

<p>You can access any character of the current font using its number with
the <code class="code">\symbol</code> command. For example, the visible space character
used in the <code class="code">\verb*</code> command has the code decimal 32 in the
standard Computer Modern typewriter font, so it can be typed as
<code class="code">\symbol{32}</code>.
</p>
<p>You can also specify numbers in octal (base 8) by using a <code class="code">'</code>
prefix, or hexadecimal (base 16) with a <code class="code">&quot;</code> prefix, so the
visible space at 32 decimal could also be written as
<code class="code">\symbol{'40}</code> or <code class="code">\symbol{&quot;20}</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Text-symbols">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Accents" accesskey="n" rel="next">Accents</a>, Previous: <a href="#Symbols-by-font-position" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Symbols by font position</a>, Up: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Special insertions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Text-symbols-1">23.4 Text symbols</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-text-symbols"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-symbols_002c-text"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-textcomp"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-textcomp-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-TS1-encoding"></a>
<p>LaTeX provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols
in running text.  Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are
not available in OT1.  As of the LaTeX February 2020 release, all
symbols are available by default; before that, it was necessary to use
the <code class="code">textcomp</code> package for some (technically, those in the
<code class="code">TS1</code> font encoding).
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-_005ccopyright'><span><code class="code">\copyright</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ccopyright'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ctextcopyright'><span><code class="code">\textcopyright</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextcopyright'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-copyright-symbol"></a>
<p>&copy; The copyright symbol.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdag'><span><code class="code">\dag</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdag'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dagger_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&#x2020; The dagger symbol (in text).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cddag'><span><code class="code">\ddag</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cddag'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-dagger_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&#x2021; The double dagger symbol (in text).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cLaTeX'><span><code class="code">\LaTeX</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cLaTeX'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LaTeX-logo"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-logo_002c-LaTeX"></a>
<p>The LaTeX logo.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cLaTeXe'><span><code class="code">\LaTeXe</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cLaTeXe'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LaTeX2e-logo"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-logo_002c-LaTeX2e"></a>
<p>The LaTeX2e logo.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cguillemotleft-_0028_00ab_0029'><span><code class="code">\guillemotleft <span class="r">(&laquo;)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cguillemotleft-_0028_00ab_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cguillemotright-_0028_00bb_0029'><span><code class="code">\guillemotright <span class="r">(&raquo;)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cguillemotright-_0028_00bb_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cguilsinglleft-_0028_2039_0029'><span><code class="code">\guilsinglleft <span class="r">(&lsaquo;)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cguilsinglleft-_0028_2039_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cguilsinglright-_0028_203a_0029'><span><code class="code">\guilsinglright <span class="r">(&rsaquo;)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cguilsinglright-_0028_203a_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-guillemets"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-single-guillemets"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-left-angle-quotation-marks"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-right-angle-quotation-marks"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-angle-quotation-marks"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-single-angle-quotation-marks"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-French-quotation-marks"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-quotation-marks_002c-French"></a>
<p>&laquo;, &raquo;, &lsaquo;, &rsaquo;
Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cldots-1'><span><code class="code">\ldots</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cldots-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ctextellipsis'><span><code class="code">\textellipsis</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextellipsis'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cdots-2'><span><code class="code">\dots</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdots-2'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ellipsis"></a>
<p>&hellip; An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): <code class="code">\ldots</code> and
<code class="code">\dots</code> also work in math mode (see <a class="pxref" href="#Dots">Dots, horizontal or vertical</a>).  See that math
mode ellipsis description for additional general information.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005clq'><span><code class="code">\lq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005clq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-left-quote"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-opening-quote"></a>
<p>&lsquo; Left (opening) quote.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cP'><span><code class="code">\P</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cP'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ctextparagraph'><span><code class="code">\textparagraph</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextparagraph'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-paragraph-symbol"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-pilcrow"></a>
<p>&#x00B6; Paragraph sign (pilcrow).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cpounds'><span><code class="code">\pounds</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cpounds'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ctextsterling'><span><code class="code">\textsterling</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextsterling'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-pounds-symbol"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-sterling-symbol"></a>
<p>&pound; English pounds sterling.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cquotedblbase-_0028_201e_0029'><span><code class="code">\quotedblbase <span class="r">(&bdquo;)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cquotedblbase-_0028_201e_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005cquotesinglbase-_0028_201a_0029'><span><code class="code">\quotesinglbase <span class="r">(&sbquo;)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cquotesinglbase-_0028_201a_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-low_002d9-quotation-mark"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-single-low_002d9-quotation-mark"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-low_002d9-quotation-marks_002c-single-and-double"></a>
<p>&bdquo; and &sbquo;
Double and single quotation marks on the baseline.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005crq'><span><code class="code">\rq</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005crq'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-right-quote"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-closing-quote"></a>
<p>&rsquo; Right (closing) quote.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cS'><span><code class="code">\S</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cS'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ctextsection'><span><code class="code">\textsection</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextsection'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-section-symbol"></a>
<p>&#x00A7; Section sign.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cTeX'><span><code class="code">\TeX</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cTeX'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-TeX-logo"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-logo_002c-TeX"></a>
<p>The TeX logo.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextasciicircum'><span><code class="code">\textasciicircum</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextasciicircum'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-circumflex_002c-ASCII_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ASCII-circumflex_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>^ ASCII circumflex.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextasciitilde'><span><code class="code">\textasciitilde</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextasciitilde'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tilde_002c-ASCII_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ASCII-tilde_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>~ ASCII tilde.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextasteriskcentered'><span><code class="code">\textasteriskcentered</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextasteriskcentered'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-asterisk_002c-centered_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-centered-asterisk_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>* Centered asterisk.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextbackslash-1'><span><code class="code">\textbackslash</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextbackslash-1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-backslash_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>\ Backslash. However, <code class="code">\texttt{\textbackslash}</code> produces a roman
(not typewriter) backslash by default; for a typewriter backslash, it
is necessary to use the T1 (or other non-default) font encoding, as
in:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}
</pre></div>

</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextbar'><span><code class="code">\textbar</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextbar'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-vertical-bar_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bar_002c-vertical_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>| Vertical bar.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextbardbl'><span><code class="code">\textbardbl</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextbardbl'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-vertical-bar_002c-double_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bar_002c-double-vertical_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-vertical-bar_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&#x23F8; Double vertical bar.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextbigcircle'><span><code class="code">\textbigcircle</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextbigcircle'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-big-circle-symbols_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-circle-symbol_002c-big_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&#x25EF;, Big circle symbol.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextbraceleft'><span><code class="code">\textbraceleft</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextbraceleft'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-left-brace_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-brace_002c-left_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>{ Left brace.  See remarks at <code class="code">\textbackslash</code> above about
making <code class="code">\texttt{\textbraceleft}</code> produce a typewriter brace.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextbraceright'><span><code class="code">\textbraceright</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextbraceright'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-right-brace_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-brace_002c-right_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>} Right brace.  See remarks at <code class="code">\textbackslash</code> above about
making <code class="code">\texttt{\textbraceright}</code> produce a typewriter brace.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextbullet'><span><code class="code">\textbullet</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextbullet'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bullet_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&bull; Bullet.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextcircled_007bletter_007d'><span><code class="code">\textcircled{<var class="var">letter</var>}</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextcircled_007bletter_007d'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-circled-letter_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&#x24B6;, Circle around <var class="var">letter</var>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextcompwordmark'><span><code class="code">\textcompwordmark</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextcompwordmark'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ctextcapitalcompwordmark'><span><code class="code">\textcapitalcompwordmark</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextcapitalcompwordmark'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ctextascendercompwordmark'><span><code class="code">\textascendercompwordmark</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextascendercompwordmark'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-composite-word-mark_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cap-height"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ascender-height"></a>
<p>Used to separate letters that would normally ligature. For example,
<code class="code">f\textcompwordmark i</code> produces &lsquo;<samp class="samp">fi</samp>&rsquo; without a ligature. This
is most useful in non-English languages.  The
<code class="code">\textcapitalcompwordmark</code> form has the cap height of the font
while the <code class="code">\textascendercompwordmark</code> form has the ascender height.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextdagger'><span><code class="code">\textdagger</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextdagger'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dagger_002c-in-text-1"></a>
<p>&#x2020; Dagger.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextdaggerdbl'><span><code class="code">\textdaggerdbl</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextdaggerdbl'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dagger_002c-double_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-dagger_002c-in-text-1"></a>
<p>&#x2021; Double dagger.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextdollar-_0028or-_005c_0024_0029'><span><code class="code">\textdollar <span class="r">(or <code class="code">\$</code>)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextdollar-_0028or-_005c_0024_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dollar-sign"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-currency_002c-dollar"></a>
<p>$ Dollar sign.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextemdash-_0028or-_002d_002d_002d_0029'><span><code class="code">\textemdash <span class="r">(or <code class="code">---</code>)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextemdash-_0028or-_002d_002d_002d_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-em_002ddash"></a>
<div class="raggedright"><p class="raggedright-paragraph">&mdash; Em-dash.  Used for punctuation, usually similar to commas or
parentheses, as in &lsquo;<code class="code">The playoffs---if you're lucky
enough to make the playoffs---are more like a sprint.</code>&rsquo; Conventions
for spacing around em-dashes vary widely.
</p></div>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextendash-_0028or-_002d_002d_0029'><span><code class="code">\textendash <span class="r">(or <code class="code">--</code>)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextendash-_0028or-_002d_002d_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-e_002ddash"></a>
<p>&ndash; En-dash. Used for ranges, as in &lsquo;<code class="code">see pages 12--14</code>&rsquo;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctexteuro'><span><code class="code">\texteuro</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctexteuro'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-euro-symbol"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-currency_002c-euro"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-eurosym"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-eurosym-package"></a>

<p>The Euro currency symbol: &euro;.
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-eurosym-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-eurosym-package-1"></a>
</p>
<p>For an alternative glyph design, try the
<code class="code">eurosym</code> package; also, most fonts nowadays come with their own
Euro symbol (Unicode U+20AC).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextexclamdown-_0028or-_0021_0060_0029'><span><code class="code">\textexclamdown <span class="r">(or <code class="code">!`</code>)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextexclamdown-_0028or-_0021_0060_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-exclamation-point_002c-upside_002ddown"></a>
<p>&iexcl; Upside down exclamation point.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextfiguredash'><span><code class="code">\textfiguredash</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextfiguredash'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-figure-dash-character"></a>
<p>Dash used between numerals, Unicode U+2012. Defined in the June 2021
release of LaTeX. When used in pdfTeX, approximated by an
en-dash; with a Unicode engine, either typesets the glyph if available
in the current font, or writes the usual &ldquo;Missing character&rdquo; warning
to the log file.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextgreater'><span><code class="code">\textgreater</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextgreater'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-greater-than-symbol_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&gt; Greater than symbol.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctexthorizontalbar'><span><code class="code">\texthorizontalbar</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctexthorizontalbar'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-horizontal-bar-character"></a>
<p>Horizontal bar character, Unicode U+2015. Defined in the June 2021
release of LaTeX. Behavior as with <code class="code">\textfiguredash</code> above;
the pdfTeX approximation is an em-dash.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextless'><span><code class="code">\textless</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextless'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-less-than-symbol_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&lt; Less than symbol.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextleftarrow'><span><code class="code">\textleftarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextleftarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-arrow_002c-left_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-left-arrow_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&#x2190;, Left arrow.   
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextnonbreakinghyphen'><span><code class="code">\textnonbreakinghyphen</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextnonbreakinghyphen'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-non_002dbreaking-hyphen-character"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hyphen-character_002c-non_002dbreaking"></a>
<p>Non-breaking hyphen character, Unicode U+2011. Defined in the June
2021 release of LaTeX. Behavior as with <code class="code">\textfiguredash</code>
above; the pdfTeX approximation is a regular ASCII hyphen (with
breaks disallowed after).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextordfeminine'><span><code class="code">\textordfeminine</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextordfeminine'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ctextordmasculine'><span><code class="code">\textordmasculine</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextordmasculine'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-feminine-ordinal-symbol"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-masculine-ordinal-symbol"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ordinals_002c-feminine-and-masculine"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Spanish-ordinals_002c-feminine-and-masculine"></a>
<p>&ordf;, &ordm; Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextperiodcentered'><span><code class="code">\textperiodcentered</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextperiodcentered'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-period_002c-centered_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-centered-period_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&#x00B7; Centered period.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextquestiondown-_0028or-_003f_0060_0029'><span><code class="code">\textquestiondown <span class="r">(or <code class="code">?`</code>)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextquestiondown-_0028or-_003f_0060_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-question-mark_002c-upside_002ddown"></a>
<p>&iquest; Upside down question mark.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextquotedblleft-_0028or-_0060_0060_0029'><span><code class="code">\textquotedblleft <span class="r">(or <code class="code">``</code>)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextquotedblleft-_0028or-_0060_0060_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-left-quote_002c-double"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-left-quote"></a>
<p>&ldquo; Double left quote.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextquotedblright-_0028or-_0027_0027_0029'><span><code class="code">\textquotedblright <span class="r">(or <code class="code">''</code>)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextquotedblright-_0028or-_0027_0027_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-right-quote_002c-double"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-right-quote"></a>
<p>&rdquo; Double right quote.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextquoteleft-_0028or-_0060_0029'><span><code class="code">\textquoteleft <span class="r">(or <code class="code">`</code>)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextquoteleft-_0028or-_0060_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-left-quote_002c-single"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-single-left-quote"></a>
<p>&lsquo; Single left quote.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextquoteright-_0028or-_0027_0029'><span><code class="code">\textquoteright <span class="r">(or <code class="code">'</code>)</span></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextquoteright-_0028or-_0027_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-right-quote_002c-single"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-single-right-quote"></a>
<p>&rsquo; Single right quote.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextquotesingle'><span><code class="code">\textquotesingle</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextquotesingle'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-quote_002c-single-straight"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-straight-single-quote"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-single-quote_002c-straight"></a>
<p>&#x0027;, Straight single quote.  (From TS1 encoding.)  
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextquotestraightbase'><span><code class="code">\textquotestraightbase</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextquotestraightbase'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt id='index-_005ctextquotestraightdblbase'><span><code class="code">\textquotestraightdblbase</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextquotestraightdblbase'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-quote_002c-straight-base"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-straight-quote_002c-base"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-double-quote_002c-straight-base"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-straight-double-quote_002c-base"></a>
<p>Single and double straight quotes on the baseline.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextregistered'><span><code class="code">\textregistered</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextregistered'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-registered-symbol"></a>
<p>&reg; Registered symbol.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextrightarrow'><span><code class="code">\textrightarrow</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextrightarrow'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-arrow_002c-right_002c-in-text"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-right-arrow_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&#x2192;, Right arrow.  
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextthreequartersemdash'><span><code class="code">\textthreequartersemdash</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextthreequartersemdash'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-three_002dquarters-em_002ddash"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-em_002ddash_002c-three_002dquarters"></a>
<p>&#xFE58;, &ldquo;Three-quarters&rdquo; em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctexttrademark'><span><code class="code">\texttrademark</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctexttrademark'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-trademark-symbol"></a>
<p>&#x2122; Trademark symbol.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctexttwelveudash'><span><code class="code">\texttwelveudash</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctexttwelveudash'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-two_002dthirds-em_002ddash"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-em_002ddash_002c-two_002dthirds"></a>
<p>&#xFE58;, &ldquo;Two-thirds&rdquo; em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.   
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextunderscore'><span><code class="code">\textunderscore</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextunderscore'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-underscore_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>_ Underscore.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ctextvisiblespace'><span><code class="code">\textvisiblespace</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ctextvisiblespace'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-visible-space-symbol_002c-in-text"></a>
<p>&#x2423;, Visible space symbol.  
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Accents">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Additional-Latin-letters" accesskey="n" rel="next">Additional Latin letters</a>, Previous: <a href="#Text-symbols" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Text symbols</a>, Up: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Special insertions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Accents-1">23.5 Accents</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-accents"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-characters_002c-accented"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-letters_002c-accented"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-babel-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-babel-package-2"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-polyglossia"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-polyglossia-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-multilingual-support"></a>
<p>LaTeX has wide support for many of the world&rsquo;s scripts and
languages, provided through the core <code class="code">babel</code> package, which
supports pdfLaTeX, XeLaTeX and LuaLaTeX. The
<code class="code">polyglossia</code> package provides similar support with the latter
two engines.
</p>
<p>This section does not cover that support. It only lists the core
LaTeX commands for creating accented characters.  The
<code class="code">\capital...</code>  commands shown here produce alternative forms for
use with capital letters.  These are not available with OT1.
</p>
<p>Below, to make them easier to find, the accents are all illustrated with
lowercase &lsquo;<samp class="samp">o</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ci-_0028dotless-i_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dotless-i"></a>
<p>Note that <code class="code">\i</code> produces a dotless i,
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cj-_0028dotless-j_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dotless-j"></a>
and <code class="code">\j</code> produces a dotless j.
These are often used in place of their dotted counterparts when they are
accented.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-_005c_0022-_0028umlaut-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\&quot;</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_0022-_0028umlaut-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitaldieresis</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitaldieresis"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-umlaut-accent"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dieresis-accent"></a>
<p>&ouml; Umlaut (dieresis).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_0027-_0028acute-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\'</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_0027-_0028acute-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalacute</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalacute"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-acute-accent"></a>
<p>&oacute; Acute accent.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_002e-_0028dot_002dover-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\.</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_002e-_0028dot_002dover-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dot-accent"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dot_002dover-accent"></a>
<p>&#559;  Dot accent.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_003d-_0028macron-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\=</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_003d-_0028macron-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalmacron</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalmacron"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-macron-accent"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-overbar-accent"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bar_002dover-accent"></a>
<p>&#333; Macron (overbar) accent.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_005e-_0028circumflex-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\^</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_005e-_0028circumflex-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalcircumflex</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalcircumflex"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-circumflex-accent"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hat-accent"></a>
<p>&ocirc; Circumflex (hat) accent.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_0060-_0028grave-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\`</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_0060-_0028grave-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalgrave</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalgrave"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-grave-accent"></a>
<p>&ograve; Grave accent.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005c_007e-_0028tilde-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\~</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005c_007e-_0028tilde-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitaltilde</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitaltilde"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tilde-accent"></a>
<p>&ntilde; Tilde accent.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cb-_0028bar_002dunder-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\b</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cb-_0028bar_002dunder-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-bar_002dunder-accent"></a>
<p>o&#818; Bar accent underneath.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cunderbar"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-underbar"></a>
<p>Related to this, <code class="code">\underbar{<var class="var">text</var>}</code> produces a bar under
<var class="var">text</var>.  The argument is always processed in LR mode
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Modes">Modes</a>).  The bar is always a fixed position under the baseline,
thus crossing through descenders.  See also <code class="code">\underline</code> in
<a class="ref" href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cc-_0028cedilla-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\c</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cc-_0028cedilla-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalcedilla</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalcedilla"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cedilla-accent"></a>
<p>&ccedil; Cedilla accent underneath.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cd-_0028dot_002dunder-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\d</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cd-_0028dot_002dunder-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitaldotaccent</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitaldotaccent"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-dot_002dunder-accent"></a>
<p>&#7885; Dot accent underneath.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cH-_0028Hungarian-umlaut-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\H</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cH-_0028Hungarian-umlaut-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalhungarumlaut</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalhungarumlaut"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hungarian-umlaut-accent"></a>
<p>&#337; Long Hungarian umlaut accent.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ck-_0028ogonek_0029'><span><code class="code">\k</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ck-_0028ogonek_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalogonek</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalogonek"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ogonek"></a>
<p>&#491; Ogonek.  Not available in the OT1 encoding.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cr-_0028ring-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\r</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cr-_0028ring-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalring</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalring"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ring-accent"></a>
<p>o&#778; Ring accent.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005ct-_0028tie_002dafter-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\t</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005ct-_0028tie_002dafter-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitaltie</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\newtie</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalnewtie</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitaltie"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewtie"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalnewtie"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tie_002dafter-accent"></a>
<p>Tie-after accent (used for transliterating from Cyrillic, such as in the
ALA-LC romanization).  It expects that the argument has two characters.
The <code class="code">\newtie</code> form is centered in its box.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cu-_0028breve-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\u</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cu-_0028breve-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalbreve</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalbreve"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-breve-accent"></a>
<p>&#335; Breve accent.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cv-_0028breve-accent_0029'><span><code class="code">\v</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cv-_0028breve-accent_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\capitalcaron</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccapitalcaron"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hacek-accent"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-check-accent"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-caron-accent"></a>
<p>&#466;  H&aacute;&#269;ek (check, caron) accent.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>



<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005caccent" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\accent</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005caccent">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Up: <a href="#Accents" accesskey="u" rel="up">Accents</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005caccent-1">23.5.1 <code class="code">\accent</code></h4>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005caccent"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\accent <var class="var">number</var> <var class="var">character</var>
</pre></div>

<p>A TeX primitive command used to generate accented characters from
accent marks and letters. The accent mark is selected by <var class="var">number</var>, a
numeric argument, followed by a space and then a <var class="var">character</var>
argument to construct the accented character in the current font.
</p>
<p>These are accented &lsquo;<samp class="samp">e</samp>&rsquo; characters.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\accent18 e
\accent20 e
\accent21 e
\accent22 e
\accent23 e
</pre></div>

<p>The first is a grave, the second a caron, the third a breve, the fourth
a macron, and the fifth a ring above.
</p>
<p>The position of the accent is determined by the font designer and so the
outcome of <code class="code">\accent</code> use may differ between fonts. In LaTeX it is
desirable to have glyphs for accented characters rather than building
them using <code class="code">\accent</code>. Using glyphs that already contain the
accented characters (as in T1 encoding) allows correct hyphenation
whereas <code class="code">\accent</code> disables hyphenation (specifically with OT1 font
encoding where accented glyphs are absent).
</p>
<p>There can be an optional font change between <var class="var">number</var> and
<var class="var">character</var>.  Note also that this command sets the
<code class="code">\spacefactor</code> to 1000 (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cspacefactor"><code class="code">\spacefactor</code></a>).
</p>
<p>An unavoidable characteristic of some Cyrillic letters and
the majority of accented Cyrillic letters is that they must be
assembled from multiple elements (accents, modifiers, etc.) while
<code class="code">\accent</code> provides for a single accent mark and a single letter
combination. There are also cases where accents must appear between
letters that \accent does not support.  Still other cases exist where
the letters I and J have dots above their lowercase counterparts that
conflict with dotted accent marks. The use of <code class="code">\accent</code> in these
cases will not work as it cannot analyze upper/lower case.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Additional-Latin-letters">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#inputenc-package" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">inputenc</code> package</a>, Previous: <a href="#Accents" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Accents</a>, Up: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Special insertions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Additional-Latin-letters-1">23.6 Additional Latin letters</h3>

<a class="anchor" id="Non_002dEnglish-characters"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Latin-letters_002c-additional"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-letters_002c-additional-Latin"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-extended-Latin"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-special-characters-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-non_002dEnglish-characters"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-characters_002c-non_002dEnglish"></a>

<p>Here are the basic LaTeX commands for inserting letters beyond
A&ndash;Z that extend the Latin alphabet, used primarily in languages other
than English.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt id='index-_005caa-_0028aa_0029'><span><code class="code">\aa</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005caa-_0028aa_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\AA</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cAA-_0028AA_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-aring"></a>
<p>&aring; and &Aring;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cae-_0028ae_0029'><span><code class="code">\ae</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cae-_0028ae_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\AE</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cAE-_0028AE_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ae-ligature"></a>
<p>&aelig; and &AElig;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdh-_0028d_0029'><span><code class="code">\dh</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdh-_0028d_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\DH</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDH-_0028D_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Icelandic-eth"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-eth_002c-Icelandic-letter"></a>
<p>Icelandic letter eth: &eth; and &ETH;. Not available with <small class="sc">OT1</small>
encoding, you need the <samp class="file">fontenc</samp> package to select an alternate
font encoding, such as <small class="sc">T1</small>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cdj'><span><code class="code">\dj</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cdj'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\DJ</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDJ"></a>
<p>Crossed d and D, a.k.a. capital and small letter d with stroke.  Not
available with <small class="sc">OT1</small> encoding, you need the <samp class="file">fontenc</samp> package to
select an alternate font encoding, such as <small class="sc">T1</small>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cij-_0028ij_0029'><span><code class="code">\ij</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cij-_0028ij_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\IJ</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cIJ-_0028IJ_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-ij-letter_002c-Dutch"></a>
<p>ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cl-_0028l_0029'><span><code class="code">\l</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cl-_0028l_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\L</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cL-_0028L_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-polish-l"></a>
<p>&#322; and &#321;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cng'><span><code class="code">\ng</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cng'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\NG</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cNG"></a>
<p>Lappish letter eng, also used in phonetics.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005co-_0028o_0029'><span><code class="code">\o</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005co-_0028o_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\O</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cO-_0028O_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-oslash"></a>
<p>&oslash; and &Oslash;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005coe-_0028oe_0029'><span><code class="code">\oe</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005coe-_0028oe_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\OE</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cOE-_0028OE_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-oe-ligature"></a>
<p>&oelig; and &OElig;.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005css-_0028ss_0029'><span><code class="code">\ss</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005css-_0028ss_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\SS</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cSS-_0028SS_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-es_002dzet-German-letter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-sharp-S-letters"></a>
<p>&szlig; and SS.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-_005cth-_0028th_0029'><span><code class="code">\th</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-_005cth-_0028th_0029'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dt><code class="code">\TH</code></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cTH-_0028TH_0029"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Icelandic-thorn"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-thorn_002c-Icelandic-letter"></a>
<p>Icelandic letter thorn: &thorn; and &THORN;. Not available with <small class="sc">OT1</small>
encoding, you need the <samp class="file">fontenc</samp> package to select an alternate
font encoding, such as <small class="sc">T1</small>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="inputenc-package">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005crule" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\rule</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#Additional-Latin-letters" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Additional Latin letters</a>, Up: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Special insertions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="inputenc-package-1">23.7 <code class="code">inputenc</code> package</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-inputenc"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[<var class="var">encoding-name</var>]{inputenc}
</pre></div>

<p>Declare the input file&rsquo;s text encoding to be <var class="var">encoding-name</var>. The
default, if this package is not loaded, is UTF-8.  Technically,
specifying the encoding name is optional, but in practice it is not
useful to omit it.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-encoding_002c-of-input-files"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-character-encoding"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Unicode"></a>
<p>In a computer file, the characters are stored according to a scheme
called the <em class="dfn">encoding</em>.  There are many different encodings.  The
simplest is ASCII, which supports 95 printable characters, not enough
for most of the world&rsquo;s languages. For instance, to typeset the
a-umlaut character &lsquo;<samp class="samp">&auml;</samp>&rsquo; in an ASCII-encoded LaTeX source file, the
sequence <code class="code">\&quot;a</code> is used. This would make source files for anything
but English hard to read; even for English, often a more extensive
encoding is more convenient.
</p>
<p>The modern encoding standard, in some ways a union of the others, is
UTF-8, one of the representations of Unicode. This is the default for
LaTeX since 2018. 
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">inputenc</code> package is how LaTeX knows what encoding is
used.  For instance, the following command explicitly says that the
input file is UTF-8 (note the lack of a dash).
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage[utf8]{inputenc}
</pre></div>

<p>Caution: use <code class="code">inputenc</code> only with the pdfTeX engine
(see <a class="pxref" href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>).  (The XeTeX and LuaTeX engines assume
that the input file is UTF-8 encoded.)  If you invoke LaTeX with
either the <code class="command">xelatex</code> command or the <code class="command">lualatex</code>
command, and try to declare a non-UTF-8 encoding with <code class="code">inputenc</code>,
such as <code class="code">latin1</code>, then you will get the error <code class="code">inputenc is
not designed for xetex or luatex</code>.
</p>
<p>An <code class="code">inputenc</code> package error such as <code class="code">Invalid UTF-8 byte &quot;96</code>
means that some of the material in the input file does not follow the
encoding scheme.  Often these errors come from copying material from a
document that uses a different encoding than the input file; this one
is a left single quote from a web page using <code class="code">latin1</code> inside a
LaTeX input file that uses UTF-8.  The simplest solution is to
replace the non-UTF-8 character with its UTF-8 equivalent, or use a
LaTeX equivalent command or character.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cinputencoding"></a>
<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cinputencoding"></a><p>In some documents, such as a collection of journal articles from a
variety of authors, changing the encoding in mid-document may be
necessary.  Use the command
<code class="code">\inputencoding{<var class="var">encoding-name</var>}</code>.  The most common values
for <var class="var">encoding-name</var> are: <code class="code">ascii</code>, <code class="code">latin1</code>,
<code class="code">latin2</code>, <code class="code">latin3</code>, <code class="code">latin4</code>, <code class="code">latin5</code>,
<code class="code">latin9</code>, <code class="code">latin10</code>, and&nbsp;<code class="code">utf8</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005crule">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005ctoday" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\today</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#inputenc-package" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">inputenc</code> package</a>, Up: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Special insertions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005crule-1">23.8 <code class="code">\rule</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005crule"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\rule{<var class="var">width</var>}{<var class="var">thickness</var>}
\rule[<var class="var">raise</var>]{<var class="var">width</var>}{<var class="var">thickness</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a <em class="dfn">rule</em>, a filled-in rectangle.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Halmos-symbol"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tombstone"></a>
<p>This example produces a rectangular blob, sometimes called a Halmos symbol,
or just &ldquo;qed&rdquo;, often used to mark the end of a proof:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\qedsymbol}{\rule{0.4em}{2ex}}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-amsthm-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-amsthm-package-1"></a>

<p>The <code class="code">amsthm</code> package includes this command, with a somewhat
different-looking symbol.
</p>
<p>The mandatory arguments give the horizontal <var class="var">width</var> and vertical
<var class="var">thickness</var> of the rectangle.  They are rigid lengths
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Lengths">Lengths</a>).  The optional argument <var class="var">raise</var> is also a rigid
length, and tells LaTeX how much to raise the rule above the
baseline, or lower it if the length is negative.
</p>
<p>This produces a line, a rectangle that is wide but not tall.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\noindent\rule{\textwidth}{0.4pt}
</pre></div>

<p>The line is the width of the page and 0.4&nbsp;points tall.  This line
thickness is common in LaTeX.
</p>
<p>A rule that has zero width, or zero thickness, will not show up in the
output, but can cause LaTeX to change the output around it.
See <a class="xref" href="#g_t_005cstrut"><code class="code">\strut</code></a>, for examples.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005ctoday">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005crule" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\rule</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="u" rel="up">Special insertions</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005ctoday-1">23.9 <code class="code">\today</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctoday"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-date_002c-today_0027s"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-today_0027s-date"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\today
</pre></div>

<p>Produce today&rsquo;s date in the format &lsquo;<samp class="samp"><var class="var">month</var> <var class="var">dd</var>,
<var class="var">yyyy</var></samp>&rsquo;.  An example of a date in that format is &lsquo;<samp class="samp">July 4,
1976</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-babel-3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-babel-package-3"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-polyglossia-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-polyglossia-package-1"></a>

<p>Multilingual packages such as <code class="code">babel</code> or <code class="code">polyglossia</code>, or
classes such as <samp class="file">lettre</samp>, will localize <code class="code">\today</code>. For example,
the following will output &lsquo;<samp class="samp">4 juillet 1976</samp>&rsquo;:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\year=1976 \month=7 \day=4
\documentclass{minimal}
\usepackage[french]{babel}
\begin{document}
\today
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p><code class="code">\today</code> uses the counters <code class="code">\day</code>, <code class="code">\month</code>, and
<code class="code">\year</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear"><code class="code">\day</code> &amp; <code class="code">\month</code> &amp; <code class="code">\year</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-datetime"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-datetime-package"></a>

<p>A number of package on CTAN work with dates.  One is <code class="code">datetime</code> package
which can produce a wide variety of date formats, including ISO standards.
</p>
<p>The date is not updated as the LaTeX process runs, so in principle the
date could be incorrect by the time the program finishes.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Splitting-the-input">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Front_002fback-matter" accesskey="n" rel="next">Front/back matter</a>, Previous: <a href="#Special-insertions" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Special insertions</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Splitting-the-input-1">24 Splitting the input</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-splitting-the-input-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-input-file"></a>

<p>LaTeX lets you split a large document into several smaller ones.
This can simplify editing or allow multiple authors to work on the
document.  It can also speed processing.
</p>
<p>Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is always one
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-root-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-file_002c-root"></a>
<em class="dfn">root file</em>, on which LaTeX compilation starts.  This shows such
a file with five included files.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{  % comment out lines below to omit compiling
  pref,
  chap1,
  chap2,
  append,
  bib
  }
\begin{document}
\frontmatter
\include{pref} 
\mainmatter
\include{chap1} 
\include{chap2}
\appendix
\include{append}
\backmatter
\include{bib} 
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>This will bring in material from <samp class="file">pref.tex</samp>, <samp class="file">chap1.tex</samp>,
<samp class="file">chap2.tex</samp>, <samp class="file">append.tex</samp>, and <samp class="file">bib.tex</samp>.  If you compile
this file, and then comment out all of the lines inside
<code class="code">\includeonly{...}</code> except for <code class="code">chap1</code>, and compile again,
then LaTeX will only process the material in the first chapter.
Thus, your output will appear more quickly and be shorter to print.
However, the advantage of the <code class="code">\includeonly</code> command is that
LaTeX will retain the page numbers and all of the cross reference
information from the other parts of the document so these will appear in
your output correctly.
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Larger-book-template">Larger <code class="code">book</code> template</a>, for another example of <code class="code">\includeonly</code>.
</p>



<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cendinput" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\endinput</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\include</code> &amp; <code class="code">\includeonly</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cinput" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\input</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cendinput">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\include</code> &amp; <code class="code">\includeonly</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Splitting-the-input" accesskey="u" rel="up">Splitting the input</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cendinput-1">24.1 <code class="code">\endinput</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cendinput"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\endinput
</pre></div>

<p>When you <code class="code">\include{filename}</code>, inside <samp class="file">filename.tex</samp> the
material after <code class="code">\endinput</code> will not be included.  This command is
optional; if <samp class="file">filename.tex</samp> has no <code class="code">\endinput</code> then LaTeX
will read all of the file.
</p>
<p>For example, suppose that a document&rsquo;s root file has
<code class="code">\input{chap1}</code> and this is <samp class="file">chap1.tex</samp>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\chapter{One}
This material will appear in the document. 
\endinput
This will not appear.
</pre></div>

<p>This can be useful for putting documentation or comments at the end of a
file, or for avoiding junk characters that can be added if the file is
transmitted in the body of an email.  It is also useful for debugging:
one strategy to localize errors is to put <code class="code">\endinput</code> halfway
through the included file and see if the error disappears.  Now, knowing
which half contains the error, moving <code class="code">\endinput</code> to halfway
through that area further narrows down the location. This process
rapidly finds the offending line.
</p>
<p>After reading <code class="code">\endinput</code>, LaTeX continues to read to the end of
the line, so something can follow this command and be read nonetheless.
This allows you, for instance, to close an <code class="code">\if...</code> with a
<code class="code">\fi</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cinput" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\input</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cendinput" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\endinput</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Splitting-the-input" accesskey="u" rel="up">Splitting the input</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly-1">24.2 <code class="code">\include</code> &amp; <code class="code">\includeonly</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cinclude"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cincludeonly"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cinclude"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cincludeonly"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\includeonly{  % in document preamble
  ...
  <var class="var">filename</var>,
  ...
  }
  ...
\include{<var class="var">filename</var>}  % in document body 
</pre></div>

<p>Bring material from the external file <samp class="file"><var class="var">filename</var>.tex</samp> into a
LaTeX document.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\include</code> command does three things: it executes
<code class="code">\clearpage</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage"><code class="code">\clearpage</code> &amp; <code class="code">\cleardoublepage</code></a>), then it
inputs the material from <samp class="file"><var class="var">filename</var>.tex</samp> into the document,
and then it does another <code class="code">\clearpage</code>.  This command can only
appear in the document body. 
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\includeonly</code> command controls which files will be read by
LaTeX under subsequent <code class="code">\include</code> commands.  Its list of
filenames is comma-separated. It must appear in the preamble or even
earlier, e.g., the command line; it can&rsquo;t appear in the document body.
</p>
<p>This example root document, <samp class="file">constitution.tex</samp>, brings in
three files, <samp class="file">preamble.tex</samp>, <samp class="file">articles.tex</samp>, and
<samp class="file">amendments.tex</samp>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{
  preamble,
  articles,
  amendments
  }
\begin{document}
\include{preamble}
\include{articles}
\include{amendments}
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>The file <samp class="file">preamble.tex</samp> contains no special code; you have just
excerpted the chapter from <samp class="file">consitution.tex</samp> and put it in a
separate file just for editing convenience.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\chapter{Preamble}
We the People of the United States,
in Order to form a more perfect Union, ...
</pre></div>

<p>Running LaTeX on <samp class="file">constitution.tex</samp> makes the material from the
three files appear in the document but also generates the auxiliary
files <samp class="file">preamble.aux</samp>, <samp class="file">articles.aux</samp>, and
<samp class="file">amendments.aux</samp>. These contain information such as page numbers
and cross-references (see <a class="pxref" href="#Cross-references">Cross references</a>).  If you now comment out
<code class="code">\includeonly</code>&rsquo;s lines with <code class="code">preamble</code> and <code class="code">amendments</code>
and run LaTeX again then the resulting document shows only the
material from <samp class="file">articles.tex</samp>, not the material from
<samp class="file">preamble.tex</samp> or <samp class="file">amendments.tex</samp>.  Nonetheless, all of the
auxiliary information from the omitted files is still there, including
the starting page number of the chapter.
</p>
<p>If the document preamble does not have <code class="code">\includeonly</code> then
LaTeX will include all the files you call for with <code class="code">\include</code>
commands.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\include</code> command makes a new page.  To avoid that, see
<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cinput"><code class="code">\input</code></a> (which, however, does not retain the auxiliary
information).
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Larger-book-template">Larger <code class="code">book</code> template</a>, for another example using <code class="code">\include</code>
and <code class="code">\includeonly</code>.  That example also uses <code class="code">\input</code> for some
material that will not necessarily start on a new page.
</p>
<p>File names can involve paths.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{
  chapters/chap1,
  }
\begin{document}
\include{chapters/chap1}
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>To make your document portable across distributions and platforms you
should avoid spaces in the file names. The tradition is to instead use
dashes or underscores.  Nevertheless, for the name &lsquo;<samp class="samp">amo amas amat</samp>&rsquo;,
this works under TeX Live on GNU/Linux:
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cspace"></a>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{
  &quot;amo\space amas\space amat&quot;
  }
\begin{document}
\include{&quot;amo\space amas\space amat&quot;}
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>and this works under MiKTeX on Windows:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{book}
\includeonly{
  {&quot;amo amas amat&quot;}
  }
\begin{document}
\include{{&quot;amo amas amat&quot;}}
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-nested-_005cinclude_002c-not-allowed"></a>
<p>You cannot use <code class="code">\include</code> inside a file that is being included or
you get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: \include cannot be nested.</samp>&rsquo;  The
<code class="code">\include</code> command cannot appear in the document preamble; you will
get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Missing \begin{document}</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>If a file that you <code class="code">\include</code> does not exist, for instance if you
<code class="code">\include{athiesm}</code> but you meant <code class="code">\include{atheism}</code>,
then LaTeX does not give you an error but will warn you &lsquo;<samp class="samp">No file
athiesm.tex.</samp>&rsquo;  (It will also create <samp class="file">athiesm.aux</samp>.)
</p>
<p>If you <code class="code">\include</code> the root file in itself then you first get
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">LaTeX Error: Can be used only in preamble.</samp>&rsquo;  Later runs get
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">TeX capacity exceeded, sorry [text input levels=15]</samp>&rsquo;.  To fix
this, you must remove the inclusion <code class="code">\include{<var class="var">root</var>}</code> but
also delete the file <samp class="file"><var class="var">root</var>.aux</samp> and rerun LaTeX.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cinput">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\include</code> &amp; <code class="code">\includeonly</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Splitting-the-input" accesskey="u" rel="up">Splitting the input</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cinput-1">24.3 <code class="code">\input</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cinput"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\input{<var class="var">filename</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>LaTeX processes the file as if its contents were inserted in the
current file.  For a more sophisticated inclusion mechanism see
<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly"><code class="code">\include</code> &amp; <code class="code">\includeonly</code></a>.
</p>
<p>If <var class="var">filename</var> does not end in &lsquo;<samp class="samp">.tex</samp>&rsquo; then LaTeX first tries
the filename with that extension; this is the usual case.  If
<var class="var">filename</var> ends with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">.tex</samp>&rsquo; then LaTeX looks for the
filename as it is.
</p>
<p>For example, this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\input{macros}
</pre></div>

<p>will cause LaTeX to first look for <samp class="file">macros.tex</samp>. If it finds
that file then it processes its contents as thought they had been
copy-pasted in.  If there is no file of the name <samp class="file">macros.tex</samp> then
LaTeX tries the name <samp class="file">macros</samp>, without an extension. (This may
vary by distribution.)
</p>
<p>To make your document portable across distributions and platforms you
should avoid spaces in the file names. The tradition is to instead use
dashes or underscores.  Nevertheless, for the name &lsquo;<samp class="samp">amo amas amat</samp>&rsquo;,
this works under TeX Live on GNU/Linux:
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cspace-1"></a>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\input{&quot;amo\space amas\space amat&quot;}
</pre></div>

<p>and this works under MiKTeX on Windows:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\input{{&quot;amo amas amat&quot;}}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Front_002fback-matter">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="n" rel="next">Letters</a>, Previous: <a href="#Splitting-the-input" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Splitting the input</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Front_002fback-matter-1">25 Front/back matter</h2>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e" accesskey="1">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a></li>
<li><a href="#Indexes" accesskey="2">Indexes</a></li>
<li><a href="#Glossaries" accesskey="3">Glossaries</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Table-of-contents-etc_002e">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="n" rel="next">Indexes</a>, Up: <a href="#Front_002fback-matter" accesskey="u" rel="up">Front/back matter</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Table-of-contents_002c-list-of-figures_002c-list-of-tables">25.1 Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-table-of-contents_002c-creating"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctableofcontents"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002etoc-file-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clistoffigures"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clistoftables"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002elof-file-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002elot-file-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\tableofcontents
\listoffigures
\listoftables
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a table of contents, or list of figures, or list of tables.  Put
the command in the input file where you want the table or list to
go. You do not type the entries; for example, typically the table of
contents entries are automatically generated from the sectioning
commands <code class="code">\chapter</code>, etc.
</p>
<p>This example illustrates the first command, <code class="code">\tableofcontents</code>.
LaTeX will produce a table of contents on the book&rsquo;s first page.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{book}
% \setcounter{tocdepth}{1}
\begin{document}
\tableofcontents\newpage
  ...
\chapter{...}
  ...
\section{...}
  ...
\subsection{...}
  ...
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>Uncommenting the second line would cause that table to contain chapter
and section listings but not subsection listings, because the
<code class="code">\section</code> command has level&nbsp;1.  See <a class="xref" href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a>, for level
numbers of the sectioning units.  For more on the <code class="code">tocdepth</code>
see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning_002ftocdepth">Sectioning/tocdepth</a>.
</p>
<p>Another example of the use of <code class="code">\tableofcontents</code> is in <a class="ref" href="#Larger-book-template">Larger <code class="code">book</code> template</a>.
</p>
<p>If you want a page break after the table of contents, write a
<code class="code">\newpage</code> command after the <code class="code">\tableofcontents</code> command, as
above.
</p>
<p>To make the table of contents, LaTeX stores the information in an
auxiliary file named <samp class="file"><var class="var">root-file</var>.toc</samp> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a>).  For example, this LaTeX file <samp class="file">test.tex</samp>
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{article}
\begin{document}
\tableofcontents\newpage
\section{First section}
\subsection{First subsection}
  ...
</pre></div>

<p>writes these lines to <samp class="file">test.toc</samp>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\contentsline {section}{\numberline {1}First section}{2}
\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.1}First subsection}{2}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccontentsline"></a>
<p>Each line contains a single command, <code class="code">\contentsline</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ccontentsline"><code class="code">\contentsline</code></a>).  The first argument, the <code class="code">section</code> or
<code class="code">subsection</code>, is the sectioning unit.  The second argument has two
components.  The hook <code class="code">\numberline</code> determines how the sectioning
number, <code class="code">1</code> or <code class="code">1.1</code>, appears in the table of contents
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnumberline"><code class="code">\numberline</code></a>).  The remainder of the second argument of
<code class="code">\contentsline</code>, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">First section</samp>&rsquo; or &lsquo;<samp class="samp">First subsection</samp>&rsquo;,
is the sectioning title text.  Finally, the third argument, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">2</samp>&rsquo;, is
the page number on which this sectioning unit starts.
</p>
<p>To typeset these lines, the document class provides
<code class="code">\l@<var class="var">section-unit</var></code> commands such as
<code class="code">\l@section{<var class="var">text</var>}{<var class="var">pagenumber</var>}</code> and
<code class="code">\l@subsection{<var class="var">text</var>}{<var class="var">pagenumber</var>}</code>.  These commands
often use the <code class="code">\@dottedtocline</code> command
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_0040dottedtocline"><code class="code">\@dottedtocline</code></a>).
</p>
<p>A consequence of LaTeX&rsquo;s strategy of using auxiliary files is that to
get the correct information in the document you must run LaTeX twice,
once to store the information and the second time to retrieve it.  In
the ordinary course of writing a document authors run LaTeX a number
of times, but you may notice that the first time that you compile a new
document, the table of contents page will be empty except for its
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Contents</samp>&rsquo; header.  Just run LaTeX again.
</p>
<p>The commands <code class="code">\listoffigures</code> and <code class="code">\listoftables</code> produce a
list of figures and a list of tables.  Their information is stored in
files with extension <samp class="file">.lof</samp> and <samp class="file">.lot</samp>. They work the same way
as <code class="code">\tableofcontents</code> but the latter is more common, so we use it
for most examples.
</p>
<p>You can manually add material to the table of contents, the list of
figures, and the list of tables.  For instance, add a line about a
section to the table of contents with
<code class="code">\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{<var class="var">text</var>}</code>.
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline"><code class="code">\addcontentsline</code></a>).  Add arbitrary material, that is, non-line
material, with <code class="code">\addtocontents</code>, as with the command
<code class="code">\addtocontents{lof}{\protect\vspace{2ex}}</code>, which adds
vertical space to the list of figures (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005caddtocontents"><code class="code">\addtocontents</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Lines in the table of contents, the list of figures, and the list of
tables, have four parts.  First is an indent.  Next is a box into which
sectioning numbers are placed, and then the third box holds the title
text, such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">First section</samp>&rsquo;.  Finally there is a box up against
the right margin, inside of which LaTeX puts the page number box.
For the indent and the width of the number box,
see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005c_0040dottedtocline"><code class="code">\@dottedtocline</code></a>.  The right margin box has width
<code class="code">\@tocrmarg</code> and the page number is flush right in that space,
inside a box of width <code class="code">\@pnumwidth</code>.  By default
<code class="code">\@tocrmarg</code> is <code class="code">2.55em</code> and <code class="code">\@pnumwidth</code> is
<code class="code">1.55em</code>.  Change these as with
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\@tocrmarg}{3.5em}</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-tocloft"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tocloft-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-tocbibbind"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tocbibbind-package"></a>

<p>CTAN has many packages for the table of contents and lists of figures
and tables (see <a class="pxref" href="#CTAN">CTAN: The Comprehensive TeX Archive Network</a>).  The package <code class="code">tocloft</code> is convenient for
adjusting some aspects of the default such as spacing.  And,
<code class="code">tocbibbind</code> will automatically add the bibliography, index,
etc. to the table of contents.
</p>
<p>To change the header for the table of contents page, do something like
these commands before you call <code class="code">\tableofcontents</code>, etc.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\renewcommand{\contentsname}{Table of Contents}
\renewcommand{\listfigurename}{Plots}
\renewcommand{\listtablename}{Specifications}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-babel-4"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-babel-package-4"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-polyglossia-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-polyglossia-package-2"></a>

<p>Internationalization packages such as <code class="code">babel</code> or <code class="code">polyglossia</code>
will change these headers depending on the chosen base language.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005c_0040dottedtocline" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\@dottedtocline</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\addcontentsline</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005caddtocontents" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\addtocontents</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\contentsline</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnofiles" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\nofiles</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnumberline" accesskey="6"><code class="code">\numberline</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005c_0040dottedtocline">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\addcontentsline</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e" accesskey="u" rel="up">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005c_0040dottedtocline-1">25.1.1 <code class="code">\@dottedtocline</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0040dottedtocline"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-table-of-contents-entry_002c-create-dotted-line"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\@dottedtocline{<var class="var">section-level-num</var>}{<var class="var">indent</var>}{<var class="var">numwidth</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}{<var class="var">pagenumber</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Used internally by LaTeX to format an entry line in the table of
contents, list of figures, or list of tables.  Authors do not directly
enter <code class="code">\@dottedtocline</code> commands.
</p>
<p>This command is typically used by <code class="code">\l@section</code>, <code class="code">\l@subsection</code>,
etc., to format the content lines.  For example, the <samp class="file">article.cls</samp>
file contains these definitions:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand*\l@section{\@dottedtocline{1}{1.5em}{2.3em}}
\newcommand*\l@subsection{\@dottedtocline{2}{3.8em}{3.2em}}
\newcommand*\l@subsubsection{\@dottedtocline{3}{7.0em}{4.1em}}
</pre></div>

<p>In this example, <code class="code">\@dottedcline</code> appears to have been given only
three arguments.  But tracing the internal code shows that it picks up
the final <var class="var">text</var> and <var class="var">pagenumber</var> arguments in the synopsis
from a call to <code class="code">\contentsline</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ccontentsline"><code class="code">\contentsline</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-leaders_002c-dots-in-table-of-contents"></a>
<p>Between the box for the title text of a section and the right margin
box, these <code class="code">\@dottedtocline</code> commands insert <em class="dfn">leaders</em>, that
is, evenly-spaced dots.  The dot-to-dot space is given by the command
<code class="code">\@dotsep</code>.  By default it is 4.5 (it is in math units, aka.
<code class="code">mu</code>, which are <code class="code">1/18</code>&nbsp;em.  Change it using
<code class="code">\renewcommand</code>, as in <code class="code">\renewcommand{\@dotsep}{3.5}</code>.
</p>
<p>In the standard <samp class="file">book</samp> class, LaTeX does not use dotted leaders
for the Part and Chapter table entries, and in the standard
<samp class="file">article</samp> class it does not use dotted leaders for Section entries.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005caddcontentsline">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005caddtocontents" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\addtocontents</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005c_0040dottedtocline" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\@dottedtocline</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e" accesskey="u" rel="up">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005caddcontentsline-1">25.1.2 <code class="code">\addcontentsline</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005caddcontentsline"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-table-of-contents-entry_002c-manually-adding"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\addcontentsline{<var class="var">ext</var>}{<var class="var">unit</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccontentsline-1"></a>
<p>Add an entry to the auxiliary file with extension <var class="var">ext</var>.
</p>
<p>The following will result in an &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Appendices</samp>&rsquo; line in the table of
contents.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{\protect\textbf{Appendices}}
</pre></div>

<p>It will appear at the same indentation level as the sections, will be in
boldface, and will be assigned the page number associated with the point
where the command appears in the input file.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\addcontentsline</code> command writes information to the file
<samp class="file"><var class="var">root-name</var>.<var class="var">ext</var></samp>, where <var class="var">root-name</var> is the file name
of the root file (see <a class="pxref" href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a>).  It writes that
information as the text of the command
<code class="code">\contentsline{<var class="var">unit</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}{<var class="var">num</var>}</code>, where
<code class="code"><var class="var">num</var></code> is the current value of counter <code class="code"><var class="var">unit</var></code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ccontentsline"><code class="code">\contentsline</code></a>).  The most common case is the table of contents
and there <var class="var">num</var> is the page number of the first page of <var class="var">unit</var>.
</p>
<p>This command is invoked by the sectioning commands <code class="code">\chapter</code>,
etc. (see <a class="pxref" href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a>), and also by <code class="code">\caption</code> inside a float
environment (see <a class="pxref" href="#Floats">Floats</a>).  But it is also directly used by authors.
For example, an author writing a book whose style is to have an
unnumbered preface may use the starred <code class="code">\chapter*</code>.  But that
command leaves out table of contents information, which can be entered
manually, as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\chapter*{Preface}
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{\protect\numberline{}Preface}
</pre></div>

<p>In the <samp class="file"><var class="var">root-name</var>.toc</samp> file LaTeX will put the line
<code class="code">\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {}Preface}{3}</code>; note
that the page number &lsquo;<samp class="samp">3</samp>&rsquo; is automatically generated by the system,
not entered manually.
</p>
<p>All of the arguments for <code class="code">\addcontentsline</code> are required.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><var class="var">ext</var></dt>
<dd><p>Typically one of the strings <code class="code">toc</code> for the table of contents,
<code class="code">lof</code> for the list of figures, or <code class="code">lot</code> for the list of
tables. The filename extension of the information file.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">unit</var></dt>
<dd><p>A string that depends on the value of the <var class="var">ext</var> argument, typically
one of:
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><code class="code">toc</code></dt>
<dd><p>For the table of contents, this is the name of a sectional unit:
<code class="code">part</code>, <code class="code">chapter</code>, <code class="code">section</code>, <code class="code">subsection</code>, etc.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">lof</code></dt>
<dd><p>For the list of figures: <code class="code">figure</code>.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">lot</code></dt>
<dd><p>For the list of tables: <code class="code">table</code>.
</p></dd>
</dl>

</dd>
<dt><var class="var">text</var></dt>
<dd><p>The text of the entry.  You must <code class="code">\protect</code> any fragile commands
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>) used in it.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>The <code class="code">\addcontentsline</code> command has an interaction with
<code class="code">\include</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly"><code class="code">\include</code> &amp; <code class="code">\includeonly</code></a>). If you use them at
the same level, as with
<code class="code">\addcontentsline{...}{...}{...}\include{...}</code> then lines
in the table of contents can come out in the wrong order.  The solution
is to move <code class="code">\addcontentsline</code> into the file being included.
</p>
<p>If you use a <var class="var">unit</var> that LaTeX does not recognize, as with the
typo here
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\addcontentsline{toc}{setcion}{\protect\textbf{Appendices}}
</pre></div>

<p>then you don&rsquo;t get an error but the formatting in the table of contents
will not make sense.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005caddtocontents">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\contentsline</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\addcontentsline</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e" accesskey="u" rel="up">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005caddtocontents-1">25.1.3 <code class="code">\addtocontents</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005caddtocontents_007bext_007d_007btext_007d"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\addtocontents{<var class="var">ext</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Add <var class="var">text</var>, which may be text or formatting commands, directly to
the auxiliary file with extension <var class="var">ext</var>.  This is most commonly used
for the table of contents so that is the discussion here, but it also
applies to the list of figures and list of tables.
</p>
<p>This will put some vertical space in the table of contents after the
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Contents</samp>&rsquo; header.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\tableofcontents\newpage
\addtocontents{toc}{\protect\vspace*{3ex}}
</pre></div>

<p>This puts the word &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Page</samp>&rsquo;, in boldface, above the column of page
numbers and after the header.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\tableofcontents
\addtocontents{toc}{~\hfill\textbf{Page}\par}
\chapter{...}
</pre></div>

<p>This adds a line announcing work by a new author.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\addtocontents{toc}{%
  \protect\vspace{2ex}
  \textbf{Chapters by N. Other Author}\par}
</pre></div>

<p>The difference between <code class="code">\addtocontents</code> and <code class="code">\addcontentsline</code>
is that the latter is strictly for lines, such as with a line giving the
page number for the start of a new subset of the chapters.  As the above
examples show, <code class="code">\addtocontents</code> is for material such as spacing.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\addtocontents</code> command has two arguments.  Both are
required.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dt><var class="var">ext</var></dt>
<dd><p>Typically one of: <samp class="file">toc</samp> for the table of contents, <samp class="file">lof</samp> for
the list of figures, or <samp class="file">lot</samp> for the list of tables.  The
extension of the file holding the information.
</p>
</dd>
<dt><var class="var">text</var></dt>
<dd><p>The text, and possibly commands, to be written.
</p></dd>
</dl>

<p>The sectioning commands such as <code class="code">\chapter</code> use the
<code class="code">\addcontentsline</code> command to store information.  This command
creates lines in the <samp class="file">.toc</samp> auxiliary file containing the
<code class="code">\contentsline</code> command (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline"><code class="code">\addcontentsline</code></a>).  In contrast,
the command <code class="code">\addtocontents</code> puts material directly in that file.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\addtocontents</code> command has an interaction with
<code class="code">\include</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly"><code class="code">\include</code> &amp; <code class="code">\includeonly</code></a>). If you use them at
the same level, as with
<code class="code">\addtocontents{...}{...}\include{...}</code> then lines in the
table of contents can come out in the wrong order.  The solution is to
move <code class="code">\addtocontents</code> into the file being included.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005ccontentsline">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnofiles" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\nofiles</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005caddtocontents" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\addtocontents</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e" accesskey="u" rel="up">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005ccontentsline-1">25.1.4 <code class="code">\contentsline</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-table-of-contents"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccontentsline-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctableofcontents-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002etoc-file-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clistoffigures-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clistoftables-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002elof-file-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002elot-file-2"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cl_0040chapter"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cl_0040section"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cl_0040subsection"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\contentsline{<var class="var">unit</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}{<var class="var">pagenumber</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Used internally by LaTeX to typeset an entry of the table of
contents, list of figures, or list of tables (see <a class="pxref" href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>). Authors do not directly enter <code class="code">\contentsline</code> commands.
</p>
<p>Usually adding material to these lists is done automatically by the
commands <code class="code">\chapter</code>, <code class="code">\section</code>, etc. for the table of
contents, or by the <code class="code">\caption</code> command inside of a <code class="code">\figure</code>
or <code class="code">\table</code> environment (see <a class="pxref" href="#figure"><code class="code">figure</code></a> and see <a class="pxref" href="#table"><code class="code">table</code></a>).  Thus,
where the root file is <samp class="file">thesis.tex</samp>, and contains the declaration
<code class="code">\tableofcontents</code>, the command <code class="code">\chapter{Chapter One}</code>
produces something like this in the file <samp class="file">thesis.toc</samp>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\contentsline {chapter}{\numberline {1}Chapter One}{3}
</pre></div>

<p>If the file contains the declaration <code class="code">\listoffigures</code> then a figure
environment involving <code class="code">\caption{Test}</code> will produce
something like this in <samp class="file">thesis.lof</samp>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\contentsline {figure}{\numberline {1.1}{\ignorespaces Test}}{6}
</pre></div>

<p>To manually add material, use
<code class="code">\addcontentsline{<var class="var">filetype</var>}{<var class="var">unit</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}</code>,
where <var class="var">filetype</var> is <code class="code">toc</code>, <code class="code">lof</code>, or <code class="code">lot</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline"><code class="code">\addcontentsline</code></a>).  
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-tocloft-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-tocloft-package-1"></a>

<p>For manipulating how the <code class="code">\contentline</code> material is typeset, see
the <code class="code">tocloft</code> package.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-hyperref-3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hyperref-package-3"></a>

<p>Note that the <code class="code">hyperref</code> package changes the definition of
<code class="code">\contentsline</code> (and <code class="code">\addcontentsline</code>) to add more
arguments, to make hyperlinks.  This is the source of the error
<code class="code">Argument of \contentsline has an extra }</code> when one adds/remove
the use of package <code class="code">hyperref</code> and a compilation was already run.
Fix this error by deleting the <samp class="file">.toc</samp> or <samp class="file">.lof</samp> or <samp class="file">.lot</samp>
file, and running LaTeX again.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnofiles">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cnumberline" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\numberline</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\contentsline</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e" accesskey="u" rel="up">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cnofiles-1">25.1.5 <code class="code">\nofiles</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnofiles"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\nofiles
</pre></div>

<p>Prevent LaTeX from writing any auxiliary files.  The only output will
be the <samp class="file">.log</samp> and <samp class="file">.pdf</samp> (or <samp class="file">.dvi</samp>) files.  This command
must go in the preamble.
</p>
<p>Because of the <code class="code">\nofiles</code> command this example will not produce a
<samp class="file">.toc</samp> file.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{book}
\nofiles
\begin{document}
\tableofcontents\newpage
\chapter{...}
  ...
</pre></div>

<p>LaTeX will not erase any existing auxiliary files, so if you insert
the <code class="code">\nofiles</code> command after you have run the file and gotten
a <samp class="file">.toc</samp> then the table of contents page will continue to show
the old information.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnumberline">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnofiles" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\nofiles</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e" accesskey="u" rel="up">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cnumberline-1">25.1.6 <code class="code">\numberline</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnumberline"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\numberline{<var class="var">number</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Typeset its argument flush left in a box.  This is used in a
<code class="code">\contentsline</code> command to typeset the section number
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ccontentsline"><code class="code">\contentsline</code></a>).
</p>
<p>For example, this line in a <samp class="file">.toc</samp> file causes the <code class="code">1.1</code> to be
typeset flush left.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {1.1}Motivation}{2}
</pre></div>

<p>By default, LaTeX typesets the section numbers in a box of length
<code class="code">\@tempdima</code>.  That length is set by the commands
<code class="code">\l@section</code>, <code class="code">\l@subsection</code>, etc.  Put section numbers
inside a natural-width box with
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\numberline}[1]{#1~}</code> before
<code class="code">\tableofcontents</code>.
</p>
<p>This command is fragile so you may need to precede it with
<code class="code">\protect</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).  An example is the use of
<code class="code">\protect</code> in this command,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"><code class="code">\addcontentsline{toc}{section}{\protect\numberline{}Summary}</code>
</pre></div>

<p>to get the <code class="code">\numberline</code> into the <code class="code">\contentsline</code>
command in the <samp class="file">.toc</samp> file: <code class="code">\contentsline
{section}{\numberline {}Summary}{6}</code> (the page number &lsquo;<samp class="samp">6</samp>&rsquo;
is automatically added by LaTeX; see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline"><code class="code">\addcontentsline</code></a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Indexes">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Glossaries" accesskey="n" rel="next">Glossaries</a>, Previous: <a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Table of contents, list of figures, list of tables</a>, Up: <a href="#Front_002fback-matter" accesskey="u" rel="up">Front/back matter</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Indexes-1">25.2 Indexes</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-indexes"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmakeindex"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cindex"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002eidx-file"></a>

<p>If you tell LaTeX what terms you want to appear in an index then it
can produce that index, alphabetized and with the page numbers
automatically maintained.  This illustrates the basics.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{article}
\usepackage{makeidx}  % Provide indexing commands
  \makeindex
% \usepackage{showidx}  % Show marginal notes of index entries
  ...
\begin{document}
  ...
Wilson's Theorem\index{Wilson's Theorem}
says that a number $n&gt;1$ is prime if and only if the factorial
of $n-1$ is congruent to $-1$
modulo~$n$.\index{congruence!and Wilson's Theorem}
  ...
\printindex
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>As that shows, declare index entries with the <code class="code">\index</code> command
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cindex"><code class="code">\index</code></a>).  When you run LaTeX, the <code class="code">\index</code> writes its
information, such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Wilson's Theorem</samp>&rsquo; and the page number, to an
auxiliary file whose name ends in <samp class="file">.idx</samp>.  Next, to alphabetize and
do other manipulations, run an external command, typically
<code class="command">makeindex</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#makeindex"><code class="command">makeindex</code></a>), which writes a file whose name
ends in <samp class="file">.ind</samp>.  Finally, <code class="code">\printindex</code> brings this
manipulated information into the output (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprintindex"><code class="command">\printindex</code></a>).
</p>
<p>Thus, if the above example is in the file <samp class="file">numth.tex</samp> then running
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">pdflatex numth</samp>&rsquo; will save index entry and page number information
to <samp class="file">numth.idx</samp>.  Then running &lsquo;<samp class="samp">makeindex numth</samp>&rsquo; will
alphabetize and save the results to <samp class="file">numth.ind</samp>. Finally, again
running &lsquo;<samp class="samp">pdflatex numth</samp>&rsquo; will show the desired index, at the place
where the <code class="code">\printindex</code> command is in the source file.
</p>
<p>There are many options for the output.  An example is that the
exclamation point in <code class="code">\index{congruence!and Wilson's Theorem}</code>
produces a main entry of &lsquo;<samp class="samp">congruence</samp>&rsquo; with a subentry of &lsquo;<samp class="samp">and
Wilson's Theorem</samp>&rsquo;.  For more, see <a class="pxref" href="#makeindex"><code class="command">makeindex</code></a>.
</p>
<p>The <code class="code">\makeindex</code> and <code class="code">\printindex</code> commands are independent.
Leaving out the <code class="code">\makeindex</code> will stop LaTeX from saving the
index entries to the auxiliary file.  Leaving out the <code class="code">\printindex</code>
will cause LaTeX to not show the index in the document output.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-showidx"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-showidx-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-multind"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-multind-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-index_002c-multiple"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-multiple-indexes"></a>
<p>There are many packages in the area of indexing.  The <code class="code">showidx</code>
package causes each index entries to be shown in the margin on the
page where the <code class="code">\index</code> appears.  This can help in preparing the index.
The <code class="code">multind</code> package, among others, supports multiple indexes.
See also the TeX FAQ entry on this topic,
<a class="url" href="https://www.texfaq.org/FAQ-multind">https://www.texfaq.org/FAQ-multind</a>, and the CTAN topic,
<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/topic/index-multi">https://ctan.org/topic/index-multi</a>.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Produce-the-index-manually" accesskey="1">Produce the index manually</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cindex" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\index</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#makeindex" accesskey="3"><code class="command">makeindex</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cprintindex" accesskey="4"><code class="command">\printindex</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="Produce-the-index-manually">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cindex" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\index</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Indexes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="Produce-the-index-manually-1">25.2.1 Produce the index manually</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-index_002c-producing-manually"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-theindex"></a>

<p>Documents that are small and static can have a manually produced index.
This will make a separate page labeled &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Index</samp>&rsquo;, in twocolumn
format.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-environment_002c-theindex"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-theindex-environment"></a>
        
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\begin{theindex}
\item acorn squash, 1
\subitem maple baked, 2
\indexspace
\item bacon, 3
\subitem maple baked, 4
\end{theindex}
</pre></div>

<p>Note that the author must enter the page numbers, which is tedious and
which will result in wrong numbers if the document changes.  This is why
in most cases automated methods such as <code class="command">makeindex</code> are best.
See <a class="xref" href="#Indexes">Indexes</a>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005citem-4"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csubitem"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csubsubitem"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cindexspace"></a>
<p>However we cover the commands for completeness, and because the
automated methods are based on these commands.  There are three levels
of entries.  As the example shows, a main entry uses <code class="code">\item</code>,
subentries use <code class="code">\subitem</code>, and the lowest level uses
<code class="code">\subsubitem</code>.  Blank lines between entries have no effect.  The
example above includes <code class="code">\indexspace</code> to produce vertical space in
the output that some index styles use before the first entry starting
with a new letter.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cindex">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#makeindex" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="command">makeindex</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#Produce-the-index-manually" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Produce the index manually</a>, Up: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Indexes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cindex-1">25.2.2 <code class="code">\index</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-index-entry"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cindex-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\index{<var class="var">index-entry-string</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Declare an entry in the index.  This command is fragile
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).
</p>
<p>For example, as described in <a class="ref" href="#Indexes">Indexes</a>, one way to get an index from
what&rsquo;s below is to compile the document with <code class="code">pdflatex test</code>, then
process the index entries with <code class="code">makeindex test</code>, and then compile
again with <code class="code">pdflatex test</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">% file test.tex
  ...
W~Ackermann (1896--1962).\index{Ackermann}
  ...
Ackermann function\index{Ackermann!function}
  ...
rate of growth\index{Ackermann!function!growth rate}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-index-entries_002c-subentries"></a>
<p>All three index entries will get a page number, such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Ackermann,
22</samp>&rsquo;.  LaTeX will format the second as a subitem of the first, on the
line below it and indented, and the third as a subitem of the second.
Three levels deep is as far as you can nest subentries.  (If you add
<code class="code">\index{Ackermann!function!growth rate!comparison}</code> then
<code class="command">makeindex</code> says &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Scanning input file test.idx....done (4
entries accepted, 1 rejected)</samp>&rsquo; and the fourth level is silently missing
from the index.)
</p>
<p>If you enter a second <code class="code">\index</code> with the same
<var class="var">index-entry-string</var> then you will get a single index entry with two
page numbers (unless they happen to fall on the same page).  Thus,
adding <code class="code">as for Ackermann.\index{Ackermann}</code> later in the same
document as above will give an index entry like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Ackermann, 22,
151</samp>&rsquo;.  Also, you can enter the index entries in any order, so for
instance <code class="code">\index{Ackermann!function}</code> could come before
<code class="code">\index{Ackermann}</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-index_002c-page-range"></a>
<p>Get a page range in the output, like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Hilbert, 23--27</samp>&rsquo;, as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">W~Ackermann (1896--1962).\index{Ackermann}
  ...
D~Hilbert (1862--1943)\index{Ackermann!Hilbert|(}
  ...
disapproved of his marriage.\index{Ackermann!Hilbert|)}
</pre></div>

<p>If the beginning and ending of the page range are equal then the system
just gives a single page number, not a range.
</p>
<p>If you index subentries but not a main entry, as with
<code class="code">\index{Jones!program}</code> and <code class="code">\index{Jones!results}</code>, then
the output is the item &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Jones</samp>&rsquo; with no comma or page number,
followed by two subitems, like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">program, 50</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">results,
51</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-see-and-see-also-index-entries"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-index-entries_002c-_0060see_0027-and-_0060see-also_0027"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cseename"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005calsoname"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-babel-5"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-babel-package-5"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-polyglossia-3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-polyglossia-package-3"></a>


<p>Generate a index entry that says &lsquo;<samp class="samp">see</samp>&rsquo; by using a vertical bar
character: <code class="code">\index{Ackermann!function|see{P\'eter's
function}}</code>.  You can instead get &lsquo;<samp class="samp">see also</samp>&rsquo; with <code class="code">seealso</code>.
(The text &lsquo;<samp class="samp">see</samp>&rsquo; is defined by <code class="code">\seename</code>, and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">see also</samp>&rsquo;
by <code class="code">\alsoname</code>.  You can redefine these either by using an
internationalization package such as <code class="code">babel</code> or <code class="code">polyglossia</code>,
or directly as with <code class="code">\renewcommand{\alsoname}{Also see}</code>.)
</p>
<p>The &lsquo;<samp class="samp">see</samp>&rsquo; feature is part of a more general functionality.  After
the vertical bar you can put the name of a one-input command, as in
<code class="code">\index{group|textit}</code> (note the missing backslash on the
<code class="code">\textit</code> command) and the system will apply that command to the
page number, here giving something like <code class="code">\textit{7}</code>.  You can
define your own one-input commands, such as
<code class="code">\newcommand{\definedpage}[1]{{\color{blue}#1}}</code> and then
<code class="code">\index{Ackermann!function|definedpage}</code> will give a blue page
number (see <a class="pxref" href="#Color">Color</a>).  Another, less practical, example is this,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand\indexownpage[1]{#1, \thepage}
  ... Epimenides.\index{self-reference|indexownpage}
</pre></div>

<p>which creates an entry citing the page number of its own index listing.
</p>
<p>The two functions just described combine, as here
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\index{Ackermann!function|(definedpage}
  ...
\index{Ackermann!function|)}
</pre></div>

<p>which outputs an index entry like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">function, 23--27</samp>&rsquo; where the page
number range is in blue.
</p>
<p>Consider an index entry such as &lsquo;<samp class="samp">&#x03B1;-ring</samp>&rsquo;.  Entering
it as <code class="code">$\alpha$-ring</code> will cause it to be alphabetized according to
the dollar sign. You can instead enter it using an at-sign, as
<code class="code">\index{alpha-ring@$\alpha$-ring}</code>.  If you specify an entry
with an at-sign separating two strings, <code class="code"><var class="var">pos</var>@<var class="var">text</var></code>,
then <var class="var">pos</var> gives the alphabetical position of the entry while
<var class="var">text</var> produces the text of the entry.  Another example is that
<code class="code">\index{Saint Michael's College@SMC}</code> produces an index entry
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">SMC</samp>&rsquo; alphabetized into a different location than its spelling
would naturally give it.
</p>
<p>To put a <code class="code">!</code>, or <code class="code">@</code>, or <code class="code">|</code>, or <code class="code">&quot;</code> character in
an index entry, escape it by preceding it with a double quote, <code class="code">&quot;</code>.
(The double quote gets deleted before alphabetization.)
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-index"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-index-package"></a>

<p>A number of packages on CTAN have additional functionality beyond that
provided by <code class="code">makeidx</code>.  One is <code class="code">index</code>, which allows for
multiple indices and contains a command
<code class="code">\index*{<var class="var">index-entry-string</var>}</code> that prints the
<var class="var">index-entry-string</var> as well as indexing it.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cindexentry"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-idx-file"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">\index</code> command writes the indexing information to the file
<samp class="file"><var class="var">root-name</var>.idx</samp> file.  Specifically, it writes text of the
command
<code class="code">\indexentry{<var class="var">index-entry-string</var>}{<var class="var">page-num</var>}</code>,
where <var class="var">page-num</var> is the value of the <code class="code">\thepage</code> counter.  On
occasion, when the <code class="code">\printindex</code> command is confused, you have to
delete this file to start with a fresh slate.
</p>
<p>If you omit the closing brace of an <code class="code">\index</code> command then you get a
message like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Runaway argument?  {Ackermann!function
!  Paragraph ended before \@wrindex was complete.
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="makeindex">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cprintindex" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="command">\printindex</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cindex" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\index</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Indexes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="makeindex-1">25.2.3 <code class="command">makeindex</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-index_002c-processing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-makeindex_002c-program"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-makeindex-program"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002eind-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002eidx-file-1"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">makeindex <var class="var">filename</var>
makeindex -s <var class="var">style-file</var> <var class="var">filename</var>
makeindex <var class="var">options</var> <var class="var">filename0</var> ...
</pre></div>

<p>Sort, and otherwise process, the index information in the auxiliary file
<var class="var">filename</var>.  This is a command line program.  It takes one or more
raw index files, <samp class="file"><var class="var">filename</var>.idx</samp> files, and produces the
actual index file, the <samp class="file"><var class="var">filename</var>.ind</samp> file that is input by
<code class="code">\printindex</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprintindex"><code class="command">\printindex</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002eisty-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-index_002c-style-file"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-makeindex_002c-style-file"></a>
<p>The first form of the command suffices for many uses.  The second allows
you to format the index by using an <em class="dfn">index style file</em>, a
<samp class="file">.isty</samp> file.  The third form is the most general; see the full
documentation on CTAN.
</p>
<p>This is a simple <samp class="file">.isty</samp> file.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">% book.isty 
%   $ makeindex -s book.isty -p odd book.idx
% creates the index as book.ind, starting on an odd page. 
preamble
&quot;\\pagestyle{empty}
\\small
\\begin{theindex}
\\thispagestyle{empty}&quot;

postamble
&quot;\n
\\end{theindex}&quot;
</pre></div>

<p>The description here covers only some of the index formatting
possibilities in <var class="var">style-file</var>. For a full list see the documentation
on CTAN.
</p>
<p>A style file consists of a list of pairs: <var class="var">specifier</var> and
<var class="var">attribute</var>.  These can appear in the file in any order.  All of the
<var class="var">attribute</var>s are strings, except where noted.  Strings are
surrounded with double quotes, <code class="code">&quot;</code>, and the maximum length of a
string is 144 characters.  The <code class="code">\n</code> is for a newline and <code class="code">\t</code>
is for a tab.  Backslashes are escaped with another backslash,
<code class="code">\\</code>.  If a line begins with a percent sign, <code class="code">%</code>, then it is a
comment.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dd><a class="anchor" id="makeindex-preamble"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-preamble'><span><code class="code">preamble</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-preamble'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Preamble of the output index file. Defines the context in which the index is
formatted.  Default: <code class="code">&quot;\\begin{theindex}\n&quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-postamble"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-postamble'><span><code class="code">postamble</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-postamble'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Postamble of the output index file.  Default: <code class="code">&quot;\n\n\\end{theindex}\n&quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-group-skip"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-group_005fskip'><span><code class="code">group_skip</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-group_005fskip'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cindexspace-1"></a>
<p>Traditionally index items are broken into groups, typically a group for
entries starting with letter &lsquo;<samp class="samp">a</samp>&rsquo;, etc.  This specifier gives what
is inserted when a new group begins.  Default: <code class="code">&quot;\n\n
\\indexspace\n&quot;</code> (<code class="code">\indexspace</code> is a command inserting a rubber
length, by default <code class="code">10pt plus5pt minus3pt</code>).
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-letheadflag"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-lethead_005fflag'><span><code class="code">lethead_flag</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-lethead_005fflag'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>An integer.  It governs what is inserted for a new group or letter.  If
it is 0 (which is the default) then other than <code class="code">group_skip</code> nothing
will be inserted before the group. If it is positive then at a new
letter the <code class="code">lethead_prefix</code> and <code class="code">lethead_suffix</code> will be
inserted, with that letter in uppercase between them.  If it is negative
then what will be inserted is the letter in lowercase.  The default
is&nbsp;0.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-lethead-prefix"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-lethead_005fprefix'><span><code class="code">lethead_prefix</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-lethead_005fprefix'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>If a new group begins with a different letter then this is the prefix
inserted before the new letter header.  Default: <code class="code">&quot;&quot;</code>
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-lethead-suffix"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-lethead_005fsuffix'><span><code class="code">lethead_suffix</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-lethead_005fsuffix'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>If a group begins with a different letter then this is the suffix
inserted after the new letter header.  Default: <code class="code">&quot;&quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-item-0"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-item_005f0'><span><code class="code">item_0</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-item_005f0'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>What is put between two level&nbsp;0 items.  Default: <code class="code">&quot;\n \\item
&quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-item-1"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-item_005f1'><span><code class="code">item_1</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-item_005f1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Put between two level&nbsp;1 items.  Default: <code class="code">&quot;\n \\subitem &quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-item-2"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-item_005f2'><span><code class="code">item_2</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-item_005f2'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>put between two level&nbsp;2 items.  Default: <code class="code">&quot;\n \\subsubitem &quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-item-01"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-item_005f01'><span><code class="code">item_01</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-item_005f01'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>What is put between a level&nbsp;0 item and a level&nbsp;1 item.
Default: <code class="code">&quot;\n \\subitem &quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-item-x1"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-item_005fx1'><span><code class="code">item_x1</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-item_005fx1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>What is put between a level&nbsp;0 item and a level&nbsp;1 item in the
case that the level&nbsp;0 item doesn&rsquo;t have any page numbers (as in
<code class="code">\index{aaa|see{bbb}}</code>).  Default: <code class="code">&quot;\n \\subitem &quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-item-12"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-item_005f12'><span><code class="code">item_12</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-item_005f12'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>What is put between a level&nbsp;1 item and a level&nbsp;2 item.
Default: <code class="code">&quot;\n \\subsubitem &quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-item-x2"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-item_005fx2'><span><code class="code">item_x2</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-item_005fx2'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>What is put between a level&nbsp;1 item and a level&nbsp;2 item, if the
level&nbsp;1 item doesn&rsquo;t have page numbers.  Default: <code class="code">&quot;\n
\\subsubitem &quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-delim-0"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-delim_005f0'><span><code class="code">delim_0</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-delim_005f0'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Delimiter put between a level&nbsp;0 key and its first page
number. Default: a comma followed by a blank, <code class="code">&quot;, &quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-delim-1"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-delim_005f1'><span><code class="code">delim_1</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-delim_005f1'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Delimiter put between a level&nbsp;1 key and its first page
number. Default: a comma followed by a blank, <code class="code">&quot;, &quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-delim-2"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-delim_005f2'><span><code class="code">delim_2</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-delim_005f2'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Delimiter between a level&nbsp;2 key and its first page number. Default:
a comma followed by a blank, <code class="code">&quot;, &quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-delim-n"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-delim_005fn'><span><code class="code">delim_n</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-delim_005fn'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>Delimiter between two page numbers for the same key (at any
level). Default: a comma followed by a blank, <code class="code">&quot;, &quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-delim-r"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-delim_005fr'><span><code class="code">delim_r</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-delim_005fr'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>What is put between the starting and ending page numbers of a range.
Default: <code class="code">&quot;--&quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-line-max"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-line_005fmax'><span><code class="code">line_max</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-line_005fmax'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>An integer.  Maximum length of an index entry&rsquo;s line in the output,
beyond which the line wraps.  Default: <code class="code">72</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-indent-space"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-indent_005fspace'><span><code class="code">indent_space</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-indent_005fspace'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>What is inserted at the start of a wrapped line.  Default:
<code class="code">&quot;\t\t&quot;</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-indent-length"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-indent_005flength'><span><code class="code">indent_length</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-indent_005flength'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>A number.  The length of the wrapped line indentation.  The default
<code class="code">indent_space</code> is two tabs and each tab is eight spaces so the
default here is <code class="code">16</code>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="makeindex-page-precedence"></a></dd>
<dt id='index-page_005fprecedence'><span><code class="code">page_precedence</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-page_005fprecedence'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>A document may have pages numbered in different ways.  For example, a
book may have front matter pages numbered in lowercase roman while main
matter pages are in arabic.  This string specifies the order in which
they will appear in the index.  The <code class="command">makeindex</code> command supports
five different types of numerals: lowercase roman <code class="code">r</code>, and numeric
or arabic <code class="code">n</code>, and lowercase alphabetic <code class="code">a</code>, and uppercase
roman <code class="code">R</code>, and uppercase alphabetic <code class="code">A</code>.  Default:
<code class="code">&quot;rnaRA&quot;</code>.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-xindy-program"></a>
<p>There are a number of other programs that do the job
<code class="command">makeindex</code> does. One is <code class="command">xindy</code>
(<a class="uref" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/xindy">https://ctan.org/pkg/xindy</a>), which does internationalization and can
process indexes for documents marked up using LaTeX and a number of
other languages. It is written in Lisp, highly configurable, both in
markup terms and in terms of the collating order of the text, as
described in its documentation.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-xindex-program"></a>
<p>A more recent indexing program supporting Unicode is <code class="code">xindex</code>,
written in Lua (<a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/xindex">https://ctan.org/pkg/xindex</a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cprintindex">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#makeindex" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="command">makeindex</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="u" rel="up">Indexes</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cprintindex-1">25.2.4 <code class="command">\printindex</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-index_002c-printing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cprintindex"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\printindex
</pre></div>

<p>Place the index into the output.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-makeidx"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-makeidx-package"></a>

<p>To get an index you must first include
<code class="code">\usepackage{makeidx}\makeindex</code> in the document preamble and
compile the document, then run the system command <code class="command">makeindex</code>,
and then compile the document again.  See <a class="xref" href="#Indexes">Indexes</a>, for further
discussion and an example of the use of <code class="code">\printindex</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Glossaries">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Indexes" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Indexes</a>, Up: <a href="#Front_002fback-matter" accesskey="u" rel="up">Front/back matter</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Glossaries-1">25.3 Glossaries</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-glossary"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-glossaries"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-acronyms_002c-list-of"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmakeglossary"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cprintglossaries"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries
  ...
\newglossaryentry{<var class="var">label</var>}{<var class="var">settings</var>}  
  ...
\gls{<var class="var">label</var>}.  
  ...
\printglossaries
</pre></div>

<p>The <samp class="file">glossaries</samp> package allows you to make glossaries, including
multiple glossaries, as well as lists of acronyms.
</p>
<p>To get the output from this example, compile the document (for instance
with <code class="code">pdflatex filename</code>), then run the command line command
<code class="code">makeglossaries filename</code>, and then compile the document again.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{...}  
\usepackage{glossaries} \makeglossaries
\newglossaryentry{tm}{%
  name={Turing machine},
  description={A model of a machine that computes.  The model is simple
               but can compute anything any existing device can compute.
               It is the standard model used in Computer Science.},
  }  
\begin{document}  
Everything begins with the definition of a \gls{tm}.  
  ...
\printglossaries
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>That gives two things.  In the main text it outputs &lsquo;<samp class="samp">... definition
of a Turing machine</samp>&rsquo;.  In addition, in a separate sectional unit headed
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Glossary</samp>&rsquo; there appears a description list.  In boldface it says
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">Turing machine</samp>&rsquo; and the rest of the item says in normal type
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">A model of a machine &hellip; Computer Science</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmakeglossary-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cprintglossaries-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002eglo-file"></a>
<p>The command <code class="code">\makeglossary</code> opens the file that will contain the
entry information, <samp class="file"><var class="var">root-file</var>.glo</samp>.  Put the
<code class="code">\printglossaries</code> command where you want the glossaries to appear
in your document.
</p>
<p>The <samp class="file">glossaries</samp> package is very powerful.  For instance, besides
the commands <code class="code">\newglossaryentry</code> and <code class="code">\gls</code>, there are similar
commands for a list of acronyms.  See the package documentations on
CTAN.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\newglossaryentry</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cgls" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\gls</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cnewglossaryentry">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cgls" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\gls</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Glossaries" accesskey="u" rel="up">Glossaries</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cnewglossaryentry-1">25.3.1 <code class="code">\newglossaryentry</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-glossary_002c-entries"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewglossaryentry"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of: 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newglossaryentry{<var class="var">label</var>} 
{ 
  name={<var class="var">name</var>}, 
  description={<var class="var">description</var>}, 
  <var class="var">other options</var>, ... 
}
</pre></div>

<p>or
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\longnewglossaryentry{<var class="var">label</var>} 
{ 
  name={<var class="var">name</var>}, 
  <var class="var">other options</var> ..., 
} 
{<var class="var">description</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Declare a new entry for a glossary.  The <var class="var">label</var> must be unique for
the document.  The settings associated with the label are pairs:
<code class="code"><var class="var">key</var>=<var class="var">value</var></code>.
</p>
<p>This puts the blackboard bold symbol for the real numbers &#x211D;, in the
glossary.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newglossaryentry{R}  
{  
  name={\ensuremath{\mathbb{R}}},  
  description={the real numbers},  
}
</pre></div>

<p>Use the second command form if the <var class="var">description</var> spans more than one
paragraph.
</p>
<p>For a full list of <var class="var">key</var>s see the package documentation on CTAN but
here are a few.
</p>
<dl class="ftable">
<dt id='index-name'><span><code class="code">name</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-name'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>(Required.) The word, phrase, or symbol that you are defining.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-description'><span><code class="code">description</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-description'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>(Required.) The description that will appear in the glossary.
If this has more than one paragraph then you must use the second command
form given in the synopsis.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-plural'><span><code class="code">plural</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-plural'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>The plural form of <var class="var">name</var>.  Refer to the plural form using
<code class="code">\glspl</code> or <code class="code">\Glspl</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cgls"><code class="code">\gls</code></a>).
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-sort'><span><code class="code">sort</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-sort'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>How to place this entry in the list of entries that the glossary holds.
</p>
</dd>
<dt id='index-symbol'><span><code class="code">symbol</code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-symbol'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><p>A symbol, such as a mathematical symbol, besides the name.
</p>
</dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cgls">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\newglossaryentry</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Glossaries" accesskey="u" rel="up">Glossaries</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cgls-1">25.3.2 <code class="code">\gls</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-glossary_002c-entry-reference"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cgls"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of: 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\gls{<var class="var">label</var>}
\glspl{<var class="var">label</var>}
\Gls{<var class="var">label</var>}
\Glspl{<var class="var">label</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Refer to a glossary entry.  The entries are declared with
<code class="code">\newglossaryentry</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry"><code class="code">\newglossaryentry</code></a>).
</p>
<p>This
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newglossaryentry{N}{%
  name={the natural numbers},
  description={The numbers $0$, $1$, $2$, $\ldots$\@},
  symbol={\ensuremath{\mathbb{N}}},
  }  
  ...
Consider \gls{N}.
</pre></div>

<p>gives the output &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Consider the natural numbers</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>The second command form <code class="code">\glspl{<var class="var">label</var>}</code> produces the plural
of <var class="var">name</var> (by default it tries adding an &lsquo;<samp class="samp">s</samp>&rsquo;).  The third form
capitalizes the first letter of <var class="var">name</var>, as does the fourth form,
which also takes the plural.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Letters">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Input_002foutput" accesskey="n" rel="next">Input/output</a>, Previous: <a href="#Front_002fback-matter" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Front/back matter</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Letters-1">26 Letters</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-letters_002c-writing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-writing-letters"></a>

<p>Synopsis: 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{letter}
\address{<var class="var">senders address</var>}   % return address
\signature{<var class="var">sender name</var>}
\begin{document}
\begin{letter}{<var class="var">recipient address</var>}
\opening{<var class="var">salutation</var>}
  <var class="var">letter body</var>
\closing{<var class="var">closing text</var>}
\end{letter}
   ...
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce one or more letters.  
</p>
<p>Each letter is in a separate <code class="code">letter</code> environment, whose argument
<var class="var">recipient address</var> often contains multiple lines separated with a
double backslash,&nbsp;(<code class="code">\\</code>).  For example, you might have:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"> \begin{letter}{Ninon de l'Enclos \\
                l'h\^otel Sagonne}
   ...
 \end{letter}
</pre></div>

<p>The start of the <code class="code">letter</code> environment resets the page number to 1,
and the footnote number to 1 also.
</p>
<p>The <var class="var">sender address</var> and <var class="var">sender name</var> are common to all of the
letters, whether there is one or more, so these are best put in the
preamble.  As with the recipient address, often <var class="var">sender address</var>
contains multiple lines separated by a double
backslash&nbsp;(<code class="code">\\</code>).  LaTeX will put the <var class="var">sender name</var>
under the closing, after a vertical space for the traditional
hand-written signature.
</p>
<p>Each <code class="code">letter</code> environment body begins with a required
<code class="code">\opening</code> command such as <code class="code">\opening{Dear Madam or Sir:}</code>.
The <var class="var">letter body</var> text is ordinary LaTeX so it can contain
everything from enumerated lists to displayed math, except that commands
such as <code class="code">\chapter</code> that make no sense in a letter are turned off.
Each <code class="code">letter</code> environment body typically ends with a
<code class="code">\closing</code> command such as <code class="code">\closing{Yours,}</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_005c-_0028for-letters_0029"></a>
<p>Additional material may come after the <code class="code">\closing</code>.  You can say who
is receiving a copy of the letter with a command like <code class="code">\cc{the
Boss \\ the Boss's Boss}</code>.  There&rsquo;s a similar <code class="code">\encl</code> command for
a list of enclosures.  And, you can add a postscript with <code class="code">\ps</code>.
</p>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s default is to indent the sender name and the closing above it
by a length of <code class="code">\longindentation</code>.  By default this is
<code class="code">0.5\textwidth</code>. To make them flush left, put
<code class="code">\setlength{\longindentation}{0em}</code> in your preamble.
</p>
<p>To set a fixed date use something like
<code class="code">\renewcommand{\today}{1958-Oct-12}</code>.  If put in your preamble
then it will apply to all the letters.
</p>
<p>This example shows only one <code class="code">letter</code> environment.  The three lines
marked as optional are typically omitted.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{letter}
\address{Sender's street \\ Sender's town}
\signature{Sender's name \\ Sender's title}
% optional: \location{Mailbox 13}
% optional: \telephone{(102) 555-0101}
\begin{document}
\begin{letter}{Recipient's name \\ Recipient's address}
\opening{Sir:}
% optional: \thispagestyle{firstpage}
I am not interested in entering a business arrangement with you.
\closing{Your most humble, etc.,}
\end{letter}
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>These commands are used with the <code class="code">letter</code> class.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005caddress" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\address</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005ccc" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\cc</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cclosing" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\closing</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cencl" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\encl</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005clocation" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\location</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cmakelabels" accesskey="6"><code class="code">\makelabels</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cname" accesskey="7"><code class="code">\name</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005copening" accesskey="8"><code class="code">\opening</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cps" accesskey="9"><code class="code">\ps</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005csignature"><code class="code">\signature</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005ctelephone"><code class="code">\telephone</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005caddress">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005ccc" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\cc</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005caddress-1">26.1 <code class="code">\address</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005caddress"></a>

<p>Synopsis: 
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\address{<var class="var">senders address</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Specify the return address, as it appears on the letter and on the
envelope.  Separate multiple lines in <var class="var">senders address</var> with a
double backslash,&nbsp;<code class="code">\\</code>.
</p>
<p>Because it can apply to multiple letters this declaration is often put
in the preamble.  However, it can go anywhere, including inside an
individual <code class="code">letter</code> environment.
</p>
<p>This command is optional: if you do not use it then the letter is
formatted with some blank space on top, for copying onto pre-printed
letterhead paper.  If you do use the <code class="code">\address</code> declaration then it
is formatted as a personal letter.
</p>
<p>Here is an example.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\address{Stephen Maturin \\
         The Grapes of the Savoy}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005ccc">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cclosing" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\closing</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005caddress" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\address</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005ccc-1">26.2 <code class="code">\cc</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccc"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cc-list_002c-in-letters"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\cc{<var class="var">name0</var> \\ 
     ... }
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a list of names to which copies of the letter were sent.  This
command is optional.  If it appears then typically it comes after
<code class="code">\closing</code>.  Put the names on different lines by separating them
with a double backslash, <code class="code">\\</code>, as in:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\cc{President \\
    Vice President}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cclosing">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cencl" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\encl</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005ccc" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\cc</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cclosing-1">26.3 <code class="code">\closing</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cclosing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-letters_002c-ending"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-closing-letters"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\closing{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Produce the letter&rsquo;s closing.  This is optional, but usual.  It appears
at the end of a letter, above a handwritten signature.  For example:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\closing{Regards,}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cencl">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005clocation" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\location</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cclosing" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\closing</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cencl-1">26.4 <code class="code">\encl</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cencl"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-enclosure-list"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\encl{<var class="var">first enclosed object</var> \\ 
       ... }
</pre></div>

<p>Produce a list of things included with the letter. This command is
optional; when it is used, it typically is put after <code class="code">\closing</code>.
Separate multiple lines with a double backslash, <code class="code">\\</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\encl{License \\
      Passport}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005clocation">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cmakelabels" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\makelabels</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cencl" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\encl</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005clocation-1">26.5 <code class="code">\location</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005clocation"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\location{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>The <var class="var">text</var> appears centered at the bottom of the page.  It only
appears if the page style is <code class="code">firstpage</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cmakelabels">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cname" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\name</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005clocation" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\location</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cmakelabels-1">26.6 <code class="code">\makelabels</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmakelabels"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\makelabels   % in preamble
</pre></div>

<p>Optional, for a document that contains <code class="code">letter</code> environments.  If
you just put <code class="code">\makelabels</code> in the preamble then at the end of the
document you will get a sheet with labels for all the recipients, one
for each letter environment, that you can copy to a sheet of peel-off
address labels.
</p>
<p>Customize the labels by redefining the commands <code class="code">\startlabels</code>,
<code class="code">\mlabel</code>, and <code class="code">\returnaddress</code> (and perhaps <code class="code">\name</code>) in
the preamble.  The command <code class="code">\startlabels</code> sets the width, height,
number of columns, etc., of the page onto which the labels are printed.
The command <code class="code">\mlabel{<var class="var">return address</var>}{<var class="var">recipient
address</var>}</code> produces the two labels (or one, if you choose to ignore the
<var class="var">return address</var>) for each letter environment. The first argument,
<var class="var">return address</var>, is the value returned by the macro
<code class="code">\returnaddress</code>.  The second argument, <var class="var">recipient address</var>, is
the value passed in the argument to the <code class="code">letter</code> environment.  By
default <code class="code">\mlabel</code> ignores the first argument, the <var class="var">return
address</var>, causing the default behavior described in the prior paragraph.
</p>
<p>This illustrates customization.  Its output includes a page with two
columns having two labels each.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{letter}
\renewcommand*{\returnaddress}{Fred McGuilicuddy \\
                               Oshkosh, Mineola 12305}
\newcommand*\originalMlabel{}
\let\originalMlabel\mlabel
\def\mlabel#1#2{\originalMlabel{}{#1}\originalMlabel{}{#2}}
\makelabels
  ...
\begin{document}
\begin{letter}{A Einstein \\
               112 Mercer Street \\
               Princeton, New Jersey, USA 08540}
  ...
\end{letter}
\begin{letter}{K G\&quot;odel \\
               145 Linden Lane \\
               Princeton, New Jersey, USA 08540}
  ...
\end{letter}
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>The first column contains the return address twice.  The second column
contains the address for each recipient.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-envlab"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-envlab-package"></a>

<p>The package <code class="code">envlab</code> makes formatting the labels easier, with
standard sizes already provided.  The preamble lines
<code class="code">\usepackage[personalenvelope]{envlab}</code> and <code class="code">\makelabels</code>
are all that you need to print envelopes.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cname">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005copening" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\opening</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cmakelabels" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\makelabels</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cname-1">26.7 <code class="code">\name</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cname"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\name{<var class="var">name</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Optional.  Sender&rsquo;s name, used for printing on the envelope together
with the return address.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005copening">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cps" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\ps</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cname" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\name</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005copening-1">26.8 <code class="code">\opening</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005copening"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-letters_002c-starting"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\opening{<var class="var">salutation</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Required.  Follows the <code class="code">\begin{letter}{...}</code>. The argument
<var class="var">salutation</var> is mandatory.  For instance:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\opening{Dear John:}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cps">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005csignature" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\signature</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005copening" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\opening</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cps-1">26.9 <code class="code">\ps</code></h3>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cps"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-postscript_002c-in-letters"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\ps{<var class="var">text</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Add a postscript.  This command is optional and usually is used after
<code class="code">\closing</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\ps{P.S. After you have read this letter, burn it. Or eat it.}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005csignature">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005ctelephone" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\telephone</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cps" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\ps</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005csignature-1">26.10 <code class="code">\signature</code></h3>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\signature{<var class="var">first line</var> \\
            ... }
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005csignature"></a>

<p>The sender&rsquo;s name.  This command is optional, although its inclusion is
usual.
</p>
<p>The argument text appears at the end of the letter, after the closing.
LaTeX leaves some vertical space for a handwritten
signature. Separate multiple lines with a double
backslash,&nbsp;<code class="code">\\</code>.  For example:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\signature{J Fred Muggs \\
           White House}
</pre></div>

<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s default for the vertical space from the <code class="code">\closing</code> text
down to the <code class="code">\signature</code> text is <code class="code">6\medskipamount</code>, which is
six times <code class="code">\medskipamount</code> (where <code class="code">\medskipamount</code> is equal to
a <code class="code">\parskip</code>, which in turn is defined by default here to
0.7<span class="dmn">em</span>).
</p>
<p>This command is usually in the preamble, to apply to all the letters in
the document.  To have it apply to one letter only, put it inside a
<code class="code">letter</code> environment and before the <code class="code">\closing</code>.
</p>
<p>You can include a graphic in the signature as here.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\signature{\vspace{-6\medskipamount}\includegraphics{sig.png}\\
             My name}
</pre></div>

<p>For this you must put <code class="code">\usepackage{graphicx}</code> in the preamble
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Graphics">Graphics</a>).
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005ctelephone">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005csignature" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\signature</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="u" rel="up">Letters</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005ctelephone-1">26.11 <code class="code">\telephone</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctelephone"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\telephone{<var class="var">number</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>The sender&rsquo;s telephone number.  This is typically in the preamble, where
it applies to all letters.  This only appears if the <code class="code">firstpage</code>
pagestyle is selected.  If so, it appears on the lower right of the
page.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Input_002foutput">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Command-line-interface" accesskey="n" rel="next">Command line interface</a>, Previous: <a href="#Letters" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Letters</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Input_002foutput-1">27 Input/output</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-input_002foutput_002c-to-terminal"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-terminal-input_002foutput"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-input_002foutput"></a>

<p>LaTeX uses the ability to write to a file and later read it back in
to build document components such as a table of contents or index.  You
can also read a file that other programs written, or write a file for
others to read.  You can communicate with users through the terminal.
And, you can issue instructions for the operating system.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\openin</code> &amp; <code class="code">\openout</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cread" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\read</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005ctypein" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\typein</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005ctypeout" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\typeout</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cwrite" accesskey="5"><code class="code">\write</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cread" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\read</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Input_002foutput" accesskey="u" rel="up">Input/output</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout-1">27.1 <code class="code">\openin</code> &amp; <code class="code">\openout</code></h3>

<a class="anchor" id="g_t_005copenin"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005copenout"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005cclosein"></a><a class="anchor" id="g_t_005ccloseout"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005copenin"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005copenout"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cclosein"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ccloseout"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-file_002c-opening"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-file_002c-closing"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-open-a-file"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\openin <var class="var">number</var>=<var class="var">filename</var>
</pre></div>

<p>or:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\openout <var class="var">number</var>=<var class="var">filename</var>
</pre></div>

<p>Open a file for reading material, or for writing it.  In most engines,
the <var class="var">number</var> must be between 0 and 15, as in <code class="code">\openin3</code>; in
LuaLaTeX, <var class="var">number</var> can be between 0 and 127.
</p>
<p>Here TeX opens the file <samp class="file">presidents.tex</samp> for reading.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newread\presidentsfile
\openin\presidentsfile=presidents
\typeout{presidentsfile is \the\presidentsfile}
\read\presidentsfile to\presidentline
\typeout{\presidentline}
</pre></div>
 
<p>The <code class="code">\newread</code> command allocates input stream numbers from 0
to&nbsp;15 (there is also a <code class="code">\newwrite</code>).  The
<code class="code">\presidentsfile</code> is more memorable but under the hood it is still
a number; the first <code class="code">\typeout</code> gives something like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">presidentsfile is 1</samp>&rsquo;.  In addition, <code class="code">\newread</code> keeps track of
the allocation so that if you use too many then you get an error like
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">! No room for a new \read</samp>&rsquo;.  The second <code class="code">\typeout</code> gives the
first line of the file, something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1 Washington, George</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>Ordinarily TeX will not try to open the file until the next page
shipout. To change this, use
<code class="code">\immediate\openin <var class="var">number</var>=<var class="var">filename</var></code> or
<code class="code">\immediate\openout <var class="var">number</var>=<var class="var">filename</var></code>.
</p>
<p>Close files with <code class="code">\closein <var class="var">number</var></code> and
<code class="code">\closeout <var class="var">number</var></code>.
</p>
<p>How LaTeX handles filenames varies among distributions, and even can
vary among versions of a distribution.  If the file does not have an
extension then TeX will add a <samp class="file">.tex</samp>.  This creates
<samp class="file">presidents.tex</samp>, writes one line to it, and closes it.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newwrite\presidentsfile
\openout\presidentsfile=presidents
\write\presidentsfile{1 Washington, George}
\closeout\presidentsfile
</pre></div>

<p>But filenames with a period can cause trouble: if TeX finds a
<var class="var">filename</var> of <samp class="file">presidents.dat</samp> it could look first for
<samp class="file">presidents.dat.tex</samp> and later for <samp class="file">presidents.dat</samp>, or it
could do the opposite.  Your distribution&rsquo;s documentation should say
more, and if you find something that works for you then you are good,
but to ensure complete portability the best thing is to use file names
containing only the twenty six ASCII letters (not case-sensitive) and
the ten digits, along with underscore and dash, and in particular with
no dot or space.
</p>
<p>For <code class="code">\openin</code>, if TeX cannot find the file then it does not give
an error.  It just considers that the stream is not open (test for this
with <code class="code">\ifeof</code>; one recourse is the command
<code class="code">\InputIfFileExists</code>, see <a class="pxref" href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a>).  If you
try to use the same number twice, LaTeX won&rsquo;t give you an error.  If
you try to use a bad number then you get an error message like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">!
Bad number (16).  &lt;to be read again&gt; = l.30 \openin16=test.jh</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cread">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005ctypein" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\typein</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\openin</code> &amp; <code class="code">\openout</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Input_002foutput" accesskey="u" rel="up">Input/output</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cread-1">27.2 <code class="code">\read</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cread"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-file_002c-reading"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-read-a-file"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\read <var class="var">number</var> to<var class="var">macro</var>
</pre></div>

<p>Make the command <var class="var">macro</var> contain the next line of input from text
stream <var class="var">number</var>, as in <code class="code">\read5 to\data</code>.
</p>
<p>This opens the file <samp class="file">email.tex</samp> for reading, puts the contents of
the first line into the command <code class="code">\email</code>, and then closes the file.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newread\recipientfile
\openin\recipientfile=email
\read\recipientfile to\email
\typeout{Email address: \email}
\closein\recipientfile
</pre></div>

<p>If <var class="var">number</var> is outside the range from 0 to&nbsp;15 or if no file
of that number is open, or if the file has ended, then <code class="code">\read</code>
will take input from the terminal (or exit if interaction is not
allowed, e.g., <code class="code">\nonstopmode</code>; see <a class="pxref" href="#interaction-modes">interaction modes</a>).
(However, the natural way in LaTeX to take input from the terminal
is <code class="code">\typein</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ctypein"><code class="code">\typein</code></a>.)
</p>
<p>To read an entire file as additional LaTeX source, use
<code class="code">\input</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cinput"><code class="code">\input</code></a>) or <code class="code">\include</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly"><code class="code">\include</code> &amp; <code class="code">\includeonly</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-datatool"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-datatool-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-mail-merges"></a>
<p>A common reason to want to read from a data file is to do mail merges.
CTAN has a number of packages for that; one is <code class="code">datatool</code>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005ctypein">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005ctypeout" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\typeout</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cread" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\read</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Input_002foutput" accesskey="u" rel="up">Input/output</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005ctypein-1">27.3 <code class="code">\typein</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctypein"></a>

<p>Synopsis, one of:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\typein{<var class="var">prompt-msg</var>}
\typein[<var class="var">cmd</var>]{<var class="var">prompt-msg</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Print <var class="var">prompt-msg</var> on the terminal and cause LaTeX to stop and
wait for you to type a line of input.  This line of input ends when you
hit the return key.
</p>
<p>For example, this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">As long as I live I shall never forget \typein{Enter student name:}
</pre></div>

<p>coupled with this command line interaction
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Enter student name:

\@typein=Aphra Behn
</pre></div>

<p>gives the output &lsquo;<samp class="samp">... never forget Aphra Behn</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>The first command version, <code class="code">\typein{<var class="var">prompt-msg</var>}</code>, causes
the input you typed to be processed as if it had been included in the
input file in place of the <code class="code">\typein</code> command.
</p>
<p>In the second command version the optional argument <code class="code"><var class="var">cmd</var></code>
argument must be a command name, that is, it must begin with a
backslash, \.  This command name is then defined or redefined to be
the input that you typed.  For example, this
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\typein[\student]{Enter student name:}
\typeout{Recommendation for \student .}
</pre></div>

<p>gives this output on the command line,
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Enter student name:

\student=John Dee
Recommendation for John Dee.
</pre></div>

<p>where the user has entered &lsquo;<samp class="samp">John Dee.</samp>&rsquo;
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005ctypeout">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cwrite" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\write</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005ctypein" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\typein</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Input_002foutput" accesskey="u" rel="up">Input/output</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005ctypeout-1">27.4 <code class="code">\typeout</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005ctypeout"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\typeout{<var class="var">msg</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Print <code class="code">msg</code> on the terminal and in the <code class="code">log</code> file.
</p>
<p>This
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\student}{John Dee}
\typeout{Recommendation for \student .}
</pre></div>

<p>outputs &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Recommendation for John Dee</samp>&rsquo;.  Like what happens here with
<code class="code">\student</code>, commands that are defined with <code class="code">\newcommand</code> or
<code class="code">\renewcommand</code> (among others) are replaced by their definitions
before being printed.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cspace-2"></a>
<p>LaTeX&rsquo;s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space
and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to <code class="code">msg</code>.  Use the
command <code class="code">\space</code> to get a single space, independent of surrounding
spaces.  Use <code class="code">^^J</code> to get a newline.  Get a percent character with
<code class="code">\csname @percentchar\endcsname</code>.
</p>
<p>This command can be useful for simple debugging, as here:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newlength{\jhlength}
\setlength{\jhlength}{5pt}
\typeout{The length is \the\jhlength.}
</pre></div>

<p>produces on the command line &lsquo;<samp class="samp">The length is 5.0pt</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="g_t_005cwrite">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005ctypeout" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\typeout</code></a>, Up: <a href="#Input_002foutput" accesskey="u" rel="up">Input/output</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="g_t_005cwrite-1">27.5 <code class="code">\write</code></h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cwrite"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\write <var class="var">number</var>{<var class="var">string</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Write <var class="var">string</var> to the log file, to the terminal, or to a file
opened by <code class="code">\openout</code>.  For instance, <code class="code">\write6</code> writes to text
stream number&nbsp;6.
</p>
<p>If the following appears in <samp class="file"><var class="var">basefile</var>.tex</samp> then it opens
<samp class="file"><var class="var">basefile</var>.jh</samp>, writes &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Hello World!</samp>&rsquo; and a newline to
it, and closes that file.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newwrite\myfile
\immediate\openout\myfile=\jobname.jh  % \jobname is root file basename
...
\immediate\write\myfile{Hello world!}
...
\immediate\closeout\myfile
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cnewwrite"></a>
<p>The <code class="code">\newwrite</code> allocates a stream number, giving it a symbolic
name to make life easier, so that <code class="code">stream
\newwrite\myfile\the\myfile</code> produces something like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">stream 3</samp>&rsquo;.
Then <code class="code">\openout</code> associates the stream number with the given file
name.  TeX ultimately executed <code class="code">\write3</code> which puts the string
in the file.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-log-file_002c-writing-to"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-terminal_002c-writing-to"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d1_002c-write-stream-number"></a>
<p>Typically <var class="var">number</var> is between 0 and&nbsp;15, because typically
LaTeX authors follow the prior example and the number is allocated
by the system.  If <var class="var">number</var> is outside the range from 0 to 15 or
if it is not associated with an open file then LaTeX writes
<var class="var">string</var> to the log file.  If <var class="var">number</var> is positive then in
addition LaTeX writes <var class="var">string</var> to the terminal.
</p>
<p>Thus, <code class="code">test \write-1{Hello World!}</code> puts &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Hello World!</samp>&rsquo;
followed by a newline in the log file.  (This is what the <code class="code">\wlog</code>
command does; see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cwlog"><code class="code">\wlog</code></a>).  And <code class="code">\write100{Hello World!}</code>
puts the same in the log file but also puts &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Hello World!</samp>&rsquo;
followed by a newline in the terminal output.  (But 16, 17, and 18 are
special as <var class="var">number</var>; see below.)
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-LuaTeX_002c-256-output-streams-in"></a>
<p>In LuaTeX, instead of 16 output streams there are 256
(see <a class="pxref" href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0040auxout"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005c_0040mainaux"></a>
<p>Use <code class="code">\write\@auxout{<var class="var">string</var>}</code> to write to the current
<samp class="file">.aux</samp> file, which is associated with either the root file or
with the current include file; and use
<code class="code">\write\@mainaux{<var class="var">string</var>}</code> to write to the main
<samp class="file">.aux</samp>.  These symbolic names are defined by LaTeX.
</p>
<p>By default LaTeX does not write <var class="var">string</var> to the file right
away.  This is because, for example, you may need <code class="code">\write</code> to
save the current page number, but when TeX comes across a
<code class="code">\write</code> it typically does not know what the page number is,
since it has not yet done the page breaking.  So, you use <code class="code">\write</code>
in one of three contexts:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\immediate\write\@auxout{<var class="var">string</var>}      %1
\write\@auxout{<var class="var">string</var>}                %2
\protected@write\@auxout{}{<var class="var">string</var>}    %3
</pre></div>

<ol class="enumerate">
<li> <a class="index-entry-id" id="index-immediate-_005cwrite"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cimmediate_005cwrite"></a>
With the first, LaTeX writes <var class="var">string</var> to the file immediately.
Any macros in <var class="var">string</var> are fully expanded (just as in
<code class="code">\edef</code>) so to prevent expansion you must use <code class="code">\noexpand</code>,
<code class="code">toks</code>, etc., except that you should use <code class="code">#</code> instead of
<code class="code">##</code>).

</li><li> <a class="index-entry-id" id="index-delayed-_005cwrite"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-whatsit-item"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cshipout-and-expansion"></a>
With the second, <var class="var">string</var> is stored on the current list of things
(as a TeX &ldquo;whatsit&rdquo; item) and kept until the page is shipped out
and likewise the macros are unexpanded until <code class="code">\shipout</code>. At
<code class="code">\shipout</code>, <var class="var">string</var> is fully expanded.

</li><li> <a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cprotected_0040write"></a>
The third, <code class="code">\protected@write</code>, is like the second except that
you can use <code class="code">\protect</code> to avoid expansion. The extra first
argument allows you to locally insert extra definitions to make more
macros protected or to have some other special definition for the
write.
</li></ol>

<p>As a simple example of expansion with <code class="code">\write</code>, <var class="var">string</var> here
contains a control sequence <code class="code">\triplex</code> which we&rsquo;ve defined to be
the text &lsquo;<samp class="samp">XYZ</samp>&rsquo;:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newwrite\jhfile
\openout\jhfile=test.jh
\newcommand{\triplex}{XYZ}
\write\jhfile{test \triplex test}
</pre></div>

<p>This results in the file <samp class="file">test.jh</samp> containing the text
&lsquo;<samp class="samp">test XYZtest</samp>&rsquo; followed by a newline.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cwrite-streams-16_002c-17_002c-18"></a>
<p>The cases where <var class="var">number</var> is 16, 17, or 18 are special.  Because of
<code class="code">\write</code>&rsquo;s behavior when <var class="var">number</var> is outside the range from 0
to 15 described above, in Plain&nbsp;TeX <code class="code">\write16</code> and
<code class="code">\write17</code> were sometimes used to write to the log file and the
terminal; however, in LaTeX, the natural way to do that is with
<code class="code">\typeout</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ctypeout"><code class="code">\typeout</code></a>).  The <code class="code">\write18</code> command is
even more special; modern TeX systems use it for giving commands to
the operating system (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cwrite18"><code class="code">\write18</code></a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-newline_002c-in-_005cwrite"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005e_005eJ_002c-in-_005cwrite"></a>
<p>Ordinarily <code class="code">\write</code> outputs a single line.  You can include a
newline with <code class="code">^^J</code>.  Thus, this produces two lines in the log
file:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\wlog{Parallel lines have a lot in common.^^JBut they never meet.}
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-answers"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-answers-package"></a>

<p>A common case where authors need to write their own file is for
answers to exercises, or another situation where you want to write
out verbatim, without expanding the macros.  CTAN has a number of
packages for this; one is <code class="code">answers</code>.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#g_t_005cwrite-and-security" accesskey="1"><code class="code">\write</code> and security</a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cmessage" accesskey="2"><code class="code">\message</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cwlog" accesskey="3"><code class="code">\wlog</code></a></li>
<li><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18" accesskey="4"><code class="code">\write18</code></a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cwrite-and-security">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cmessage" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\message</code></a>, Up: <a href="#g_t_005cwrite" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\write</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cwrite-and-security-1">27.5.1 <code class="code">\write</code> and security</h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-security-and-_005cwrite"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cwrite-and-security"></a>

<p>The ability to write files raises security issues. If you compiled a
downloaded LaTeX file and it overwrote your password file then you
would be justifiably troubled.
</p>
<p>Thus, by default TeX systems only allow you to open files for
writing that are in the current directory or output directory, if
specified (see <a class="pxref" href="#output-directory">output directory</a>), or in a subdirectory of
those. So, this code
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newwrite\jhfile
\openout\jhfile=../test.jh
</pre></div>

<p>gives an error like:
</p><div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">Not writing to ../test.jh (openout_any = p).
! I can't write on file `../test.jh'
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-parent-directories_002c-cannot-write-to"></a>
<p>You can get just such an error when using commands such as
<code class="code">\include{../filename}</code> because LaTeX will try to open
<samp class="file">../filename.aux</samp>.  The simplest solution is to put the included
files in the same directory as the root file, or in subdirectories.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cmessage">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cwlog" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\wlog</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cwrite-and-security" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\write</code> and security</a>, Up: <a href="#g_t_005cwrite" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\write</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cmessage-1">27.5.2 <code class="code">\message</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cmessage"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\message{<var class="var">string</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Write <var class="var">string</var> to the log file and the terminal.
</p>
<p>Typically, LaTeX authors use <code class="code">\typeout</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005ctypeout"><code class="code">\typeout</code></a>). It
allows you to use <code class="code">\protect</code> on any fragile commands in
<var class="var">string</var> (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cprotect"><code class="code">\protect</code></a>).  But <code class="code">\typeout</code> always inserts a
newline at the end of <var class="var">string</var> while <code class="code">\message</code> does not, so
the latter can be useful.
</p>
<p>With this example document body.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">before\message{One Two}\message{Three}\message{Four^^JI}
\message{declare a thumb war.}After
</pre></div>

<p>under some circumstances (see below) LaTeX writes the following to
both the terminal and the log file.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">One Two Three Four
I declare a thumb war.
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">^^J</code> produces a newline.  Also, in the output document,
between &lsquo;<samp class="samp">before</samp>&rsquo; and &lsquo;<samp class="samp">After</samp>&rsquo; will be a single space (from
the end of line following &lsquo;<samp class="samp">I}</samp>&rsquo;).
</p>
<p>While <code class="code">\message</code> allows you more control over formatting, a
gotcha is that LaTeX may mess up that formatting because it inserts
line breaks depending on what it has already written. Contrast this
document body, where the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Two</samp>&rsquo; has moved, to the one given above.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">before\message{One}\message{Two Three}\message{Four^^JI}
\message{declare a thumb war.}After
</pre></div>

<p>This can happen: when LaTeX is outputting the messages to the
terminal, now the message with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">One</samp>&rsquo; is shorter and it fits at the
end of the output terminal line, and so LaTeX breaks the line between
it and the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">Two Three</samp>&rsquo;.  That line break appears also in the log
file.  This line break insertion can depend on, for instance, the length
of the full path names of included files.  So producing finely-formatted
lines in a way that is portable is hard, likely requiring 
starting your message at the beginning of a line.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cwlog">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#g_t_005cwrite18" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">\write18</code></a>, Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cmessage" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\message</code></a>, Up: <a href="#g_t_005cwrite" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\write</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cwlog-1">27.5.3 <code class="code">\wlog</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cwlog"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\wlog{<var class="var">string</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Write <var class="var">string</var> to the log file.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\wlog{Did you hear about the mathematician who hates negatives?}
\wlog{He'll stop at nothing to avoid them.}
</pre></div>

<p>Ordinarily <var class="var">string</var> appears in a single separate line.  Use
<code class="code">^^J</code> to insert a newline.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\wlog{Helvetica and Times Roman walk into a bar.}
\wlog{The barman says,^^JWe don't serve your type.}
</pre></div>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="subsection-level-extent" id="g_t_005cwrite18">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#g_t_005cwlog" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">\wlog</code></a>, Up: <a href="#g_t_005cwrite" accesskey="u" rel="up"><code class="code">\write</code></a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h4 class="subsection" id="g_t_005cwrite18-1">27.5.4 <code class="code">\write18</code></h4>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cwrite18"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-external-commands"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-commands_002c-run-from-LaTeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-system-commands_002c-run-from-LaTeX"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-shell-access"></a>

<p>Synopsis:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\write18{<var class="var">shell_command</var>}
</pre></div>

<p>Issue a command to the operating system shell.  The operating system
runs the command and LaTeX&rsquo;s execution is blocked until that
finishes.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-Asymptote-3"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-Asymptote-package-3"></a>

<p>This sequence (on Unix)
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\usepackage{graphicx}  % in preamble
  ...
\newcommand{\fignum}{1}
\immediate\write18{cd pix &amp;&amp; asy figure\fignum}
\includegraphics{pix/figure\fignum.pdf}
</pre></div>

<p>will run Asymptote (the <code class="code">asy</code> program) on <samp class="file">pix/figure1.asy</samp>,
so that the document can later read in the resulting graphic
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics"><code class="code">\includegraphics</code></a>).  Like any <code class="code">\write</code>, here LaTeX
expands macros in <var class="var">shell_command</var> so that <code class="code">\fignum</code> is
replaced by &lsquo;<samp class="samp">1</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<p>Another example is that you can automatically run BibTeX at the start
of each LaTeX run (see <a class="pxref" href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a>) by including
<code class="code">\immediate\write18{bibtex8 \jobname}</code> as the first line of the
file.  Note that <code class="code">\jobname</code> expands to the basename of the root
file unless the <code class="code">--jobname</code> option is passed on the command line,
in which case this is the option argument.
</p>
<p>You sometimes need to do a multi-step process to get the information
that you want.  This will insert into the input a list of all PDF files
in the current directory (but see <code class="code">texosquery</code> below):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\immediate\write18{ls *.pdf &gt; tmp.dat}
\input{tmp.dat}
</pre></div>

<p>The standard behavior of any <code class="code">\write</code> is to wait until a page is
being shipped out before expanding the macros or writing to the stream
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cwrite"><code class="code">\write</code></a>). But sometimes you want it done now.  For this, use
<code class="code">\immediate\write18{<var class="var">shell_command</var>}</code>.
</p>
<p>There are obvious security issues with allowing system commands inside
a LaTeX file.  If you download a file off the net and it contains
commands to delete all your files then you would be unhappy. The
standard settings in modern distributions turn off full shell
access. You can turn it on, if you are sure the shell commands are
safe, by compiling with <code class="code">latex --enable-write18 <var class="var">filename</var></code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a>).  (The <code class="code">--shell-escape</code> option is
a synonym, in TeX Live.)
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-restricted-shell-access"></a>
<p>In the place of full shell access, modern distributions by default use
a restricted version that allows some commands to work, such as those
that run Metafont to generate missing fonts, even if you do not use
the <code class="code">enable-write18</code> option. By default this list of allowed
commands is short and features only commands that are under the
control of the distribution maintainers (see <a class="pxref" href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a>).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002fbin_002fsh_002c-used-by-_005cwrite18"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-sh_002c-used-by-_005cwrite18"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-cmd_002eexe_002c-used-by-_005cwrite18"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-SHELL_002c-environment-variables"></a>
<p>The <var class="var">shell_command</var> text is always passed to <samp class="file">/bin/sh</samp> on
Unix-like operating systems, and the DOS command interpreter
<samp class="file">cmd.exe</samp> on Windows. Any different shell set by the user, and
the <code class="code">SHELL</code> environment variable, is ignored.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-texosquery"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-texosquery-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-system-information"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-operating-system-information"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-locale-information_002c-from-system"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-directory-listings_002c-from-system"></a>
<p>If what you need is system information, such as the operating system
name, locale information, or directory contents, take a look at the
<code class="code">texosquery</code> package, which provides a convenient and secure
interface for this, unlike the above examples using the raw
<code class="code">\write18</code>: <a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/texosquery">https://ctan.org/pkg/texosquery</a>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-shellesc"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-shellesc-package"></a>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cShellEscape"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cDelayedShellEscape"></a>
<p>LaTeX provides a package <code class="code">shellesc</code> on top of the primitive
<code class="code">\write18</code> command. Its primary purpose is to provide a command
<code class="code">\ShellEscape</code> which works identically on all TeX engines;
LuaTeX intentionally did not retain <code class="code">\write18</code> as a way to
invoke a shell command, so some engine-specific code is needed. The
<code class="code">shellesc</code> package also provides a command
<code class="code">\DelayedShellEscape</code>, executed at <code class="code">\output</code> time, for the
same reason.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="chapter-level-extent" id="Command-line-interface">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Document-templates" accesskey="n" rel="next">Document templates</a>, Previous: <a href="#Input_002foutput" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Input/output</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="chapter" id="Command-line-interface-1">28 Command line interface</h2>

<a class="anchor" id="Command-line"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-command-line-interface"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-interface_002c-command-line"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-CLI"></a>

<p>Synopsis (from a terminal command line):
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">pdflatex <var class="var">options</var> <var class="var">argument</var>
</pre></div>

<p>Run LaTeX on <var class="var">argument</var>.  In place of <code class="command">pdflatex</code> you
can also use (for PDF output) <code class="command">xelatex</code> or <code class="code">lualatex</code>, or
(for DVI output) <code class="code">latex</code> or <code class="code">dvilualatex</code>, among others
(see <a class="pxref" href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>).
</p>
<p>For example, this will run LaTeX on the file <samp class="file">thesis.tex</samp>,
creating the output <samp class="file">thesis.pdf</samp>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">pdflatex thesis
</pre></div>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002etex_002c-default-extension"></a>
<p>Note that <samp class="file">.tex</samp> is the default file name extension.
</p>
<p>pdfTeX is an extension of the original TeX program, as are
XeTeX and LuaTeX (see <a class="pxref" href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>).  The first two are
completely backward compatible and the latter, almost so.  Perhaps the
most fundamental new feature for all three is that the original TeX
output its own DVI format, while the newer ones can output directly to
PDF.  This allows them to take advantage of the extra features in PDF
such as hyperlinks, support for modern image formats such as JPG and
PNG, and ubiquitous viewing programs.  In short, if you run
<code class="command">pdflatex</code> or <code class="command">xelatex</code> or <code class="command">lualatex</code> then you
will by default get PDF and have access to all its modern features.
If you run <code class="command">latex</code>, or <code class="command">dvilualatex</code>, then you will get
DVI.  The description here assumes <code class="command">pdflatex</code>.
</p>
<p>See <a class="xref" href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a>, for a selection of the most useful
command line options. As to <var class="var">argument</var>, the usual case is that it
does not begin with a backslash, so the system takes it to be the name
of a file and it compiles that file. If <var class="var">argument</var> begins with a
backslash then the system will interpret it as a line of LaTeX
input, which can be used for special effects (see <a class="pxref" href="#Command-line-input">Command line input</a>).
</p>
<p>If you gave no arguments or options then <code class="command">pdflatex</code> prompts for
input from the terminal. You can escape from this by entering
<kbd class="kbd">CTRL-D</kbd>.
</p>
<p>If LaTeX finds an error in your document then by default it stops and
asks you about it.  See <a class="xref" href="#Recovering-from-errors">Recovering from errors</a>, for an outline of what
to do.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#Command-line-options" accesskey="1">Command line options</a></li>
<li><a href="#Command-line-input" accesskey="2">Command line input</a></li>
<li><a href="#Jobname" accesskey="3">Jobname</a></li>
<li><a href="#Recovering-from-errors" accesskey="4">Recovering from errors</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Command-line-options">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Command-line-input" accesskey="n" rel="next">Command line input</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-line-interface" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command line interface</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Command-line-options-1">28.1 Command line options</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-options_002c-command-line"></a>

<p>These are the command-line options relevant to ordinary document
authoring. For a full list, try running &lsquo;<samp class="samp">latex --help</samp>&rsquo; from the
command line.
</p>
<p>With many implementations you can specify command line options by
prefixing them with &lsquo;<samp class="samp">-</samp>&rsquo; or &lsquo;<samp class="samp">--</samp>&rsquo;.  This is the case for both
TeX Live (including MacTeX) and MiKTeX.  We will use both
conventions interchangeably.  If an option takes a value, it can be
specified either as a separate argument (&lsquo;<samp class="samp">--foo val</samp>&rsquo;), or as one
argument with an &lsquo;<samp class="samp">=</samp>&rsquo; sign (&lsquo;<samp class="samp">--foo=val</samp>&rsquo;), but there can be no
spaces around the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">=</samp>&rsquo;. We will generally use the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">=</samp>&rsquo; syntax.
</p>
<dl class="table">
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002dversion-command_002dline-option"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">-version</code></dt>
<dd><p>Show the current version, like &lsquo;<samp class="samp">pdfTeX 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.16 (TeX
Live 2015/Debian)</samp>&rsquo; along with a small amount of additional information,
and exit.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002dhelp-command_002dline-option"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">-help</code></dt>
<dd><p>Give a brief usage message that is useful as a prompt and exit.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="interaction-modes"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002dinteraction-command_002dline-option"></a>
</dd>
<dt id='index-batchmode'><span><code class="code">-interaction=<var class="var">mode</var></code><a class="copiable-link" href='#index-batchmode'> &para;</a></span></dt>
<dd><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-scrollmode"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-errorstopmode"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-nonstopmode"></a>
<p>TeX compiles a document in one of four interaction modes:
<code class="code">batchmode</code>, <code class="code">nonstopmode</code>, <code class="code">scrollmode</code>,
<code class="code">errorstopmode</code>. In <em class="dfn">errorstopmode</em> (the default), TeX
stops at each error and asks for user intervention. In <em class="dfn">batchmode</em>
it prints nothing on the terminal, errors are scrolled as if the user
hit <kbd class="kbd">RETURN</kbd> at every error, and missing files cause the job to
abort. In <em class="dfn">nonstopmode</em>, diagnostic message appear on the terminal
but as in batch mode there is no user interaction. In
<em class="dfn">scrollmode</em>, TeX stops for missing files or keyboard
input, but nothing else.
</p>
<p>For instance, starting LaTeX with this command line
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">pdflatex -interaction=batchmode <var class="var">filename</var>
</pre></div>

<p>eliminates most terminal output.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-jobname"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-filename-for-current-job"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002djobname-command_002dline-option"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">-jobname=<var class="var">string</var></code></dt>
<dd><p>Set the value of TeX&rsquo;s <em class="dfn">jobname</em> to the string.  The log file
and output file will then be named <samp class="file"><var class="var">string</var>.log</samp> and
<samp class="file"><var class="var">string</var>.pdf</samp>.  see <a class="pxref" href="#Jobname">Jobname</a>.
</p>
<a class="anchor" id="output-directory"></a><a class="index-entry-id" id="index-output-directory-for-all-external-files"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002doutput_002ddirectory-command_002dline-option"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">-output-directory=<var class="var">directory</var></code></dt>
<dd><p>Write files in the directory <var class="var">directory</var>.  It must already exist.
This applies to all external files created by TeX or LaTeX, such
as the <samp class="file">.log</samp> file for the run, the <samp class="file">.aux</samp>, <samp class="file">.toc</samp>,
etc., files created by LaTeX, as well as the main <samp class="file">.pdf</samp> or
<samp class="file">.dvi</samp> output file itself.
</p>
<p>When specified, the output directory <var class="var">directory</var> is also
automatically checked first for any file that it is input, so that the
external files can be read back in, if desired. The true current
directory (in which LaTeX was run) remains unchanged, and is also
checked for input files.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-shell-escape"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cwrite18_002c-enabling"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002denable_002dwrite18-command_002dline-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002ddisable_002dwrite18-command_002dline-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002dshell_002descape-command_002dline-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002dno_002dshell_002descape-command_002dline-option"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">--enable-write18</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">--disable-write18</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">--shell-escape</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">--no-shell-escape</code></dt>
<dd><p>Enable or disable <code class="code">\write18{<var class="var">shell_command</var>}</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cwrite18"><code class="code">\write18</code></a>).  The first two options are supported by both
TeX Live and MiKTeX, while the second two are synonyms supported
by TeX Live.
</p>
<p>Enabling this functionality has major security implications, since it
allows a LaTeX file to run any command whatsoever.  Thus, by
default, unrestricted <code class="code">\write18</code> is not allowed.  (The default
for TeX Live, MacTeX, and MiKTeX is to allow the execution of
a limited number of TeX-related programs, which they distribute.)
</p>
<p>For example, if you invoke LaTeX with the option
<code class="code">no-shell-escape</code>, and in your document you call
<code class="code">\write18{ls -l}</code>, then you do not get an error but the log
file says &lsquo;<samp class="samp">runsystem(ls -l)...disabled</samp>&rsquo;.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002dhalt_002don_002derror-command_002dline-option"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">-halt-on-error</code></dt>
<dd><p>Stop processing at the first error.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002dfile_002dline_002derror-command_002dline-option"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002d_002dno_002dfile_002dline_002derror-command_002dline-option"></a>
</dd>
<dt><code class="code">-file-line-error</code></dt>
<dt><code class="code">-no-file-line-error</code></dt>
<dd><p>Enable or disable <code class="code"><var class="var">filename</var>:<var class="var">lineno</var>:<var class="var">error</var></code>-style
error messages.  These are only available with TeX Live or MacTeX.
</p></dd>
</dl>


<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Command-line-input">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Jobname" accesskey="n" rel="next">Jobname</a>, Previous: <a href="#Command-line-options" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Command line options</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-line-interface" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command line interface</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Command-line-input-1">28.2 Command line input</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-input_002c-on-command-line"></a>

<p>As part of the command line invocation
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted"><var class="var">latex-engine</var> <var class="var">options</var> <var class="var">argument</var>
</pre></div>

<p>you can specify arbitrary LaTeX input by starting
<var class="var">argument</var> with a backslash. (All the engines support this.) This
allows you to do some special effects.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-hyperref-4"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-hyperref-package-4"></a>
<p>For example, this file (which uses the
<code class="code">hyperref</code> package for hyperlinks) can produce two kinds of
output, one to be read on physical paper and one to be read online.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\ifdefined\paperversion        % in preamble
\newcommand{\urlcolor}{black}
\else
\newcommand{\urlcolor}{blue}
\fi
\usepackage[colorlinks=true,urlcolor=\urlcolor]{hyperref}
  ...
\href{https://www.ctan.org}{CTAN}  % in body
  ...
</pre></div>

<p>Compiling this document <samp class="file">book.tex</samp> with the command line
<code class="code">pdflatex book</code> will give the &lsquo;<samp class="samp">CTAN</samp>&rsquo; link in blue.  But
compiling it with
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">pdflatex &quot;\def\paperversion{}\input book.tex&quot;
</pre></div>

<p>has the link in black.  We use double quotes to prevent
interpretation of the symbols by the command line shell. (This
usually works on both Unix and Windows systems, but there are many
peculiarities to shell quoting, so read your system documentation if
need be.)
</p>
<p>In a similar way, from the single file <samp class="file">main.tex</samp> you can compile
two different versions.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">pdflatex -jobname=students &quot;\def\student{}\input{main}&quot;
pdflatex -jobname=teachers &quot;\def\teachers{}\input{main}&quot;
</pre></div>

<p>The <code class="code">jobname</code> option is there because otherwise both files would be
called <samp class="file">main.pdf</samp> and the second would overwrite the
first. (see <a class="pxref" href="#Jobname">Jobname</a>.)
</p>
<p>In this example we use the command line to select which parts of a
document to include.  For a book named <samp class="file">mybook.tex</samp> and structured
like this.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\documentclass{book}
\begin{document}
   ...
\include{chap1} 
\include{chap2}
  ...
\end{document}
</pre></div>

<p>the command line
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">pdflatex &quot;\includeonly{chap1}\input{mybook}&quot;
</pre></div>

<p>will give output that has the first chapter but no other
chapter. See <a class="xref" href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Jobname">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Recovering-from-errors" accesskey="n" rel="next">Recovering from errors</a>, Previous: <a href="#Command-line-input" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Command line input</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-line-interface" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command line interface</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Jobname-1">28.3 Jobname</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cjobname"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-jobname-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-document-root-name"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-name-of-document-root"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-root-file-1"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-file_002c-root-1"></a>

<p>Running LaTeX creates a number of files, including the main PDF (or
DVI) output but also including others.  These files are named with the
so-called <em class="dfn">jobname</em>.  The most common case is also the simplest,
where for instance the command <code class="code">pdflatex thesis</code> creates
<code class="code">thesis.pdf</code> and also <code class="code">thesis.log</code> and <code class="code">thesis.aux</code>.
Here the job name is <code class="code">thesis</code>.
</p>
<p>In general, LaTeX is invoked as <code class="code"><var class="var">latex-engine</var>
<var class="var">options</var> <var class="var">argument</var></code>, where <var class="var">latex-engine</var> is
<code class="command">pdflatex</code>, <code class="command">lualatex</code>, etc. (see <a class="pxref" href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a>).
If <var class="var">argument</var> does not start with a backslash, as is the case above
with <code class="code">thesis</code>, then TeX considers it to be the name of the file
to input as the main document. This file is referred to as the <em class="dfn">root
file</em> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a>, and&nbsp;<a class="ref" href="#g_t_005cinput"><code class="code">\input</code></a>). The name of
that root file, without the <samp class="file">.tex</samp> extension if any, is the
jobname.  If <var class="var">argument</var> does start with a backslash, or if TeX is
in interactive mode, then it waits for the first <code class="code">\input</code> command,
and the jobname is the argument to <code class="code">\input</code>.
</p>
<p>There are two more possibilities for the jobname.  It can be directly
specified with the <code class="code">-jobname</code> option, as in <code class="code">pdflatex
-jobname=myname</code> (see <a class="pxref" href="#Command-line-input">Command line input</a> for a real example).
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-texput_002c-jobname-default"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-fallback-jobname"></a>
<p>The final possibility is <samp class="file">texput</samp>, which is the final fallback
default if no other name is available to TeX.  That is, if no
<code class="code">-jobname</code> option was specified, and the compilation stops before
any input file is met, then the log file will be named
<samp class="file">texput.log</samp>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cdocumentclass_002c-and-texput-jobname"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cRequirePackage_002c-and-texput-jobname"></a>
<p>A special case of this is that in LaTeX versions of (approximately)
2020 or later, the jobname is also <samp class="file">texput</samp> if the first
<code class="code">\input</code> occurs as a result of being called by either
<code class="code">\documentclass</code> or <code class="code">\RequirePackage</code>.  So this will produce
a file named <samp class="file">texput.pdf</samp>:
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">pdflatex &quot;\documentclass{minimal}\begin{document}Hello!\end{document}&quot;
</pre></div>

<p>However, this special case only applies to those two commands.  Thus, with
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">pdflatex &quot;\documentclass{article}\usepackage{lipsum}\input{thesis}&quot;
</pre></div>

<p>the output file is <samp class="file">lipsum.pdf</samp>, as <code class="code">\usepackage</code> calls
<code class="code">\input</code>.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cjobname-1"></a>
<p>Within the document, the macro <code class="code">\jobname</code> expands to the jobname.
(When you run LaTeX on a file whose name contains spaces, the string
returned by <code class="code">\jobname</code> contains matching start and end quotes.)
In the expansion of that macro, all characters are of
catcode&nbsp;12 (other) except that spaces are category&nbsp;10,
including letters that are normally catcode&nbsp;11.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cIfBeginWith_002a-macro-from-xstring"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-xstring"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-xstring-package"></a>

<p>Because of this catcode situation, using the jobname in a conditional
can become complicated. One solution is to use the macro
<code class="code">\IfBeginWith</code> from the <samp class="file">xstring</samp> package in its star
variant, which is insensitive to catcode. For example, in the
following text the footnote &ldquo;Including Respublica Bananensis
Francorum.&rdquo; is only present if the task name starts with
<samp class="file">my-doc</samp>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">If a democracy is just a regime where citizens vote then
all banana republics \IfBeginWith*{\jobname}{my-doc}%
{\footnote{Including Respublica Bananensis Francorum.}}{} are
democracies.
</pre></div>

<p>Manipulating the value of <code class="code">\jobname</code> inside of a document does not
change the name of the output file or the log file.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Recovering-from-errors">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Jobname" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Jobname</a>, Up: <a href="#Command-line-interface" accesskey="u" rel="up">Command line interface</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Recovering-from-errors-1">28.4 Recovering from errors</h3>

<p>If LaTeX finds an error in your document then it gives you an error
message and prompts you with a question mark, <code class="code">?</code>.  For instance,
running LaTeX on this file
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">\newcommand{\NP}{\ensuremath{\textbf{NP}}}
The \PN{} problem is a million dollar one.
</pre></div>

<p>causes it show this, and wait for input.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">! Undefined control sequence.
l.5 The \PN
           {} problem is a million dollar one.
? 
</pre></div>

<p>The simplest thing is to enter <kbd class="kbd">x</kbd> and <kbd class="kbd">RETURN</kbd> and fix the
typo.  You could instead enter <kbd class="kbd">?</kbd> and <kbd class="kbd">RETURN</kbd> to see other
options.
</p>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_002a-prompt"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-prompt_002c-_002a"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-_005cstop"></a>
<p>There are two other error scenarios.  The first is that you forgot to
include the <code class="code">\end{document}</code> or misspelled it.  In this case
LaTeX gives you a &lsquo;<samp class="samp">*</samp>&rsquo; prompt.  You can get back to the command
line by typing <kbd class="kbd">\stop</kbd> and <kbd class="kbd">RETURN</kbd>; this command does its
best to exit LaTeX immediately, whatever state it may be in.
</p>
<p>The last scenario is that you mistyped the filename.  For instance,
instead of <code class="code">pdflatex test</code> you might type <code class="code">pdflatex tste</code>.
</p>
<div class="example">
<pre class="example-preformatted">! I can't find file `tste'.
&lt;*&gt; tste
        
(Press Enter to retry, or Control-D to exit)
Please type another input file name:
</pre></div>

<p>The simplest thing is to enter <kbd class="kbd">CTRL d</kbd> (holding the Control and d
keys down at the same time), and then retype the correct command line.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="appendix-level-extent" id="Document-templates">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Index" accesskey="n" rel="next">Index</a>, Previous: <a href="#Command-line-interface" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Command line interface</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="appendix" id="Document-templates-1">Appendix A Document templates</h2>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-document-templates"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-templates_002c-document"></a>

<p>Although illustrative material, perhaps these document templates will
be useful.  Additional template resources are listed at
<a class="url" href="https://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates">https://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates</a>.
</p>


<ul class="mini-toc">
<li><a href="#beamer-template" accesskey="1"><code class="code">beamer</code> template</a></li>
<li><a href="#article-template" accesskey="2"><code class="code">article</code> template</a></li>
<li><a href="#book-template" accesskey="3"><code class="code">book</code> template</a></li>
<li><a href="#Larger-book-template" accesskey="4">Larger <code class="code">book</code> template</a></li>
</ul>
<hr>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="beamer-template">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#article-template" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">article</code> template</a>, Up: <a href="#Document-templates" accesskey="u" rel="up">Document templates</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="beamer-template-1">A.1 <code class="code">beamer</code> template</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-beamer-template-and-class"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-template_002c-beamer"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-package_002c-beamer"></a>
<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-beamer-package"></a>


<p>The <code class="code">beamer</code> class creates presentation slides.  It has a vast
array of features, but here is a basic template:
</p>
<pre class="verbatim">\documentclass{beamer}

\title{Beamer Class template}
\author{Alex Author}
\date{July 31, 2020}

\begin{document}

\maketitle

% without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
\begin{frame}[fragile]
 \frametitle{First Slide}

\begin{verbatim}
  This is \verbatim!
\end{verbatim}

\end{frame}

\end{document}
</pre>
<p>The Beamer package on CTAN: <a class="url" href="https://ctan.org/pkg/beamer">https://ctan.org/pkg/beamer</a>.
</p>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="article-template">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#book-template" accesskey="n" rel="next"><code class="code">book</code> template</a>, Previous: <a href="#beamer-template" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">beamer</code> template</a>, Up: <a href="#Document-templates" accesskey="u" rel="up">Document templates</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="article-template-1">A.2 <code class="code">article</code> template</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-template-_0028simple_0029_002c-article"></a>

<p>A simple template for an article.
</p>
<pre class="verbatim">\documentclass{article}
\title{Article Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}

\begin{document}
\maketitle

\section{First section}
Some text.

\subsection{First section, first subsection}
Additional text.

\section{Second section}
Some more text.

\end{document}
</pre>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="book-template">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Next: <a href="#Larger-book-template" accesskey="n" rel="next">Larger <code class="code">book</code> template</a>, Previous: <a href="#article-template" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">article</code> template</a>, Up: <a href="#Document-templates" accesskey="u" rel="up">Document templates</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="book-template-1">A.3 <code class="code">book</code> template</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-template_002c-book"></a>

<p>This is a straightforward template for a book.  See <a class="xref" href="#Larger-book-template">Larger <code class="code">book</code> template</a>, for a more elaborate one.
</p>
<pre class="verbatim">\documentclass{book}
\title{Book Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}

\begin{document}
\maketitle

\chapter{First}
Some text.

\chapter{Second}
Some other text.

\section{A subtopic}
The end.

\end{document}
</pre>

<hr>
</div>
<div class="section-level-extent" id="Larger-book-template">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#book-template" accesskey="p" rel="prev"><code class="code">book</code> template</a>, Up: <a href="#Document-templates" accesskey="u" rel="up">Document templates</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h3 class="section" id="Larger-book-template-1">A.4 Larger <code class="code">book</code> template</h3>

<a class="index-entry-id" id="index-template_002c-book-1"></a>

<p>This is a somewhat elaborate template for a book.  See <a class="xref" href="#book-template"><code class="code">book</code> template</a>,
for a simpler one.
</p>
<p>This template uses <code class="code">\frontmatter</code>, <code class="code">\mainmatter</code>, and
<code class="code">\backmatter</code> to control the typography of the three main areas
of a book (see <a class="pxref" href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter"><code class="code">\frontmatter</code>, <code class="code">\mainmatter</code>, <code class="code">\backmatter</code></a>).  The
book has a bibliography and an index.
</p>
<p>Also notable is that it uses <code class="code">\include</code> and <code class="code">\includeonly</code>
(see <a class="pxref" href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a>).  While you are working on a chapter you
can comment out all the other chapter entries from the argument to
<code class="code">\includeonly</code>.  That will speed up compilation without losing
any information such as cross-references.  (Material that does not
need to come on a new page is brought in with <code class="code">\input</code> instead of
<code class="code">\include</code>.  You don&rsquo;t get the cross-reference benefit with
<code class="code">\input</code>.)
</p>
<pre class="verbatim">\documentclass[titlepage]{book}
\usepackage{makeidx}\makeindex

\title{Book Class Template}
\author{Alex Author}

\includeonly{%
% frontcover,
  preface,
  chap1,
% appenA,
  }

\begin{document}
\frontmatter
\include{frontcover}
  % maybe comment out while drafting:
\maketitle \input{dedication} \input{copyright}
\tableofcontents
\include{preface}

\mainmatter
\include{chap1}
...
\appendix
\include{appenA}
...

\backmatter
\bibliographystyle{apalike}
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Bibliography}
\bibliography
\addcontentsline{toc}{chapter}{Index}
\printindex

\include{backcover}
\end{document}
</pre>

<hr>
</div>
</div>
<div class="unnumbered-level-extent" id="Index">
<div class="nav-panel">
<p>
Previous: <a href="#Document-templates" accesskey="p" rel="prev">Document templates</a>, Up: <a href="#Top" accesskey="u" rel="up">LaTeX2e: An unofficial reference manual</a> &nbsp; [<a href="#SEC_Contents" title="Table of contents" rel="contents">Contents</a>][<a href="#Index" title="Index" rel="index">Index</a>]</p>
</div>
<h2 class="unnumbered" id="Index-1">Index</h2>

<a class="anchor" id="Command-Index"></a>
<div class="printindex cp-printindex">
<table class="cp-letters-header-printindex"><tr><th>Jump to: &nbsp; </th><td><a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-1"><b>$</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-2"><b>&amp;</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-3"><b>*</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-4"><b>-</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-5"><b>.</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-6"><b>/</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-7"><b>1</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-8"><b>:</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-9"><b>[</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-10"><b>\</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-11"><b>^</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-12"><b>_</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-13"><b>{</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-14"><b>~</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<br>
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-A"><b>A</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-B"><b>B</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-C"><b>C</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-D"><b>D</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-E"><b>E</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-F"><b>F</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-G"><b>G</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-H"><b>H</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-I"><b>I</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-J"><b>J</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-K"><b>K</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-L"><b>L</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-M"><b>M</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-N"><b>N</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-O"><b>O</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-P"><b>P</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-Q"><b>Q</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-R"><b>R</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-S"><b>S</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-T"><b>T</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-U"><b>U</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-V"><b>V</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-W"><b>W</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-X"><b>X</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
</td></tr></table>
<table class="cp-entries-printindex" border="0">
<tr><td></td><th class="entries-header-printindex">Index Entry</th><td>&nbsp;</td><th class="sections-header-printindex"> Section</th></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-1">$</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_0024-inline-math"><code>$ <span class="r">inline math</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#math">math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_0024_0024_002e_002e_002e_0024_0024-plain-TeX-display-math"><code>$$...$$ <span class="r">plain TeX display math</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#displaymath">displaymath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-2">&amp;</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_0026-_0028for-table-cells_0029"><code>&amp; <span class="r">(for table cells)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-3">*</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002a-prompt">&lsquo;<samp class="samp">*</samp>&rsquo; prompt</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Recovering-from-errors">Recovering from errors</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002a_002c-to-_005cnocite-all-keys">&lsquo;<samp class="samp">*</samp>&rsquo;, to <code class="code">\nocite</code> all keys</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002a_002dform-of-environment-commands"><code class="code">*</code>-form of environment commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">\newenvironment &amp; \renewenvironment</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002a_002dform-of-sectioning-commands"><code class="code">*</code>-form of sectioning commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002a_002dform_002c-defining-new-commands">*-form, defining new commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-4">-</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002ddisable_002dwrite18-command_002dline-option"><code>--disable-write18 <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002denable_002dwrite18-command_002dline-option"><code>--enable-write18 <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002dfile_002dline_002derror-command_002dline-option"><code>--file-line-error <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002dhalt_002don_002derror-command_002dline-option"><code>--halt-on-error <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002dhelp-command_002dline-option"><code>--help <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002dinteraction-command_002dline-option"><code>--interaction <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002djobname-command_002dline-option"><code>--jobname <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002dno_002dfile_002dline_002derror-command_002dline-option"><code>--no-file-line-error <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002dno_002dshell_002descape-command_002dline-option"><code>--no-shell-escape <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002doutput_002ddirectory-command_002dline-option"><code>--output-directory <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002dshell_002descape-command_002dline-option"><code>--shell-escape <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d_002dversion-command_002dline-option"><code>--version <span class="r">command-line option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002d1_002c-write-stream-number"><em class="math">-1</em>, write stream number</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-5">.</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002eaux-file"><code>.aux <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002eaux-file-and-BibTeX-commands"><code>.aux <span class="r">file and BibTeX commands</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002edvi-file"><code>.dvi <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002efmt-file"><code>.fmt <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002eglo-file"><samp class="file">.glo</samp> file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Glossaries">Glossaries</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002eidx-file"><samp class="file">.idx</samp> file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002eidx-file-1"><samp class="file">.idx</samp> file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002eind-file"><samp class="file">.ind</samp> file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002eisty-file"><samp class="file">.isty</samp> file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002elof-file"><code>.lof <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002elof-file-1"><code>.lof <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002elof-file-2"><code>.lof <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002elog-file"><code>.log <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002elot-file"><code>.lot <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002elot-file-1"><code>.lot <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002elot-file-2"><code>.lot <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002epdf-file"><code>.pdf <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002etex_002c-default-extension"><code>.tex, <span class="r">default extension</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-interface">Command line interface</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002etoc-file"><code>.toc <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002etoc-file-1"><code>.toc <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002etoc-file-2"><code>.toc <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002exdv-file"><code>.xdv <span class="r">file</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-6">/</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_002fbin_002fsh_002c-used-by-_005cwrite18"><code>/bin/sh<span class="r">, used by <code class="code">\write18</code></span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-7">1</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-10pt-option"><code>10pt <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-11pt-option"><code>11pt <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-12pt-option"><code>12pt <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-8">:</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_003a-_0028for-math_0029"><code>: <span class="r">(for math)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character &amp; \colon</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-9">[</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005b_002e_002e_002e_005d-_0028for-optional-arguments_0029"><code>[...] <span class="r">(for optional arguments)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-10">\</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c-_0028backslash_002dspace_0029"><code>\&nbsp;<!-- /@w --> <span class="r">(backslash-space)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029">\(SPACE)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c-character-starting-commands"><code>\ <span class="r">character starting commands</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0021"><code>\!</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0022-_0028umlaut-accent_0029"><code>\&quot; <span class="r">(umlaut accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0023"><code>\#</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0024"><code>\$</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0025"><code>\%</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0026"><code>\&amp;</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0027-_0028acute-accent_0029"><code>\' <span class="r">(acute accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0027-_0028tabbing_0029"><code>\' <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0028_002e_002e_002e_005c_0029-inline-math"><code>\(...\) <span class="r">inline math</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#math">math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_002a"><code>\*</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002a">\*</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_002b"><code>\+</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_002c"><code>\,</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_002d"><code>\-</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_002d-_0028hyphenation_0029"><code>\- <span class="r">(hyphenation)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002d-_0028hyphenation_0029">\- (hyphenation)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_002e-_0028dot_002dover-accent_0029"><code>\. <span class="r">(dot-over accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_002f"><code>\/</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002f">\/</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_003a"><code>\:</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_003b"><code>\;</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_003c"><code>\&lt;</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_003d-_0028macron-accent_0029"><code>\= <span class="r">(macron accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_003d-_0028tabbing_0029"><code>\= <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_003e"><code>\&gt;</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_003e-1"><code>\&gt;</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_003e-_0028tabbing_0029"><code>\&gt; <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0040"><code>\@</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040">\@</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0040auxout"><code>\@auxout</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0040beginparpenalty"><code>\@beginparpenalty</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0040dottedtocline"><code>\@dottedtocline</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040dottedtocline">\@dottedtocline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0040endparpenalty"><code>\@endparpenalty</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0040fnsymbol"><code>\@fnsymbol</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0040ifstar"><code>\@ifstar</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar">\@ifstar</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0040itempenalty"><code>\@itempenalty</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0040mainaux"><code>\@mainaux</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0040startsection"><code>\@startsection</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection">\@startsection</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ca-_0028tabbing_0029"><code>\a <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ca_0027-_0028acute-accent-in-tabbing_0029"><code>\a' <span class="r">(acute accent in tabbing)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ca_003d-_0028macron-accent-in-tabbing_0029"><code>\a= <span class="r">(macron accent in tabbing)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005caa-_0028aa_0029"><code>\aa <span class="r">(&aring;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cAA-_0028AA_0029"><code>\AA <span class="r">(&Aring;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005caccent"><code>\accent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caccent">\accent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cacute"><code>\acute</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005caddcontentsline"><code>\addcontentsline</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline">\addcontentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005caddress"><code>\address</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddress">\address</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005caddtocontents_007bext_007d_007btext_007d"><code>\addtocontents{<var class="var">ext</var>}{<var class="var">text</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddtocontents">\addtocontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005caddtocounter"><code>\addtocounter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddtocounter">\addtocounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005caddtolength"><code>\addtolength</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddtolength">\addtolength</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005caddvspace"><code>\addvspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddvspace">\addvspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cae-_0028ae_0029"><code>\ae <span class="r">(&aelig;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cAE-_0028AE_0029"><code>\AE <span class="r">(&AElig;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005caleph"><code>\aleph</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cAlph-example"><code>\Alph <span class="r">example</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005calpha"><code>\alpha</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005calph_007bcounter_007d"><code>\alph{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cAlph_007bcounter_007d"><code>\Alph{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005calsoname"><code>\alsoname</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005camalg"><code>\amalg</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cand-_0028for-_005cauthor_0029"><code>\and <span class="r">(for <code class="code">\author</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cangle"><code>\angle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cappendix"><code>\appendix</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cappendix">\appendix</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005capprox"><code>\approx</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005carabic_007bcounter_007d"><code>\arabic{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005carccos"><code>\arccos</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005carcsin"><code>\arcsin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005carctan"><code>\arctan</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005carg"><code>\arg</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005carraycolsep"><code>\arraycolsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005carrayrulewidth"><code>\arrayrulewidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005carraystretch"><code>\arraystretch</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cast"><code>\ast</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005casymp"><code>\asymp</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cAtBeginDocument"><code>\AtBeginDocument</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cAtBeginDocument">\AtBeginDocument</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cAtBeginDvi"><code>\AtBeginDvi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cAtEndDocument"><code>\AtEndDocument</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cAtEndDocument">\AtEndDocument</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cAtEndOfClass"><code>\AtEndOfClass</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cAtEndOfPackage"><code>\AtEndOfPackage</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cauthor_007bname1-_005cand-name2-_005cand-_002e_002e_002e_007d"><code>\author{<var class="var">name1</var> \and <var class="var">name2</var> \and ...}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ca_0060-_0028grave-accent-in-tabbing_0029"><code>\a` <span class="r">(grave accent in tabbing)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cb-_0028bar_002dunder-accent_0029"><code>\b <span class="r">(bar-under accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbackmatter"><code>\backmatter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbackslash"><code>\backslash</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbar"><code>\bar</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbaselineskip"><code>\baselineskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbaselineskip-1"><code>\baselineskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbaselinestretch"><code>\baselinestretch</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbegin"><code>\begin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Environments">Environments</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbeta"><code>\beta</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbf"><code>\bf</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbfseries"><code>\bfseries</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbibdata"><code>\bibdata</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbibitem"><code>\bibitem</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbibitem">\bibitem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbibliography"><code>\bibliography</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbibliography-and-internal-_005cbibdata"><code>\bibliography <span class="r">and internal <code class="code">\bibdata</code></span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbibliographystyle"><code>\bibliographystyle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbibliographystyle-and-internal-_005cbibstyle"><code>\bibliographystyle <span class="r">and internal <code class="code">\bibstyle</code></span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbibname"><code>\bibname</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbibstyle"><code>\bibstyle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigbreak"><code>\bigbreak</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak">\bigbreak &amp; \medbreak &amp; \smallbreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigcap"><code>\bigcap</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigcirc"><code>\bigcirc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigcup"><code>\bigcup</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigl"><code>\bigl</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigl-_0026-_005cbigr-etc_002e">\bigl &amp; \bigr etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigodot"><code>\bigodot</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigoplus"><code>\bigoplus</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigotimes"><code>\bigotimes</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigr"><code>\bigr</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigl-_0026-_005cbigr-etc_002e">\bigl &amp; \bigr etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigskip"><code>\bigskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip &amp; \medskip &amp; \smallskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigskip-1"><code>\bigskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip &amp; \medskip &amp; \smallskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigskipamount"><code>\bigskipamount</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip &amp; \medskip &amp; \smallskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigsqcup"><code>\bigsqcup</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigtriangledown"><code>\bigtriangledown</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigtriangleup"><code>\bigtriangleup</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbiguplus"><code>\biguplus</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigvee"><code>\bigvee</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbigwedge"><code>\bigwedge</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbmod"><code>\bmod</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cboldmath"><code>\boldmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath">\boldmath &amp; \unboldmath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cboldmath-1"><code>\boldmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath">\boldmath &amp; \unboldmath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbot"><code>\bot</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbottomfraction"><code>\bottomfraction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbottomfraction-1"><code>\bottomfraction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbowtie"><code>\bowtie</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cBox"><code>\Box</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbreve"><code>\breve</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cbullet"><code>\bullet</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cc-_0028cedilla-accent_0029"><code>\c <span class="r">(cedilla accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccal"><code>\cal</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccap"><code>\cap</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalacute"><code>\capitalacute</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalbreve"><code>\capitalbreve</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalcaron"><code>\capitalcaron</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalcedilla"><code>\capitalcedilla</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalcircumflex"><code>\capitalcircumflex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitaldieresis"><code>\capitaldieresis</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitaldotaccent"><code>\capitaldotaccent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalgrave"><code>\capitalgrave</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalhungarumlaut"><code>\capitalhungarumlaut</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalmacron"><code>\capitalmacron</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalnewtie"><code>\capitalnewtie</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalogonek"><code>\capitalogonek</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitalring"><code>\capitalring</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitaltie"><code>\capitaltie</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccapitaltilde"><code>\capitaltilde</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccaption"><code>\caption</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccaption">\caption</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccaption-1"><code>\caption</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#figure">figure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccaption-2"><code>\caption</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#table">table</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccc"><code>\cc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccc">\cc</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccdot"><code>\cdot</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccdots"><code>\cdots</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccentering"><code>\centering</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccentering">\centering</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cchapter"><code>\chapter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cchapter-1"><code>\chapter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cchapter">\chapter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccheck"><code>\check</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cCheckCommand"><code>\CheckCommand</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cCheckCommand_002a"><code>\CheckCommand*</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cchi"><code>\chi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccirc"><code>\circ</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccircle"><code>\circle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccircle">\circle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccitation"><code>\citation</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccite"><code>\cite</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccite">\cite</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccite-and-internal-_005ccitation"><code>\cite <span class="r">and internal <code class="code">\citation</code></span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cClassError"><code>\ClassError</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cClassInfo"><code>\ClassInfo</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cClassInfoNoLine"><code>\ClassInfoNoLine</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cClassWarning"><code>\ClassWarning</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cClassWarningNoLine"><code>\ClassWarningNoLine</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccleardoublepage"><code>\cleardoublepage</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage &amp; \cleardoublepage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cclearpage"><code>\clearpage</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage &amp; \cleardoublepage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccline"><code>\cline</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccline">\cline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cclosein"><code>\closein</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout">\openin &amp; \openout</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccloseout"><code>\closeout</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout">\openin &amp; \openout</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cclosing"><code>\closing</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cclosing">\closing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cclubsuit"><code>\clubsuit</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccolon"><code>\colon</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character &amp; \colon</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccolumnsep"><code>\columnsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccolumnsep-1"><code>\columnsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccolumnsep-2"><code>\columnsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccolumnseprule"><code>\columnseprule</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccolumnseprule-1"><code>\columnseprule</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccolumnseprule-2"><code>\columnseprule</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccolumnwidth"><code>\columnwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccolumnwidth-1"><code>\columnwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccolumnwidth-2"><code>\columnwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccomplement"><code>\complement</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccong"><code>\cong</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccontentsline"><code>\contentsline</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccontentsline-1"><code>\contentsline</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline">\addcontentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccontentsline-2"><code>\contentsline</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccoprod"><code>\coprod</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccopyright"><code>\copyright</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccos"><code>\cos</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccosh"><code>\cosh</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccot"><code>\cot</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccoth"><code>\coth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccsc"><code>\csc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ccup"><code>\cup</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cCurrentOption"><code>\CurrentOption</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cd-_0028dot_002dunder-accent_0029"><code>\d <span class="r">(dot-under accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdag"><code>\dag</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdagger"><code>\dagger</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdashbox"><code>\dashbox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cdashbox">\dashbox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdashv"><code>\dashv</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdate_007btext_007d"><code>\date{<var class="var">text</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cday"><code>\day</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear">\day &amp; \month &amp; \year</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdblfloatpagefraction"><code>\dblfloatpagefraction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdblfloatsep"><code>\dblfloatsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdbltextfloatsep"><code>\dbltextfloatsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdbltopfraction"><code>\dbltopfraction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdbltopnumber"><code>\dbltopnumber</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cddag"><code>\ddag</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cddagger"><code>\ddagger</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cddot"><code>\ddot</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cddots"><code>\ddots</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareFontEncoding"><code>\DeclareFontEncoding</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding">\DeclareFontEncoding</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions"><code>\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareGraphicsRule"><code>\DeclareGraphicsRule</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsRule">\DeclareGraphicsRule</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareOption"><code>\DeclareOption</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareOption_002a"><code>\DeclareOption*</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareRobustCommand"><code>\DeclareRobustCommand</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareRobustCommand_002a"><code>\DeclareRobustCommand*</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextAccent"><code>\DeclareTextAccent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent">\DeclareTextAccent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextAccent-1"><code>\DeclareTextAccent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault">\DeclareTextAccentDefault</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault"><code>\DeclareTextAccentDefault</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault">\DeclareTextAccentDefault</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextCommand"><code>\DeclareTextCommand</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand">\DeclareTextCommand &amp; \ProvideTextCommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault"><code>\DeclareTextCommandDefault</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault">\DeclareTextCommandDefault &amp; \ProvideTextCommandDefault</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextComposite"><code>\DeclareTextComposite</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextComposite">\DeclareTextComposite</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand"><code>\DeclareTextCompositeCommand</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextSymbol"><code>\DeclareTextSymbol</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand">\DeclareTextCommand &amp; \ProvideTextCommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextSymbol-1"><code>\DeclareTextSymbol</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol">\DeclareTextSymbol</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextSymbol-2"><code>\DeclareTextSymbol</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault"><code>\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdeg"><code>\deg</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDelayedShellEscape"><code>\DelayedShellEscape</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDelta"><code>\Delta</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdelta"><code>\delta</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdet"><code>\det</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdh-_0028d_0029"><code>\dh <span class="r">(&eth;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDH-_0028D_0029"><code>\DH <span class="r">(&ETH;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDiamond"><code>\Diamond</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdiamond"><code>\diamond</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdiamondsuit"><code>\diamondsuit</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdim"><code>\dim</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdisplaystyle"><code>\displaystyle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdiv"><code>\div</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdj"><code>\dj</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDJ"><code>\DJ</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdocumentclass"><code>\documentclass</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-classes">Document classes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdocumentclass_002c-and-texput-jobname"><code>\documentclass<span class="r">, and <code class="code">texput</code> jobname</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdot"><code>\dot</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdoteq"><code>\doteq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdotfill"><code>\dotfill</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill">\hrulefill &amp; \dotfill</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdots"><code>\dots</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdots-1"><code>\dots</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdots-2"><code>\dots</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdotsb"><code>\dotsb</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdotsc"><code>\dotsc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdotsi"><code>\dotsi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdoublerulesep"><code>\doublerulesep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cdownarrow"><code>\downarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cDownarrow"><code>\Downarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cell"><code>\ell</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cemph"><code>\emph</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cemptyset"><code>\emptyset</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cencl"><code>\encl</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cencl">\encl</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cend"><code>\end</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Environments">Environments</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cendinput"><code>\endinput</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cendinput">\endinput</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cenlargethispage"><code>\enlargethispage</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cenlargethispage">\enlargethispage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005censpace"><code>\enspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad">\enspace &amp; \quad &amp; \qquad</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cenumi"><code>\enumi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cenumii"><code>\enumii</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cenumiii"><code>\enumiii</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cenumiv"><code>\enumiv</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cepsilon"><code>\epsilon</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cequiv"><code>\equiv</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ceta"><code>\eta</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cevensidemargin"><code>\evensidemargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cevensidemargin-1"><code>\evensidemargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cevensidemargin-2"><code>\evensidemargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cExecuteOptions"><code>\ExecuteOptions</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cexists"><code>\exists</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cexp"><code>\exp</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cexternaldocument"><code>\externaldocument</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xr-package">xr package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cextracolsep"><code>\extracolsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfbox"><code>\fbox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox &amp; \framebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfboxrule-1"><code>\fboxrule</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029">\framebox (picture)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfboxrule">\fboxrule</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox &amp; \framebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfboxrule-2"><code>\fboxrule</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox &amp; \framebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfboxsep-1"><code>\fboxsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029">\framebox (picture)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfboxsep">\fboxsep</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox &amp; \framebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfboxsep-2"><code>\fboxsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox &amp; \framebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfill"><code>\fill</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chfill">\hfill</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cflat"><code>\flat</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfloatpagefraction"><code>\floatpagefraction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfloatpagefraction-1"><code>\floatpagefraction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfloatsep"><code>\floatsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfloatsep-1"><code>\floatsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cflushbottom"><code>\flushbottom</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cflushbottom">\flushbottom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfnsymbol_002c-and-footnotes"><code>\fnsymbol<span class="r">, and footnotes</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfnsymbol_007bcounter_007d"><code>\fnsymbol{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfontdimen1"><code>\fontdimen1</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002f">\/</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfontencoding"><code>\fontencoding</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfontfamily"><code>\fontfamily</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfontseries"><code>\fontseries</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfontshape"><code>\fontshape</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfontsize"><code>\fontsize</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfootnote"><code>\footnote</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfootnotemark"><code>\footnotemark</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark">\footnotemark</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfootnoterule"><code>\footnoterule</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfootnotesep"><code>\footnotesep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfootnotesize"><code>\footnotesize</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfootnotetext"><code>\footnotetext</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnotetext">\footnotetext</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfootskip"><code>\footskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfootskip-1"><code>\footskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cforall"><code>\forall</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfrac"><code>\frac</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrac">\frac</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cframe"><code>\frame</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cframe">\frame</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cframebox"><code>\framebox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cframebox-_0028picture_0029">\framebox (picture)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cframebox-1"><code>\framebox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox &amp; \framebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfrenchspacing"><code>\frenchspacing</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrenchspacing-_0026-_005cnonfrenchspacing">\frenchspacing &amp; \nonfrenchspacing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfrontmatter"><code>\frontmatter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfrown"><code>\frown</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cfussy"><code>\fussy</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy">\fussy &amp; \sloppy</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cGamma"><code>\Gamma</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cgamma"><code>\gamma</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cgcd"><code>\gcd</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cge"><code>\ge</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cgeq"><code>\geq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cgets"><code>\gets</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cgg"><code>\gg</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cgls"><code>\gls</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cgls">\gls</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cgraphicspath"><code>\graphicspath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cgraphicspath">\graphicspath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cgraphpaper"><code>\graphpaper</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cgraphpaper">\graphpaper</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cgrave"><code>\grave</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cguillemotleft-_0028_00ab_0029"><code>\guillemotleft <span class="r">(&laquo;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cguillemotright-_0028_00bb_0029"><code>\guillemotright <span class="r">(&raquo;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cguilsinglleft-_0028_2039_0029"><code>\guilsinglleft <span class="r">(&lsaquo;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cguilsinglright-_0028_203a_0029"><code>\guilsinglright <span class="r">(&rsaquo;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cH-_0028Hungarian-umlaut-accent_0029"><code>\H <span class="r">(Hungarian umlaut accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chat"><code>\hat</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chbar"><code>\hbar</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cheadheight"><code>\headheight</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cheadheight-1"><code>\headheight</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cheadsep"><code>\headsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cheadsep-1"><code>\headsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cheartsuit"><code>\heartsuit</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chfill"><code>\hfill</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chfill">\hfill</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chline"><code>\hline</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chline">\hline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chom"><code>\hom</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chookleftarrow"><code>\hookleftarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chookrightarrow"><code>\hookrightarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chphantom"><code>\hphantom</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chrulefill"><code>\hrulefill</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chrulefill-_0026-_005cdotfill">\hrulefill &amp; \dotfill</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chsize"><code>\hsize</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chsize-1"><code>\hsize</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chspace"><code>\hspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chspace">\hspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chss"><code>\hss</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chss">\hss</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chuge"><code>\huge</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cHuge"><code>\Huge</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005chyphenation"><code>\hyphenation</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chyphenation">\hyphenation</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ci-_0028dotless-i_0029"><code>\i <span class="r">(dotless i)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cIfBeginWith_002a-macro-from-xstring"><code>\IfBeginWith*<span class="r"> macro from <samp class="file">xstring</samp></span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ciff"><code>\iff</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cIfFileExists"><code>\IfFileExists</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cignorespaces"><code>\ignorespaces</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend">\ignorespaces &amp; \ignorespacesafterend</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cignorespacesafterend"><code>\ignorespacesafterend</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend">\ignorespaces &amp; \ignorespacesafterend</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cij-_0028ij_0029"><code>\ij <span class="r">(ij)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cIJ-_0028IJ_0029"><code>\IJ <span class="r">(IJ)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cIm"><code>\Im</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cimath"><code>\imath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cimmediate_005cwrite"><code>\immediate\write</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cin"><code>\in</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cinclude"><code>\include</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly">\include &amp; \includeonly</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cincludegraphics"><code>\includegraphics</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cincludeonly"><code>\includeonly</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly">\include &amp; \includeonly</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cindent"><code>\indent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent">\indent &amp; \noindent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cindex"><code>\index</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cindex-1"><code>\index</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cindexentry"><code>\indexentry</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cindexspace"><code>\indexspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Produce-the-index-manually">Produce the index manually</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cindexspace-1"><code>\indexspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cinf"><code>\inf</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cinfty"><code>\infty</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cinput"><code>\input</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cinput">\input</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cinputencoding"><code>\inputencoding</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#inputenc-package">inputenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cInputIfFileExists"><code>\InputIfFileExists</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cint"><code>\int</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cintextsep"><code>\intextsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cintextsep-1"><code>\intextsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ciota"><code>\iota</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cit"><code>\it</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005citem"><code>\item</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#description">description</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005citem-1"><code>\item</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005citem-2"><code>\item</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005citem-3"><code>\item</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005citem-4"><code>\item</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Produce-the-index-manually">Produce the index manually</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005citemindent"><code>\itemindent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005citemsep"><code>\itemsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005citshape"><code>\itshape</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cj-_0028dotless-j_0029"><code>\j <span class="r">(dotless j)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cjmath"><code>\jmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cjobname"><code><code class="code">\jobname</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cjobname-1"><code>\jobname</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cJoin"><code>\Join</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ck-_0028ogonek_0029"><code>\k <span class="r">(ogonek)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ckappa"><code>\kappa</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cker"><code>\ker</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ckill"><code>\kill</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cl-_0028l_0029"><code>\l <span class="r">(&#322;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cL-_0028L_0029"><code>\L <span class="r">(&#321;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cl_0040chapter"><code>\l@chapter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cl_0040section"><code>\l@section</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cl_0040subsection"><code>\l@subsection</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabel"><code>\label</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005clabel">\label</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabelenumi"><code>\labelenumi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabelenumii"><code>\labelenumii</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabelenumiii"><code>\labelenumiii</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabelenumiv"><code>\labelenumiv</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabelitemi"><code>\labelitemi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabelitemii"><code>\labelitemii</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabelitemiii"><code>\labelitemiii</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabelitemiv"><code>\labelitemiv</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabelsep"><code>\labelsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clabelwidth"><code>\labelwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cLambda"><code>\Lambda</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clambda"><code>\lambda</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cland"><code>\land</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clangle"><code>\langle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clarge"><code>\large</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cLarge"><code>\Large</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cLARGE"><code>\LARGE</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cLastDeclaredEncoding"><code>\LastDeclaredEncoding</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cLastDeclaredEncoding">\LastDeclaredEncoding</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cLaTeX"><code>\LaTeX</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cLaTeXe"><code>\LaTeXe</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clbrace"><code>\lbrace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clbrack"><code>\lbrack</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clceil"><code>\lceil</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cldots"><code>\ldots</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cldots-1"><code>\ldots</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cle"><code>\le</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleadsto"><code>\leadsto</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleft"><code>\left</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cLeftarrow"><code>\Leftarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftarrow"><code>\leftarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clefteqn"><code>\lefteqn</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftharpoondown"><code>\leftharpoondown</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftharpoonup"><code>\leftharpoonup</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftmargin"><code>\leftmargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftmargin-1"><code>\leftmargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftmargini"><code>\leftmargini</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftmarginii"><code>\leftmarginii</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftmarginiii"><code>\leftmarginiii</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftmarginiv"><code>\leftmarginiv</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftmarginv"><code>\leftmarginv</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftmarginvi"><code>\leftmarginvi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cLeftrightarrow"><code>\Leftrightarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleftrightarrow"><code>\leftrightarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cleq"><code>\leq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clfloor"><code>\lfloor</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clg"><code>\lg</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clhd"><code>\lhd</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clim"><code>\lim</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005climinf"><code>\liminf</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005climsup"><code>\limsup</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cline"><code>\line</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clinebreak"><code>\linebreak</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak">\linebreak &amp; \nolinebreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clineskip"><code>\lineskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clineskiplimit"><code>\lineskiplimit</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clinespread"><code>\linespread</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clinespread-1"><code>\linespread</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clinethickness"><code>\linethickness</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005clinethickness">\linethickness</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clinewidth"><code>\linewidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clinewidth-1"><code>\linewidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clistoffigures"><code>\listoffigures</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clistoffigures-1"><code>\listoffigures</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clistoftables"><code>\listoftables</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clistoftables-1"><code>\listoftables</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clistparindent"><code>\listparindent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cll"><code>\ll</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cln"><code>\ln</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clnot"><code>\lnot</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cLoadClass"><code>\LoadClass</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cLoadClassWithOptions"><code>\LoadClassWithOptions</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clocation"><code>\location</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005clocation">\location</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clog"><code>\log</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clong"><code>\long</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clongleftarrow"><code>\longleftarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clongleftrightarrow"><code>\longleftrightarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clongmapsto"><code>\longmapsto</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clongrightarrow"><code>\longrightarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clor"><code>\lor</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005clq"><code>\lq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmainmatter"><code>\mainmatter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmakeatother"><code>\makeatother</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter &amp; \makeatother</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmakeatother-1"><code>\makeatother</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter &amp; \makeatother</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmakebox"><code>\makebox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmakebox-_0028for-picture_0029"><code>\makebox <span class="r">(for <code class="code">picture</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakebox-_0028picture_0029">\makebox (picture)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmakeglossary"><code>\makeglossary</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Glossaries">Glossaries</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmakeglossary-1"><code>\makeglossary</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Glossaries">Glossaries</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmakeindex"><code>\makeindex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmakelabel"><code>\makelabel</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmakelabels"><code>\makelabels</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakelabels">\makelabels</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmaketitle"><code>\maketitle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmapsto"><code>\mapsto</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarginpar"><code>\marginpar</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarginparpush"><code>\marginparpush</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarginparpush-1"><code>\marginparpush</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarginparpush-2"><code>\marginparpush</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarginparsep"><code>\marginparsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarginparwidth"><code>\marginparwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarginparwidth-1"><code>\marginparwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarginparwidth-2"><code>\marginparwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarginsep"><code>\marginsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarginsep-1"><code>\marginsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarkboth_007bleft_002dhead_007d_007bright_002dhead_007d"><code>\markboth{<var class="var">left-head</var>}{<var class="var">right-head</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle">\pagestyle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmarkright_007bright_002dhead_007d"><code>\markright{<var class="var">right-head</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle">\pagestyle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathbf"><code>\mathbf</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathcal"><code>\mathcal</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathdollar"><code>\mathdollar</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathellipsis"><code>\mathellipsis</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathnormal"><code>\mathnormal</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathparagraph"><code>\mathparagraph</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathring"><code>\mathring</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathrm"><code>\mathrm</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathsection"><code>\mathsection</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathsf"><code>\mathsf</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathsterling"><code>\mathsterling</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathstrut"><code><code class="code">\mathstrut</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmathstrut">\mathstrut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathtt"><code>\mathtt</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathunderscore"><code>\mathunderscore</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmathversion"><code>\mathversion</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmax"><code>\max</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmbox"><code>\mbox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmdseries"><code>\mdseries</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmedbreak"><code>\medbreak</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak">\bigbreak &amp; \medbreak &amp; \smallbreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmedskip"><code>\medskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip &amp; \medskip &amp; \smallskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmedskip-1"><code>\medskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip &amp; \medskip &amp; \smallskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmedskipamount"><code>\medskipamount</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip &amp; \medskip &amp; \smallskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmedspace"><code>\medspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmessage"><code>\message</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmessage">\message</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmho"><code>\mho</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmid"><code>\mid</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmin"><code>\min</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmodels"><code>\models</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmonth"><code>\month</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear">\day &amp; \month &amp; \year</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmp"><code>\mp</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmu"><code>\mu</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmulticolumn"><code>\multicolumn</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmulticolumn">\multicolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cmultiput"><code>\multiput</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmultiput">\multiput</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnabla"><code>\nabla</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cname"><code>\name</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cname">\name</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnatural"><code>\natural</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cne"><code>\ne</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnearrow"><code>\nearrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cNeedsTeXFormat"><code>\NeedsTeXFormat</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cneg"><code>\neg</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnegmedspace"><code>\negmedspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnegthickspace"><code>\negthickspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnegthinspace"><code>\negthinspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnegthinspace-1"><code>\negthinspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace &amp; \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cneq"><code>\neq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewcommand"><code>\newcommand</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewcounter"><code>\newcounter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcounter">\newcounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewenvironment"><code>\newenvironment</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">\newenvironment &amp; \renewenvironment</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewfont"><code>\newfont</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewfont">\newfont</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewglossaryentry"><code>\newglossaryentry</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry">\newglossaryentry</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewlength"><code>\newlength</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewlength">\newlength</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewline"><code>\newline</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewline">\newline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cNEWLINE">\<kbd class="key">NEWLINE</kbd></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029">\(SPACE)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewpage"><code>\newpage</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewpage">\newpage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewsavebox"><code>\newsavebox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewsavebox">\newsavebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewtheorem"><code>\newtheorem</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem">\newtheorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewtie"><code>\newtie</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnewwrite"><code>\newwrite</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cng"><code>\ng</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cNG"><code>\NG</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cni"><code>\ni</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnocite"><code>\nocite</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnocite">\nocite</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnocite-and-internal-_005ccitation"><code>\nocite <span class="r">and internal <code class="code">\citation</code></span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnocite-_007b_002a_007d_002c-for-all-keys"><code>\nocite <span class="r">{*}, for all keys</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnocorr"><code>\nocorr</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnocorrlist"><code>\nocorrlist</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnofiles"><code>\nofiles</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnofiles">\nofiles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnoindent"><code>\noindent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent">\indent &amp; \noindent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnolinebreak"><code>\nolinebreak</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak">\linebreak &amp; \nolinebreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnonfrenchspacing"><code>\nonfrenchspacing</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrenchspacing-_0026-_005cnonfrenchspacing">\frenchspacing &amp; \nonfrenchspacing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnonumber"><code>\nonumber</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnopagebreak"><code>\nopagebreak</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak">\pagebreak &amp; \nopagebreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnormalfont"><code>\normalfont</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnormalmarginpar"><code>\normalmarginpar</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnormalsfcodes"><code>\normalsfcodes</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnormalsfcodes">\normalsfcodes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnormalsize"><code>\normalsize</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnot"><code>\not</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnotin"><code>\notin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnu"><code>\nu</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnumberline"><code>\numberline</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnumberline">\numberline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cnwarrow"><code>\nwarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005co-_0028o_0029"><code>\o <span class="r">(&oslash;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cO-_0028O_0029"><code>\O <span class="r">(&Oslash;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cobeycr"><code>\obeycr</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr">\obeycr &amp; \restorecr</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coddsidemargin"><code>\oddsidemargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coddsidemargin-1"><code>\oddsidemargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coddsidemargin-2"><code>\oddsidemargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005codot"><code>\odot</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coe-_0028oe_0029"><code>\oe <span class="r">(&oelig;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cOE-_0028OE_0029"><code>\OE <span class="r">(&OElig;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coint"><code>\oint</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coldstylenums"><code>\oldstylenums</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cOmega"><code>\Omega</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005comega"><code>\omega</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cominus"><code>\ominus</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005conecolumn"><code>\onecolumn</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005conecolumn">\onecolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005copenin"><code>\openin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout">\openin &amp; \openout</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005copening"><code>\opening</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005copening">\opening</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005copenout"><code>\openout</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout">\openin &amp; \openout</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coplus"><code>\oplus</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cOptionNotUsed"><code>\OptionNotUsed</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coslash"><code>\oslash</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cotimes"><code>\otimes</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coval"><code>\oval</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005coval">\oval</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coverbrace_007bmath_007d"><code>\overbrace{<var class="var">math</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005coverline_007btext_007d"><code>\overline{<var class="var">text</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cowns"><code>\owns</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cP"><code>\P</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPackageError"><code>\PackageError</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPackageInfo"><code>\PackageInfo</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPackageInfoNoLine"><code>\PackageInfoNoLine</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPackageWarning"><code>\PackageWarning</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPackageWarningNoLine"><code>\PackageWarningNoLine</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpagebreak"><code>\pagebreak</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak">\pagebreak &amp; \nopagebreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpagenumbering"><code>\pagenumbering</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagenumbering">\pagenumbering</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpageref"><code>\pageref</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpageref">\pageref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpagestyle"><code>\pagestyle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle">\pagestyle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpaperheight"><code>\paperheight</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpaperheight-1"><code>\paperheight</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpaperwidth"><code>\paperwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpaperwidth-1"><code>\paperwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpar"><code>\par</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpar">\par</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cparagraph"><code>\paragraph</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cparagraph-1"><code>\paragraph</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection &amp; \paragraph &amp; \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cparallel"><code>\parallel</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cparbox"><code>\parbox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cparbox">\parbox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cparindent"><code>\parindent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cparindent-1"><code>\parindent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent">\indent &amp; \noindent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cparindent-2"><code>\parindent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent &amp; \parskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cparsep"><code>\parsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cparskip"><code>\parskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent &amp; \parskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cparskip-example"><code>\parskip <span class="r">example</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpart"><code>\part</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpart-1"><code>\part</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpart">\part</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpartial"><code>\partial</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpartopsep"><code>\partopsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPassOptionsToClass"><code>\PassOptionsToClass</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPassOptionsToPackage"><code>\PassOptionsToPackage</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpdfpageheight"><code>\pdfpageheight</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpdfpagewidth"><code>\pdfpagewidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cperp"><code>\perp</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cphantom"><code>\phantom</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPhi"><code>\Phi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cphi"><code>\phi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPi"><code>\Pi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpi"><code>\pi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpm"><code>\pm</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpmod"><code>\pmod</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpoptabs"><code>\poptabs</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpoptabs-1"><code>\poptabs</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpounds"><code>\pounds</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPr"><code>\Pr</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cprec"><code>\prec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpreceq"><code>\preceq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cprevdepth"><code>\prevdepth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cprime"><code>\prime</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cprintglossaries"><code>\printglossaries</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Glossaries">Glossaries</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cprintglossaries-1"><code>\printglossaries</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Glossaries">Glossaries</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cprintindex"><code>\printindex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprintindex">\printindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cProcessOptions"><code>\ProcessOptions</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cProcessOptions_002a"><code>\ProcessOptions*</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cprod"><code>\prod</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpropto"><code>\propto</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cprotect"><code>\protect</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cprotected_0040write"><code>\protected@write</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cprovidecommand"><code>\providecommand</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprovidecommand">\providecommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cProvidesClass"><code>\ProvidesClass</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cProvidesFile"><code>\ProvidesFile</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cProvidesPackage"><code>\ProvidesPackage</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cProvideTextCommand"><code>\ProvideTextCommand</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommand-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommand">\DeclareTextCommand &amp; \ProvideTextCommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault"><code>\ProvideTextCommandDefault</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCommandDefault-_0026-_005cProvideTextCommandDefault">\DeclareTextCommandDefault &amp; \ProvideTextCommandDefault</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cps"><code>\ps</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cps">\ps</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cPsi"><code>\Psi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpsi"><code>\psi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cpushtabs"><code>\pushtabs</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cput"><code>\put</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cput">\put</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cqbezier"><code>\qbezier</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cqbezier">\qbezier</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cqquad"><code>\qquad</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cqquad-1"><code>\qquad</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad">\enspace &amp; \quad &amp; \qquad</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cquad"><code>\quad</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cquad-1"><code>\quad</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005censpace-_0026-_005cquad-_0026-_005cqquad">\enspace &amp; \quad &amp; \qquad</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cquotedblbase-_0028_201e_0029"><code>\quotedblbase <span class="r">(&bdquo;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cquotesinglbase-_0028_201a_0029"><code>\quotesinglbase <span class="r">(&sbquo;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cr-_0028ring-accent_0029"><code>\r <span class="r">(ring accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005craggedbottom"><code>\raggedbottom</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craggedbottom">\raggedbottom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005craggedleft"><code>\raggedleft</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craggedleft">\raggedleft</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005craggedright"><code>\raggedright</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craggedright">\raggedright</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005craisebox"><code>\raisebox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craisebox">\raisebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crangle"><code>\rangle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crbrace"><code>\rbrace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crbrack"><code>\rbrack</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crceil"><code>\rceil</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cRe"><code>\Re</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cread"><code>\read</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cread">\read</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cref"><code>\ref</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cref">\ref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005creflectbox"><code>\reflectbox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cscalebox">\scalebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crefname"><code>\refname</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crefstepcounter"><code>\refstepcounter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005crefstepcounter">\refstepcounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crenewcommand"><code>\renewcommand</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crenewenvironment"><code>\renewenvironment</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">\newenvironment &amp; \renewenvironment</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cRequirePackage"><code>\RequirePackage</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cRequirePackage_002c-and-texput-jobname"><code>\RequirePackage<span class="r">, and <code class="code">texput</code> jobname</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cRequirePackageWithOptions"><code>\RequirePackageWithOptions</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cresizebox"><code>\resizebox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cresizebox">\resizebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crestorecr"><code>\restorecr</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr">\obeycr &amp; \restorecr</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crestriction"><code>\restriction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crevemptyset"><code>\revemptyset</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005creversemarginpar"><code>\reversemarginpar</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crfloor"><code>\rfloor</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crhd"><code>\rhd</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crho"><code>\rho</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cright"><code>\right</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cRightarrow"><code>\Rightarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crightarrow"><code>\rightarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crightharpoondown"><code>\rightharpoondown</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crightharpoonup"><code>\rightharpoonup</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crightleftharpoons"><code>\rightleftharpoons</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crightmargin"><code>\rightmargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crm"><code>\rm</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crmfamily"><code>\rmfamily</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005croman_007bcounter_007d"><code>\roman{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cRoman_007bcounter_007d"><code>\Roman{<var class="var">counter</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crotatebox"><code>\rotatebox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005crotatebox">\rotatebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crq"><code>\rq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005crule"><code>\rule</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005crule">\rule</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cS"><code>\S</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csamepage"><code>\samepage</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak">\pagebreak &amp; \nopagebreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csavebox"><code>\savebox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox">\sbox &amp; \savebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csbox"><code>\sbox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox">\sbox &amp; \savebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csc"><code>\sc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cscalebox"><code>\scalebox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cscalebox">\scalebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cscriptscriptstyle"><code>\scriptscriptstyle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cscriptsize"><code>\scriptsize</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cscriptstyle"><code>\scriptstyle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cscshape"><code>\scshape</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csearrow"><code>\searrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csec"><code>\sec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csection"><code>\section</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csection-1"><code>\section</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csection">\section</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cseename"><code>\seename</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cselectfont"><code>\selectfont</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csetcounter"><code>\setcounter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csetcounter">\setcounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csetlength"><code>\setlength</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csetlength">\setlength</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csetminus"><code>\setminus</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csettodepth"><code>\settodepth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csettodepth">\settodepth</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csettoheight"><code>\settoheight</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csettoheight">\settoheight</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csettowidth"><code>\settowidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csettowidth">\settowidth</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csf"><code>\sf</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csffamily"><code>\sffamily</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csharp"><code>\sharp</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cShellEscape"><code>\ShellEscape</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cshipout-and-expansion"><code>\shipout <span class="r">and expansion</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cshortstack"><code>\shortstack</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cshortstack">\shortstack</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cSigma"><code>\Sigma</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csigma"><code>\sigma</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csignature"><code>\signature</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csignature">\signature</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csim"><code>\sim</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csimeq"><code>\simeq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csin"><code>\sin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csinh"><code>\sinh</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csl"><code>\sl</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csloppy"><code>\sloppy</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy">\fussy &amp; \sloppy</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cslshape"><code>\slshape</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csmall"><code>\small</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csmallbreak"><code>\smallbreak</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigbreak-_0026-_005cmedbreak-_0026-_005csmallbreak">\bigbreak &amp; \medbreak &amp; \smallbreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csmallint"><code>\smallint</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csmallskip"><code>\smallskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip &amp; \medskip &amp; \smallskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csmallskip-1"><code>\smallskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip &amp; \medskip &amp; \smallskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csmallskipamount"><code>\smallskipamount</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigskip-_0026-_005cmedskip-_0026-_005csmallskip">\bigskip &amp; \medskip &amp; \smallskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csmile"><code>\smile</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cSPACE">\<kbd class="key">SPACE</kbd></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029">\(SPACE)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cSPACE-1"><code>\<kbd class="key">SPACE</kbd></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029">\(SPACE)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cspace"><code>\space</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly">\include &amp; \includeonly</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cspace-1"><code>\space</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cinput">\input</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cspace-2"><code>\space</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctypeout">\typeout</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cspacefactor"><code>\spacefactor</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cspacefactor">\spacefactor</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cspadesuit"><code>\spadesuit</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csqcap"><code>\sqcap</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csqcup"><code>\sqcup</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csqrt"><code>\sqrt</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csqrt">\sqrt</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csqsubset"><code>\sqsubset</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csqsubseteq"><code>\sqsubseteq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csqsupset"><code>\sqsupset</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csqsupseteq"><code>\sqsupseteq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005css-_0028ss_0029"><code>\ss <span class="r">(&szlig;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cSS-_0028SS_0029"><code>\SS <span class="r">(SS)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cstackrel"><code>\stackrel</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstackrel">\stackrel</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cstar"><code>\star</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cstepcounter"><code>\stepcounter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstepcounter">\stepcounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cstop"><code>\stop</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Recovering-from-errors">Recovering from errors</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cstretch"><code>\stretch</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstretch">\stretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cstrut"><code>\strut</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstrut">\strut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csubitem"><code>\subitem</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Produce-the-index-manually">Produce the index manually</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csubparagraph"><code>\subparagraph</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csubparagraph-1"><code>\subparagraph</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection &amp; \paragraph &amp; \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csubsection"><code>\subsection</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csubsection-1"><code>\subsection</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsection">\subsection</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csubset"><code>\subset</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csubseteq"><code>\subseteq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csubsubitem"><code>\subsubitem</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Produce-the-index-manually">Produce the index manually</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csubsubsection"><code>\subsubsection</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csubsubsection-1"><code>\subsubsection</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection &amp; \paragraph &amp; \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csucc"><code>\succ</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csucceq"><code>\succeq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csum"><code>\sum</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csup"><code>\sup</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csuppressfloats"><code>\suppressfloats</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csupset"><code>\supset</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csupseteq"><code>\supseteq</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csurd"><code>\surd</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cswarrow"><code>\swarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csymbf"><code>\symbf</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#OpenType-bold-math">OpenType bold math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csymbfit"><code>\symbfit</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#OpenType-bold-math">OpenType bold math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005csymbol"><code>\symbol</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Symbols-by-font-position">Symbols by font position</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ct-_0028tie_002dafter-accent_0029"><code>\t <span class="r">(tie-after accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cTAB">\<kbd class="key">TAB</kbd></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0028SPACE_0029">\(SPACE)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctabbingsep"><code>\tabbingsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctabcolsep"><code>\tabcolsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctableofcontents"><code>\tableofcontents</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctableofcontents-1"><code>\tableofcontents</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctan"><code>\tan</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctanh"><code>\tanh</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctau"><code>\tau</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctelephone"><code>\telephone</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctelephone">\telephone</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cTeX"><code>\TeX</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextascendercompwordmark"><code>\textascendercompwordmark</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextasciicircum"><code>\textasciicircum</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextasciitilde"><code>\textasciitilde</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextasteriskcentered"><code>\textasteriskcentered</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextbackslash"><code>\textbackslash</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextbackslash-1"><code>\textbackslash</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextbar"><code>\textbar</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextbardbl"><code>\textbardbl</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextbf"><code>\textbf</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextbigcircle"><code>\textbigcircle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextbraceleft"><code>\textbraceleft</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextbraceright"><code>\textbraceright</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextbullet"><code>\textbullet</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextcapitalcompwordmark"><code>\textcapitalcompwordmark</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextcircled_007bletter_007d"><code>\textcircled{<var class="var">letter</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextcompwordmark"><code>\textcompwordmark</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextcopyright"><code>\textcopyright</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextdagger"><code>\textdagger</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextdaggerdbl"><code>\textdaggerdbl</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextdollar-_0028or-_005c_0024_0029"><code>\textdollar <span class="r">(or <code class="code">\$</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextellipsis"><code>\textellipsis</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextemdash-_0028or-_002d_002d_002d_0029"><code>\textemdash <span class="r">(or <code class="code">---</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextendash-_0028or-_002d_002d_0029"><code>\textendash <span class="r">(or <code class="code">--</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctexteuro"><code>\texteuro</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextexclamdown-_0028or-_0021_0060_0029"><code>\textexclamdown <span class="r">(or <code class="code">!`</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextfiguredash"><code>\textfiguredash</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextfloatsep"><code>\textfloatsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextfloatsep-1"><code>\textfloatsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextfraction"><code>\textfraction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextfraction-1"><code>\textfraction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextgreater"><code>\textgreater</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextheight"><code>\textheight</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextheight-1"><code>\textheight</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctexthorizontalbar"><code>\texthorizontalbar</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextit"><code>\textit</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextleftarrow"><code>\textleftarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextless"><code>\textless</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextmd"><code>\textmd</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextnonbreakinghyphen"><code>\textnonbreakinghyphen</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextnormal"><code>\textnormal</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextordfeminine"><code>\textordfeminine</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextordmasculine"><code>\textordmasculine</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextparagraph"><code>\textparagraph</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextperiodcentered"><code>\textperiodcentered</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextquestiondown-_0028or-_003f_0060_0029"><code>\textquestiondown <span class="r">(or <code class="code">?`</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextquotedblleft-_0028or-_0060_0060_0029"><code>\textquotedblleft <span class="r">(or <code class="code">``</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextquotedblright-_0028or-_0027_0027_0029"><code>\textquotedblright <span class="r">(or <code class="code">''</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextquoteleft-_0028or-_0060_0029"><code>\textquoteleft <span class="r">(or <code class="code">`</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextquoteright-_0028or-_0027_0029"><code>\textquoteright <span class="r">(or <code class="code">'</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextquotesingle"><code>\textquotesingle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextquotestraightbase"><code>\textquotestraightbase</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextquotestraightdblbase"><code>\textquotestraightdblbase</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextregistered"><code>\textregistered</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextrightarrow"><code>\textrightarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextrm"><code>\textrm</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextsc"><code>\textsc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextsection"><code>\textsection</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextsf"><code>\textsf</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextsl"><code>\textsl</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextsterling"><code>\textsterling</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextstyle"><code>\textstyle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextthreequartersemdash"><code>\textthreequartersemdash</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctexttrademark"><code>\texttrademark</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctexttt"><code>\texttt</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctexttwelveudash"><code>\texttwelveudash</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextunderscore"><code>\textunderscore</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextup"><code>\textup</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextvisiblespace"><code>\textvisiblespace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextwidth"><code>\textwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctextwidth-1"><code>\textwidth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cth-_0028th_0029"><code>\th <span class="r">(&thorn;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cTH-_0028TH_0029"><code>\TH <span class="r">(&THORN;)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cthanks_007btext_007d"><code>\thanks{<var class="var">text</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctheta"><code>\theta</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cthicklines"><code>\thicklines</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthicklines">\thicklines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cthickspace"><code>\thickspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cthinlines"><code>\thinlines</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthinlines">\thinlines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cthinspace"><code>\thinspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cthinspace-1"><code>\thinspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace &amp; \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cthispagestyle"><code>\thispagestyle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthispagestyle">\thispagestyle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctilde"><code>\tilde</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctimes"><code>\times</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctiny"><code>\tiny</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctitle_007btext_007d"><code>\title{<var class="var">text</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cto"><code>\to</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctoday"><code>\today</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctoday">\today</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctop"><code>\top</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctopfraction"><code>\topfraction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctopfraction-1"><code>\topfraction</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctopmargin"><code>\topmargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctopsep"><code>\topsep</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctopskip"><code>\topskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctopskip-1"><code>\topskip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctriangle"><code>\triangle</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctriangleleft"><code>\triangleleft</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctriangleright"><code>\triangleright</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctt"><code>\tt</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cttfamily"><code>\ttfamily</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctwocolumn"><code>\twocolumn</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctypein"><code>\typein</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctypein">\typein</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005ctypeout"><code>\typeout</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctypeout">\typeout</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cu-_0028breve-accent_0029"><code>\u <span class="r">(breve accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cunboldmath"><code>\unboldmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath">\boldmath &amp; \unboldmath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cunboldmath-1"><code>\unboldmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath">\boldmath &amp; \unboldmath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cunderbar"><code>\underbar</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cunderbrace_007bmath_007d"><code>\underbrace{<var class="var">math</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cunderline_007btext_007d"><code>\underline{<var class="var">text</var>}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cunitlength"><code>\unitlength</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#picture">picture</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cunlhd"><code>\unlhd</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cunrhd"><code>\unrhd</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cUparrow"><code>\Uparrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cuparrow"><code>\uparrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cUpdownarrow"><code>\Updownarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cupdownarrow"><code>\updownarrow</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cupharpoonright"><code>\upharpoonright</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cuplus"><code>\uplus</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cupshape"><code>\upshape</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cUpsilon"><code>\Upsilon</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cupsilon"><code>\upsilon</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cusebox"><code>\usebox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cusebox">\usebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cusecounter"><code>\usecounter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cusecounter">\usecounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cusefont"><code>\usefont</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cusepackage"><code>\usepackage</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-packages">Additional packages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cUseTextAccent"><code>\UseTextAccent</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cUseTextSymbol-_0026-_005cUseTextAccent">\UseTextSymbol &amp; \UseTextAccent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cUseTextSymbol"><code>\UseTextSymbol</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cUseTextSymbol-_0026-_005cUseTextAccent">\UseTextSymbol &amp; \UseTextAccent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cv-_0028breve-accent_0029"><code>\v <span class="r">(breve accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvalue"><code>\value</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cvalue">\value</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvanothing"><code>\vanothing</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvarepsilon"><code>\varepsilon</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvarphi"><code>\varphi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvarpi"><code>\varpi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvarrho"><code>\varrho</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvarsigma"><code>\varsigma</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvartheta"><code>\vartheta</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvbox-_0028plain-TeX_0029"><code>\vbox <span class="r">(plain TeX)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvdash"><code>\vdash</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvdots"><code>\vdots</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvec"><code>\vec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvector"><code>\vector</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cvector">\vector</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvee"><code>\vee</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cverb"><code>\verb</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cVert"><code>\Vert</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvert"><code>\vert</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvfill"><code>\vfill</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cvfill">\vfill</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvline"><code>\vline</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cvline">\vline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvphantom"><code>\vphantom</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvspace"><code>\vspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cvspace">\vspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cvtop-plain-TeX"><code>\vtop <span class="r">plain TeX</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwedge"><code>\wedge</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwidehat"><code>\widehat</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwidetilde"><code>\widetilde</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwlog"><code>\wlog</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwlog">\wlog</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwp"><code>\wp</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwr"><code>\wr</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwrite"><code>\write</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwrite-and-security"><code class="code">\write</code> and security</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite-and-security">\write and security</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwrite-streams-16_002c-17_002c-18"><code class="code">\write</code> streams 16, 17, 18</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwrite18"><code>\write18</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cwrite18_002c-enabling"><code class="code">\write18</code>, enabling</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cXi"><code>\Xi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cxi"><code>\xi</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cxspace"><code>\xspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xspace-package">xspace package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005cyear"><code>\year</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cday-_0026-_005cmonth-_0026-_005cyear">\day &amp; \month &amp; \year</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005czeta"><code>\zeta</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005b_002e_002e_002e_005c_005d-display-math"><code>\[...\] <span class="r">display math</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#displaymath">displaymath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028for-center_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(for <code class="code">center</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#center">center</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028for-eqnarray_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(for <code class="code">eqnarray</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028for-flushleft_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(for <code class="code">flushleft</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#flushleft">flushleft</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028for-flushright_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(for <code class="code">flushright</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#flushright">flushright</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028for-letters_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(for letters)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Letters">Letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028for-tabular_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(for <code class="code">tabular</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028for-verse_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(for <code class="code">verse</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verse">verse</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028for-_005cauthor_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(for <code class="code">\author</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028for-_005cshortstack-objects_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(for <code class="code">\shortstack</code> objects)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cshortstack">\shortstack</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028for-_005ctitle_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(for <code class="code">\title</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028force-line-break_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(force line break)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_005c">\\</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c-_0028tabbing_0029"><code>\\ <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005c_002a-_0028for-eqnarray_0029"><code>\\* <span class="r">(for <code class="code">eqnarray</code>)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005e"><code>\^</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005e-_0028circumflex-accent_0029"><code>\^ <span class="r">(circumflex accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_005f"><code>\_</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0060-_0028grave-accent_0029"><code>\` <span class="r">(grave accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_0060-_0028tabbing_0029"><code>\` <span class="r">(tabbing)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_007b"><code>\{</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_007c"><code>\|</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_007d"><code>\}</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_007e"><code>\~</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005c_007e-_0028tilde-accent_0029"><code>\~ <span class="r">(tilde accent)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-11">^</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005e-superscript"><code>^ <span class="r">superscript</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005e_005eJ_002c-in-_005cwrite"><code class="code">^^J</code>, in <code class="code">\write</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-12">_</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_005f-subscript"><code>_ <span class="r">subscript</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-13">{</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_007b_002e_002e_002e_007d-_0028for-required-arguments_0029"><code>{...} <span class="r">(for required arguments)</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_symbol-14">~</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-_007e"><code>~</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_007e">~</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-A">A</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-a4paper-option"><code>a4paper <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-a5paper-option"><code>a5paper <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-abstract-environment"><code><code class="code">abstract</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#abstract">abstract</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-abstract-package"><code class="code">abstract</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#abstract">abstract</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-abstracts">abstracts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#abstract">abstract</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-accents">accents</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-accents_002c-defining">accents, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding">\DeclareFontEncoding</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-accents_002c-defining-1">accents, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent">\DeclareTextAccent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-accents_002c-defining-2">accents, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccentDefault">\DeclareTextAccentDefault</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-accents_002c-defining-3">accents, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextComposite">\DeclareTextComposite</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-accents_002c-defining-4">accents, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextCompositeCommand">\DeclareTextCompositeCommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-accents_002c-defining-5">accents, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbolDefault">\DeclareTextSymbolDefault</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-accents_002c-mathematical">accents, mathematical</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-accessing-any-character-of-a-font">accessing any character of a font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Symbols-by-font-position">Symbols by font position</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-acronyms_002c-list-of">acronyms, list of</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Glossaries">Glossaries</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-acute-accent">acute accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-acute-accent_002c-math">acute accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-additional-packages_002c-loading">additional packages, loading</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-packages">Additional packages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-adjustbox-package"><code class="code">adjustbox</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Boxes">Boxes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ae-ligature">ae ligature</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-algorithm2e-package"><code class="code">algorithm2e</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-align-environment_002c-from-amsmath">align <span class="r">environment, from <code class="code">amsmath</code></span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-aligning-equations">aligning equations</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-alignment-via-tabbing">alignment via tabbing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amscd-package"><code class="code">amscd</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsfonts-package"><code class="code">amsfonts</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsfonts-package-1"><code class="code">amsfonts</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-1"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-2"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#displaymath">displaymath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-3"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#equation">equation</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-4"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#theorem">theorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-5"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-6"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-7"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigl-_0026-_005cbigr-etc_002e">\bigl &amp; \bigr etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-8"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-9"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-10"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-11"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-12"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character &amp; \colon</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-13"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character &amp; \colon</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package-14"><code class="code">amsmath</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace &amp; \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsmath-package_002c-replacing-eqnarray">amsmath <span class="r">package, replacing <code class="code">eqnarray</code></span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsthm-package"><code class="code">amsthm</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#theorem">theorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-amsthm-package-1"><code class="code">amsthm</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005crule">\rule</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-answers-package"><code class="code">answers</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-appendices">appendices</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cappendix">\appendix</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-appendix">appendix</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cappendix">\appendix</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-appendix-package"><code class="code">appendix</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cappendix">\appendix</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-arguments_002c-optional_002c-defining-and-using">arguments, optional, defining and using</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-aring">aring</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-array-environment"><code><code class="code">array</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-array-package"><code class="code">array</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-arrays_002c-math">arrays, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-arrow_002c-left_002c-in-text">arrow, left, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-arrow_002c-right_002c-in-text">arrow, right, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-arrows">arrows</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-article-class"><code>article <span class="r">class</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-classes">Document classes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ascender-height">ascender height</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ASCII-circumflex_002c-in-text">ASCII circumflex, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ASCII-tilde_002c-in-text">ASCII tilde, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-asterisk_002c-centered_002c-in-text">asterisk, centered, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Asymptote-package"><code class="code">Asymptote</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Asymptote-package-1"><code class="code">Asymptote</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstrut">\strut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Asymptote-package-2"><code class="code">Asymptote</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Asymptote-package-3"><code class="code">Asymptote</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-at-clause_002c-in-font-definitions">at clause, in font definitions</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewfont">\newfont</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-at_002dsign"><code>at-sign</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040">\@</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-author_002c-for-titlepage">author, for titlepage</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-auxiliary-file">auxiliary file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-B">B</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-b5paper-option"><code>b5paper <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-babel-package"><code class="code">babel</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cchapter">\chapter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-babel-package-1"><code class="code">babel</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-babel-package-2"><code class="code">babel</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-babel-package-3"><code class="code">babel</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctoday">\today</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-babel-package-4"><code class="code">babel</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-babel-package-5"><code class="code">babel</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-back-matter-of-a-book">back matter of a book</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-background_002c-colored">background, colored</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colored-pages">Colored pages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-backslash_002c-in-text">backslash, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-badness">badness</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-breaking">Page breaking</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bar_002c-double-vertical_002c-in-text">bar, double vertical, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bar_002c-vertical_002c-in-text">bar, vertical, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bar_002dover-accent">bar-over accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bar_002dover-accent_002c-math">bar-over accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bar_002dunder-accent">bar-under accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-basics-of-LaTeX">basics of LaTeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Overview">Overview</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-batchmode">batchmode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-beamer-package"><code class="code">beamer</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#beamer-template">beamer template</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-beamer-template-and-class"><code class="code">beamer</code> template and class</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#beamer-template">beamer template</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-beginning-of-document-hook">beginning of document hook</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cAtBeginDocument">\AtBeginDocument</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bibliography-format_002c-open">bibliography format, open</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bibliography_002c-creating-_0028automatically_0029">bibliography, creating (automatically)</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bibliography_002c-creating-_0028manually_0029">bibliography, creating (manually)</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bibTeX_002c-using">bibTeX, using</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-big-circle-symbols_002c-in-text">big circle symbols, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-big-point">big point</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bigfoot-package"><code class="code">bigfoot</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Footnotes-of-footnotes">Footnotes of footnotes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-black-boxes_002c-omitting">black boxes, omitting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-blackboard-bold">blackboard bold</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Blackboard-bold">Blackboard bold</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-blanks_002c-after-control-sequences">blanks, after control sequences</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bm-package"><code class="code">bm</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#bm">bm</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bold-font">bold font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bold-math">bold math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bold-typewriter_002c-avoiding">bold typewriter, avoiding</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#description">description</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-boldface-mathematics">boldface mathematics</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath">\boldmath &amp; \unboldmath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-book-class"><code>book <span class="r">class</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-classes">Document classes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-book_002c-back-matter">book, back matter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-book_002c-end-matter">book, end matter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-book_002c-front-matter">book, front matter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-book_002c-main-matter">book, main matter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bottomnumber"><code>bottomnumber</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bottomnumber-1"><code>bottomnumber</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bounding-box">bounding box</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-box">box</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-box_002c-allocating-new">box, allocating new</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewsavebox">\newsavebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-box_002c-bounding">box, bounding</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-box_002c-colored">box, colored</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colored-boxes">Colored boxes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-box_002c-save">box, save</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csbox-_0026-_005csavebox">\sbox &amp; \savebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-box_002c-use-saved-box">box, use saved box</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cusebox">\usebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-boxes">boxes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Boxes">Boxes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bp"><code>bp</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-brace_002c-left_002c-in-text">brace, left, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-brace_002c-right_002c-in-text">brace, right, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-braces">braces</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-brackets">brackets</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-breaking-lines">breaking lines</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Line-breaking">Line breaking</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-breaking-pages">breaking pages</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-breaking">Page breaking</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-breaks_002c-multiplication-discretionary">breaks, multiplication discretionary</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002a">\*</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-breve-accent">breve accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-breve-accent_002c-math">breve accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bug-reporting">bug reporting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bullet-lists">bullet lists</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bullet-symbol">bullet symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bullet_002c-in-text">bullet, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-bulleted-lists">bulleted lists</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-C">C</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-calligraphic-fonts">calligraphic fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Calligraphic">Calligraphic</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-calligraphic-letters-for-math">calligraphic letters for math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cap-height">cap height</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-caption-package"><code class="code">caption</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccaption">\caption</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-captions">captions</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccaption">\caption</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-caron-accent">caron accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-catcode">catcode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter &amp; \makeatother</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-category-code_002c-character">category code, character</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter &amp; \makeatother</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cc"><code>cc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cc-list_002c-in-letters">cc list, in letters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccc">\cc</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cedilla-accent">cedilla accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-center-environment"><code><code class="code">center</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#center">center</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-centered-asterisk_002c-in-text">centered asterisk, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-centered-equations">centered equations</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-centered-period_002c-in-text">centered period, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-centering-text_002c-declaration-for">centering text, declaration for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccentering">\centering</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-centering-text_002c-environment-for">centering text, environment for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#center">center</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-centimeter">centimeter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-changing-case-of-characters">changing case of characters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-chapter">chapter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-chapter-1">chapter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cchapter">\chapter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-chapter-counter"><code>chapter counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-character-category-code">character category code</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter &amp; \makeatother</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-character-encoding">character encoding</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#inputenc-package">inputenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-character_002c-invisible">character, invisible</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-character_002c-invisible-1">character, invisible</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmathstrut">\mathstrut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-characters_002c-accented">characters, accented</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-characters_002c-case-of">characters, case of</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-characters_002c-non_002dEnglish">characters, non-English</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-characters_002c-reserved">characters, reserved</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-characters_002c-special">characters, special</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-check-accent">check accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-check-accent_002c-math">check accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cicero">cicero</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-circle-symbol_002c-big_002c-in-text">circle symbol, big, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-circled-letter_002c-in-text">circled letter, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-circumflex-accent">circumflex accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-circumflex-accent_002c-math">circumflex accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-circumflex_002c-ASCII_002c-in-text">circumflex, ASCII, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-citation-key">citation key</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbibitem">\bibitem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-class-and-package-commands">class and package commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-class-and-package-difference">class and package difference</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-construction">Class and package construction</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-class-and-package-structure">class and package structure</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-structure">Class and package structure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-class-file-example">class file example</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-structure">Class and package structure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-class-file-layout">class file layout</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-structure">Class and package structure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-class-options">class options</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-class-options-1">class options</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-structure">Class and package structure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-class-options-2">class options</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-classes-of-documents">classes of documents</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-classes">Document classes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cleveref-package"><code class="code">cleveref</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Cross-references">Cross references</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cleveref-package-1"><code class="code">cleveref</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cref">\ref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cleveref-package-2"><code class="code">cleveref</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark">\footnotemark</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-CLI">CLI</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-interface">Command line interface</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-clock-option-to-slides-class"><code>clock <span class="r">option to <code class="code">slides</code> class</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-closing-letters">closing letters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cclosing">\closing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-closing-quote">closing quote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cm"><code>cm</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cm_002dsuper-package"><code class="code">cm-super</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cmd_002eexe_002c-used-by-_005cwrite18"><code>cmd.exe<span class="r">, used by <code class="code">\write18</code></span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-code_002c-typesetting">code, typesetting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-colon-character">colon character</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character &amp; \colon</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-color">color</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Color">Color</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-color-1">color</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Define-colors">Define colors</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-color-2">color</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colored-text">Colored text</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-color-3">color</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colored-boxes">Colored boxes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-color-4">color</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colored-pages">Colored pages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-color-models">color models</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Color-models">Color models</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-color-package-commands">color package commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Commands-for-color">Commands for color</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-color-package-options">color package options</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Color-package-options">Color package options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-color_002c-define">color, define</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Define-colors">Define colors</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-colored-boxes">colored boxes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colored-boxes">Colored boxes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-colored-page">colored page</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colored-pages">Colored pages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-colored-text">colored text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colored-text">Colored text</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-command-line-interface">command line interface</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-interface">Command line interface</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-command-syntax">command syntax</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-commands_002c-class-and-package">commands, class and package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-commands_002c-defining-new-ones">commands, defining new ones</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-commands_002c-defining-new-ones-1">commands, defining new ones</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprovidecommand">\providecommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-commands_002c-document-class">commands, document class</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-construction">Class and package construction</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-commands_002c-graphics-package">commands, graphics package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Commands-for-graphics">Commands for graphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-commands_002c-ignore-spaces">commands, ignore spaces</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend">\ignorespaces &amp; \ignorespacesafterend</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-commands_002c-ignore-spaces-1">commands, ignore spaces</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xspace-package">xspace package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-commands_002c-redefining">commands, redefining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-commands_002c-run-from-LaTeX">commands, run from LaTeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-commands_002c-star_002dvariants">commands, star-variants</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar">\@ifstar</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-composite-word-mark_002c-in-text">composite word mark, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-comprehensive-package"><code class="code">comprehensive</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-computer-programs_002c-typesetting">computer programs, typesetting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-configuration_002c-graphics-package">configuration, graphics package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Graphics-package-configuration">Graphics package configuration</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-contents-file">contents file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-control-sequences">control sequences</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Control-sequences">Control sequences</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-control-symbol_002c-defined">control symbol, defined</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Control-sequences">Control sequences</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-control-word_002c-defined">control word, defined</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Control-sequences">Control sequences</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-copyright-symbol">copyright symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-counters_002c-a-list-of">counters, a list of</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-counters_002c-defining-new">counters, defining new</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcounter">\newcounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-counters_002c-getting-value-of">counters, getting value of</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cvalue">\value</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-counters_002c-printing">counters, printing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005calph-_005cAlph-_005carabic-_005croman-_005cRoman-_005cfnsymbol">\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-counters_002c-setting">counters, setting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csetcounter">\setcounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cprotect-package"><code class="code">cprotect</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cprotect-package-1"><code class="code">cprotect</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-creating-pictures">creating pictures</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#picture">picture</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-creating-tables">creating tables</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#table">table</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-credit-footnote">credit footnote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cross-references">cross references</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Cross-references">Cross references</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cross-references_002c-resolving">cross references, resolving</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cross-referencing-with-page-number">cross referencing with page number</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpageref">\pageref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cross-referencing_002c-across-documents">cross referencing, across documents</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xr-package">xr package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-cross-referencing_002c-symbolic">cross referencing, symbolic</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cref">\ref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-CTAN">CTAN</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#CTAN">CTAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-curly-braces">curly braces</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-currency_002c-dollar">currency, dollar</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-currency_002c-euro">currency, euro</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-D">D</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dagger_002c-double_002c-in-text">dagger, double, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dagger_002c-in-text">dagger, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dagger_002c-in-text-1">dagger, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-DANTE-e_002eV_002e">DANTE e.V.</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#CTAN">CTAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-datatool-package"><code class="code">datatool</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cread">\read</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-date_002c-for-titlepage">date, for titlepage</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-date_002c-today_0027s">date, today&rsquo;s</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctoday">\today</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-datetime-package"><code class="code">datetime</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctoday">\today</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dbltopnumber"><code>dbltopnumber</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dbltopnumber-1"><code>dbltopnumber</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dcolumn-package"><code class="code">dcolumn</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dd"><code>dd</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-declaration-form-of-font-size-commands">declaration form of font size commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-declaration-form-of-font-style-commands">declaration form of font style commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-define-color">define color</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Define-colors">Define colors</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-defining-a-new-command">defining a new command</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-defining-a-new-command-1">defining a new command</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprovidecommand">\providecommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-defining-new-environments">defining new environments</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">\newenvironment &amp; \renewenvironment</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-defining-new-fonts">defining new fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewfont">\newfont</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-defining-new-theorems">defining new theorems</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem">\newtheorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-definitions">definitions</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Definitions">Definitions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-delayed-_005cwrite">delayed <code class="code">\write</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-delimiters">delimiters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-delimiters_002c-paired">delimiters, paired</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-delim_005f0"><code>delim_0</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-delim_005f1"><code>delim_1</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-delim_005f2"><code>delim_2</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-delim_005fn"><code>delim_n</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-delim_005fr"><code>delim_r</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-description"><code>description</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry">\newglossaryentry</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-description-environment"><code><code class="code">description</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#description">description</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-description-lists_002c-creating">description lists, creating</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#description">description</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-design-size_002c-in-font-definitions">design size, in font definitions</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewfont">\newfont</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-didot-point">didot point</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dieresis-accent">dieresis accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-difference-between-class-and-package">difference between class and package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-construction">Class and package construction</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dimen-plain-TeX">dimen <span class="r">plain TeX</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Lengths">Lengths</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-directory-listings_002c-from-system">directory listings, from system</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-discretionary-breaks_002c-multiplication">discretionary breaks, multiplication</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002a">\*</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-discretionary-hyphenation">discretionary hyphenation</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cdiscretionary">\discretionary</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-display-math-mode">display math mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-display-style">display style</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-displaying-quoted-text-with-paragraph-indentation">displaying quoted text with paragraph indentation</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-displaying-quoted-text-without-paragraph-indentation">displaying quoted text without paragraph indentation</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-displaymath-environment"><code><code class="code">displaymath</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#displaymath">displaymath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-displaymath-environment-1"><code><code class="code">displaymath</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-document-class-commands">document class commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-construction">Class and package construction</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-document-class-options">document class options</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-document-class_002c-defined">document class, defined</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-document-classes">document classes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-classes">Document classes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-document-environment"><code><code class="code">document</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#document">document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-document-root-name">document root name</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-document-templates">document templates</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-templates">Document templates</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dollar-sign">dollar sign</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dot-accent">dot accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dot-over-accent_002c-math">dot over accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dot_002dover-accent">dot-over accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dot_002dunder-accent">dot-under accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dotless-i">dotless i</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dotless-i_002c-math">dotless i, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dotless-j">dotless j</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dotless-j_002c-math">dotless j, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dots">dots</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-angle-quotation-marks">double angle quotation marks</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-dagger_002c-in-text">double dagger, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-dagger_002c-in-text-1">double dagger, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-dot-accent_002c-math">double dot accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-guillemets">double guillemets</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-left-quote">double left quote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-low_002d9-quotation-mark">double low-9 quotation mark</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-quote_002c-straight-base">double quote, straight base</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-right-quote">double right quote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-spacing">double spacing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-double-vertical-bar_002c-in-text">double vertical bar, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-doublestruck">doublestruck</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Blackboard-bold">Blackboard bold</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-draft-option"><code>draft <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dvilualatex_002ddev"><code>dvilualatex-dev</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dvipdfmx-command"><code>dvipdfmx <span class="r">command</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dvips-command"><code>dvips <span class="r">command</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-dvitype-command"><code>dvitype <span class="r">command</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-E">E</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-e_002ddash">e-dash</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-e_002dTeX">e-TeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ellipses">ellipses</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ellipsis">ellipsis</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ellipsis_002c-in-Unicode-_0028U_002b2026_0029">ellipsis, in Unicode (U+2026)</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ellipsis_002c-traditional-_0028three-periods_0029">ellipsis, traditional (three periods)</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-em">em</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-em-1"><code>em</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-em_002ddash">em-dash</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-em_002ddash_002c-three_002dquarters">em-dash, three-quarters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-em_002ddash_002c-two_002dthirds">em-dash, two-thirds</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-emphasis">emphasis</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-enclosure-list">enclosure list</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cencl">\encl</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-encoding_002c-font">encoding, font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding">\DeclareFontEncoding</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-encoding_002c-of-input-files">encoding, of input files</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#inputenc-package">inputenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-end-matter-of-a-book">end matter of a book</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-end-of-document-hook">end of document hook</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cAtEndDocument">\AtEndDocument</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ending-and-starting">ending and starting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-engines_002c-TeX">engines, TeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-enlarge-current-page">enlarge current page</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cenlargethispage">\enlargethispage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-enumerate-environment"><code><code class="code">enumerate</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-enumi-counter"><code>enumi counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-enumii-counter"><code>enumii counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-enumiii-counter"><code>enumiii counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-enumitem-package"><code class="code">enumitem</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-enumitem-package-1"><code class="code">enumitem</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-enumiv-counter"><code>enumiv counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment">environment</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment-form-of-font-size-commands">environment form of font size commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-abstract"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">abstract</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#abstract">abstract</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-array"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">array</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-center"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">center</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#center">center</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-description"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">description</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#description">description</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-displaymath"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">displaymath</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#displaymath">displaymath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-displaymath-1"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">displaymath</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-document"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">document</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#document">document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-enumerate"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">enumerate</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-eqnarray"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">eqnarray</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-equation"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">equation</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#equation">equation</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-equation-1"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">equation</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-figure"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">figure</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#figure">figure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-filecontents"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">filecontents</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-filecontents_002a"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">filecontents*</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-flushleft"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">flushleft</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#flushleft">flushleft</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-flushright"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">flushright</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#flushright">flushright</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-itemize"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">itemize</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-letter"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">letter</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#letter">letter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-list"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">list</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-math"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">math</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#math">math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-math-1"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">math</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-minipage"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">minipage</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-picture"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">picture</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#picture">picture</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-quotation"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">quotation</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-quote"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">quote</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-sloppypar"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">sloppypar</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#sloppypar">sloppypar</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-tabbing"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">tabbing</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-table"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">table</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#table">table</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-tabular"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">tabular</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-thebibliography"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">thebibliography</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-theindex"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">theindex</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Produce-the-index-manually">Produce the index manually</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-theorem"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">theorem</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#theorem">theorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-theorem_002dlike">environment, theorem-like</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem">\newtheorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-titlepage"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">titlepage</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#titlepage">titlepage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-verbatim"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">verbatim</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environment_002c-verse"><code><span class="r">environment</span>, <code class="code">verse</code></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verse">verse</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environments">environments</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Environments">Environments</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-environments_002c-defining">environments, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">\newenvironment &amp; \renewenvironment</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-envlab-package"><code class="code">envlab</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakelabels">\makelabels</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-EPS-files">EPS files</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-eqnarray-environment"><code><code class="code">eqnarray</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-equation-counter"><code>equation counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-equation-environment"><code><code class="code">equation</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#equation">equation</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-equation-environment-1"><code><code class="code">equation</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-equation-number_002c-cross-referencing">equation number, cross referencing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cref">\ref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-equation-numbers_002c-left-vs_002e-right">equation numbers, left vs. right</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-equation-numbers_002c-omitting">equation numbers, omitting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-equations_002c-aligning">equations, aligning</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-equations_002c-environment-for">equations, environment for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#equation">equation</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-equations_002c-flush-left-vs_002e-centered">equations, flush left vs. centered</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-error-messages_002c-from-BibTeX">error messages, from BibTeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#BibTeX-error-messages">BibTeX error messages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-errorstopmode">errorstopmode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-es_002dzet-German-letter">es-zet German letter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-etex-command"><code>etex <span class="r">command</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-eth_002c-Icelandic-letter">eth, Icelandic letter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-etoolbox-package"><code class="code">etoolbox</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-euro-symbol">euro symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-eurosym-package"><code class="code">eurosym</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-eurosym-package-1"><code class="code">eurosym</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ex">ex</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ex-1"><code>ex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-exclamation-point_002c-upside_002ddown">exclamation point, upside-down</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-executivepaper-option"><code>executivepaper <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-expl3-package"><code class="code">expl3</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-expl3-package-1"><code class="code">expl3</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-exponent">exponent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-expressions"><code>expressions</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Expressions">Expressions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-extended-Latin">extended Latin</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-external-commands">external commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-external-files_002c-writing">external files, writing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-F">F</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fallback-jobname">fallback jobname</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-families_002c-of-fonts">families, of fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fancyhdr-package"><code class="code">fancyhdr</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fancyhdr-package-1"><code class="code">fancyhdr</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle">\pagestyle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fancyvrb-package"><code class="code">fancyvrb</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fancyvrb-package-1"><code class="code">fancyvrb</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-feminine-ordinal-symbol">feminine ordinal symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-figure-counter"><code>figure counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-figure-dash-character">figure dash character</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-figure-environment"><code><code class="code">figure</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#figure">figure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-figure-number_002c-cross-referencing">figure number, cross referencing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cref">\ref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-figures_002c-footnotes-in">figures, footnotes in</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-figures_002c-inserting">figures, inserting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#figure">figure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-file_002c-closing">file, closing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout">\openin &amp; \openout</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-file_002c-opening">file, opening</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout">\openin &amp; \openout</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-file_002c-reading">file, reading</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cread">\read</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-file_002c-root">file, root</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-file_002c-root-1">file, root</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-filecontents-environment"><code><code class="code">filecontents</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-filecontents_002a-environment"><code><code class="code">filecontents*</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-filename-for-current-job">filename for current job</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-final-option"><code>final <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-first_002dlatex_002ddoc-document"><code>first-latex-doc <span class="r">document</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fixed_002dwidth-font">fixed-width font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-flafter-package"><code class="code">flafter</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fleqn-option"><code>fleqn <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-float-package"><code class="code">float</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-float-page">float page</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-flush-left-equations">flush left equations</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-flushing-floats-and-starting-a-page">flushing floats and starting a page</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage &amp; \cleardoublepage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-flushleft-environment"><code><code class="code">flushleft</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#flushleft">flushleft</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-flushright-environment"><code><code class="code">flushright</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#flushright">flushright</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-font-catalogue">font catalogue</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-font-commands_002c-low_002dlevel">font commands, low-level</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-font-dimension_002c-slant">font dimension, slant</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002f">\/</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-font-encoding">font encoding</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-font-encoding-1">font encoding</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent">\DeclareTextAccent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-font-encoding_002c-declaring">font encoding, declaring</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareFontEncoding">\DeclareFontEncoding</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-font-size">font size</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-font-sizes">font sizes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-font-styles">font styles</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-font-symbols_002c-by-number">font symbols, by number</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Symbols-by-font-position">Symbols by font position</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fontenc"><code>fontenc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fonts">fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Fonts">Fonts</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fonts_002c-new-commands-for">fonts, new commands for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewfont">\newfont</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fonts_002c-script">fonts, script</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Calligraphic">Calligraphic</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fontspec-package"><code class="code">fontspec</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fontspec-package-1"><code class="code">fontspec</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#OpenType-bold-math">OpenType bold math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footer-style">footer style</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle">\pagestyle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footer_002c-parameters-for">footer, parameters for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footnote-counter"><code>footnote counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footnote-number_002c-cross-referencing">footnote number, cross referencing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cref">\ref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footnote-parameters">footnote parameters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footnote_002c-in-a-table">footnote, in a table</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Footnotes-in-a-table">Footnotes in a table</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footnote_002c-in-section-headings">footnote, in section headings</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Footnotes-in-section-headings">Footnotes in section headings</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footnote_002c-of-a-footnote">footnote, of a footnote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Footnotes-of-footnotes">Footnotes of footnotes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footnotes-in-figures">footnotes in figures</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footnotes_002c-creating">footnotes, creating</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Footnotes">Footnotes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footnotes_002c-in-a-minipage">footnotes, in a minipage</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-footnotes_002c-symbols-instead-of-numbers">footnotes, symbols instead of numbers</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-force-option-for-filecontents"><code class="code">force</code> option for <code class="code">filecontents</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-format-files_002c-TeX">format files, TeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-formulas_002c-environment-for">formulas, environment for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#equation">equation</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-formulas_002c-math">formulas, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-forward-reference">forward reference</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Cross-references">Cross references</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-forward-references_002c-resolving">forward references, resolving</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fraction">fraction</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrac">\frac</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-fragile-commands">fragile commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-frame-rule-width"><code>frame rule width</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox &amp; \framebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-frame_002c-line-width"><code>frame, line width</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox &amp; \framebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-frame_002c-separation-from-contents"><code>frame, separation from contents</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfbox-_0026-_005cframebox">\fbox &amp; \framebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-French-quotation-marks">French quotation marks</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-front-matter-of-a-book">front matter of a book</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-functions_002c-math">functions, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-G">G</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-geometry-package"><code class="code">geometry</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-geometry-package-1"><code class="code">geometry</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-global-options">global options</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-global-options-1">global options</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-packages">Additional packages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-glossaries">glossaries</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Glossaries">Glossaries</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-glossary">glossary</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Glossaries">Glossaries</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-glossary_002c-entries">glossary, entries</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry">\newglossaryentry</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-glossary_002c-entry-reference">glossary, entry reference</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cgls">\gls</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-glue-plain-TeX">glue <span class="r">plain TeX</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Lengths">Lengths</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-glue-register_002c-plain-TeX">glue register, plain TeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewlength">\newlength</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics">graphics</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Graphics">Graphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics-1">graphics</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Graphics-package-configuration">Graphics package configuration</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics-2">graphics</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics-package">graphics package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Graphics">Graphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics-package-1">graphics package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Graphics-package-configuration">Graphics package configuration</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics-package-2">graphics package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics-package-commands">graphics package commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Commands-for-graphics">Commands for graphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics-package-options">graphics package options</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Graphics-package-options">Graphics package options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics-packages">graphics packages</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics_002c-resizing">graphics, resizing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cscalebox">\scalebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics_002c-resizing-1">graphics, resizing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cresizebox">\resizebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics_002c-scaling">graphics, scaling</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cscalebox">\scalebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphics_002c-scaling-1">graphics, scaling</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cresizebox">\resizebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-graphpap-package"><code class="code">graphpap</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cgraphpaper">\graphpaper</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-grave-accent">grave accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-grave-accent_002c-math">grave accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-greater-than-symbol_002c-in-text">greater than symbol, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-greek-letters">greek letters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Greek-letters">Greek letters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Greek-letters">Greek letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-grfext-package"><code class="code">grfext</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-group_002c-and-environments">group, and environments</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Environments">Environments</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-group_005fskip"><code>group_skip</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-H">H</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hacek-accent_002c-math">h&aacute;&#269;ek accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hacek-accent">hacek accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Halmos-symbol">Halmos symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005crule">\rule</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hard-space">hard space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_007e">~</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hat-accent">hat accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hat-accent_002c-math">hat accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-header-style">header style</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle">\pagestyle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-header_002c-parameters-for">header, parameters for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hello_002c-world">hello, world</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-here_002c-putting-floats">here, putting floats</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-home-page-for-manual">home page for manual</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-horizontal-bar-character">horizontal bar character</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-horizontal-paragraph-indentation">horizontal paragraph indentation</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent &amp; \parskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-horizontal-space">horizontal space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chss">\hss</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-horizontal-space_002c-stretchable">horizontal space, stretchable</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chss">\hss</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-horizontal-spacing">horizontal spacing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hungarian-umlaut-accent">hungarian umlaut accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hyperref-package"><code class="code">hyperref</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark">\footnotemark</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hyperref-package-1"><code class="code">hyperref</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark">\footnotemark</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hyperref-package-2"><code class="code">hyperref</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagenumbering">\pagenumbering</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hyperref-package-3"><code class="code">hyperref</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hyperref-package-4"><code class="code">hyperref</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-input">Command line input</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hyphen-character_002c-non_002dbreaking">hyphen character, non-breaking</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hyphenation_002c-defining">hyphenation, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chyphenation">\hyphenation</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hyphenation_002c-discretionary">hyphenation, discretionary</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cdiscretionary">\discretionary</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hyphenation_002c-forcing">hyphenation, forcing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002d-_0028hyphenation_0029">\- (hyphenation)</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-hyphenation_002c-preventing">hyphenation, preventing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-I">I</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Icelandic-eth">Icelandic eth</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Icelandic-thorn">Icelandic thorn</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-idx-file">idx file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ij-letter_002c-Dutch">ij letter, Dutch</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-immediate-_005cwrite">immediate <code class="code">\write</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-implementations-of-TeX">implementations of TeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-importing-graphics">importing graphics</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-in"><code>in</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-inch">inch</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-including-graphics">including graphics</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indent_002c-forcing">indent, forcing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent">\indent &amp; \noindent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indentation-of-paragraphs_002c-in-minipage">indentation of paragraphs, in minipage</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indentfirst-package"><code class="code">indentfirst</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpart">\part</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indentfirst-package-1"><code class="code">indentfirst</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cchapter">\chapter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indentfirst-package-2"><code class="code">indentfirst</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csection">\section</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indentfirst-package-3"><code class="code">indentfirst</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsection">\subsection</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indentfirst-package-4"><code class="code">indentfirst</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection &amp; \paragraph &amp; \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indentfirst-package-5"><code class="code">indentfirst</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent">\indent &amp; \noindent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indent_005flength"><code>indent_length</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indent_005fspace"><code>indent_space</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-index-entries_002c-subentries">index entries, subentries</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-index-entries_002c-_0060see_0027-and-_0060see-also_0027">index entries, &lsquo;see&rsquo; and &lsquo;see also&rsquo;</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-index-entry">index entry</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-index-package"><code class="code">index</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-index_002c-multiple">index, multiple</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-index_002c-page-range">index, page range</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-index_002c-printing">index, printing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprintindex">\printindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-index_002c-processing">index, processing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-index_002c-producing-manually">index, producing manually</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Produce-the-index-manually">Produce the index manually</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-index_002c-style-file"><code>index, style file</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-indexes">indexes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-infinite-horizontal-stretch">infinite horizontal stretch</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chfill">\hfill</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-infinite-vertical-stretch">infinite vertical stretch</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cvfill">\vfill</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-inline-formulas">inline formulas</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#math">math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-inner-paragraph-mode">inner paragraph mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-input-file">input file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-input_002c-on-command-line">input, on command line</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-input">Command line input</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-input_002foutput">input/output</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Input_002foutput">Input/output</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-input_002foutput_002c-to-terminal">input/output, to terminal</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Input_002foutput">Input/output</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-inputenc"><code>inputenc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#inputenc-package">inputenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-inserting-figures">inserting figures</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#figure">figure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-insertions-of-special-characters">insertions of special characters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Special-insertions">Special insertions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-interface_002c-command-line">interface, command line</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-interface">Command line interface</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-interline-space">interline space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-internal-vertical-mode">internal vertical mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-invisible-character">invisible character</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-invisible-character-1">invisible character</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmathstrut">\mathstrut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-italic-correction">italic correction</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002f">\/</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-italic-font">italic font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-itemize-environment"><code><code class="code">itemize</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-item_005f0"><code>item_0</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-item_005f01"><code>item_01</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-item_005f1"><code>item_1</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-item_005f12"><code>item_12</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-item_005f2"><code>item_2</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-item_005fx1"><code>item_x1</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-item_005fx2"><code>item_x2</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-J">J</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-jobname">jobname</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-jobname-1">jobname</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-JPEG-files">JPEG files</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-JPG-files">JPG files</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-justification_002c-ragged-left">justification, ragged left</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craggedleft">\raggedleft</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-justification_002c-ragged-right">justification, ragged right</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craggedright">\raggedright</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-K">K</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Knuth_002c-Donald-E_002e">Knuth, Donald E.</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Overview">Overview</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-L">L</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-label">label</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Cross-references">Cross references</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-labelled-lists_002c-creating">labelled lists, creating</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#description">description</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Lamport-TeX">Lamport TeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Overview">Overview</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Lamport_002c-Leslie">Lamport, Leslie</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Overview">Overview</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-landscape-option"><code>landscape <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-landscape-orientation">landscape orientation</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-latex"><code>latex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-latex-command"><code>latex <span class="r">command</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LaTeX-format-_0028_002efmt_0029-files">LaTeX format (<code class="code">.fmt</code>) files</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LaTeX-logo">LaTeX logo</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LaTeX-overview">LaTeX overview</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Overview">Overview</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LaTeX-Project-team">LaTeX Project team</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LaTeX-vs_002e-LaTeX2e">LaTeX vs. LaTeX2e</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-latex_002ddev"><code>latex-dev</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-latex_002ddoc_002dptr-document"><code>latex-doc-ptr <span class="r">document</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LaTeX2e-logo">LaTeX2e logo</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LaTeX3-syntax">LaTeX3 syntax</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-latexrefman_0040tug_002eorg-email-address"><code><a class="email" href="mailto:latexrefman@tug.org">latexrefman@tug.org</a> <span class="r">email address</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-latexsym-package"><code class="code">latexsym</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Latin-letters_002c-additional">Latin letters, additional</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-layout-commands">layout commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Layout">Layout</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-layout_002c-page-parameters-for">layout, page parameters for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-leaders_002c-dots-in-table-of-contents">leaders, dots in table of contents</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040dottedtocline">\@dottedtocline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-leading">leading</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-left-angle-quotation-marks">left angle quotation marks</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-left-arrow_002c-in-text">left arrow, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-left-brace_002c-in-text">left brace, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-left-quote">left quote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-left-quote_002c-double">left quote, double</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-left-quote_002c-single">left quote, single</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-left_002dhand-equation-numbers">left-hand equation numbers</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-left_002djustifying-text">left-justifying text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craggedright">\raggedright</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-left_002djustifying-text_002c-environment-for">left-justifying text, environment for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#flushleft">flushleft</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-left_002dto_002dright-mode">left-to-right mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-legalpaper-option"><code>legalpaper <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lengths_002c-adding-to">lengths, adding to</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddtolength">\addtolength</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lengths_002c-allocating-new">lengths, allocating new</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewlength">\newlength</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lengths_002c-defining-and-using">lengths, defining and using</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Lengths">Lengths</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lengths_002c-setting">lengths, setting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csetlength">\setlength</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-leqno-option"><code>leqno <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-less-than-symbol_002c-in-text">less than symbol, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lethead_005fflag"><code>lethead_flag</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lethead_005fprefix"><code>lethead_prefix</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lethead_005fsuffix"><code>lethead_suffix</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-letter-class"><code>letter <span class="r">class</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-classes">Document classes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-letter-environment"><code><code class="code">letter</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#letter">letter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-letterpaper-option"><code>letterpaper <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-letters_002c-accented">letters, accented</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-letters_002c-additional-Latin">letters, additional Latin</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-letters_002c-ending">letters, ending</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cclosing">\closing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-letters_002c-starting">letters, starting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005copening">\opening</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-letters_002c-writing">letters, writing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Letters">Letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-line-break_002c-forcing">line break, forcing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_005c">\\</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-line-breaking">line breaking</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Line-breaking">Line breaking</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-line-breaks_002c-changing">line breaks, changing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfussy-_0026-_005csloppy">\fussy &amp; \sloppy</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-line-breaks_002c-forcing">line breaks, forcing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak">\linebreak &amp; \nolinebreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-line-breaks_002c-multiplication-discretionary">line breaks, multiplication discretionary</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002a">\*</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-line-breaks_002c-preventing">line breaks, preventing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005clinebreak-_0026-_005cnolinebreak">\linebreak &amp; \nolinebreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lines-in-tables">lines in tables</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-line_005fmax"><code>line_max</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lining-numerals">lining numerals</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lining-text-up-in-tables">lining text up in tables</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lining-text-up-using-tab-stops">lining text up using tab stops</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-list-environment"><code><code class="code">list</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-list-items_002c-specifying-counter">list items, specifying counter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cusecounter">\usecounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-list-of-figures-file">list of figures file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-list-of-tables-file">list of tables file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-listings-package"><code class="code">listings</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-listings-package-1"><code class="code">listings</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-listings-package-2"><code class="code">listings</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lists-of-items">lists of items</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lists-of-items_002c-generic">lists of items, generic</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lists-of-items_002c-numbered">lists of items, numbered</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#enumerate">enumerate</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lmodern-package"><code class="code">lmodern</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-loading-additional-packages">loading additional packages</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-packages">Additional packages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-locale-information_002c-from-system">locale information, from system</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-log-file">log file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-log-file_002c-writing-to">log file, writing to</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-logo_002c-LaTeX">logo, LaTeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-logo_002c-LaTeX2e">logo, LaTeX2e</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-logo_002c-TeX">logo, TeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-long-command">long command</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-low_002d9-quotation-marks_002c-single-and-double">low-9 quotation marks, single and double</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-low_002dlevel-font-commands">low-level font commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lowercase">lowercase</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LR-box"><code>LR box</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#picture">picture</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LR-mode">LR mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lrbox"><code>lrbox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#lrbox">lrbox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lshort-document"><code>lshort <span class="r">document</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lualatex"><code>lualatex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-lualatex_002ddev"><code>lualatex-dev</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LuaTeX">LuaTeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-LuaTeX_002c-256-output-streams-in">LuaTeX, 256 output streams in</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-M">M</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-m_002dwidth">m-width</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-macron-accent">macron accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-macron-accent_002c-math">macron accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-macros2e-package"><code class="code">macros2e</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter &amp; \makeatother</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Madsen_002c-Lars">Madsen, Lars</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#eqnarray">eqnarray</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mail-merges">mail merges</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cread">\read</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-main-matter-of-a-book">main matter of a book</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrontmatter-_0026-_005cmainmatter-_0026-_005cbackmatter">\frontmatter &amp; \mainmatter &amp; \backmatter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-make-a-box">make a box</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-makeidx-package"><code class="code">makeidx</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprintindex">\printindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-makeindex-program"><code class="command">makeindex</code> program</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-makeindex_002c-program"><code>makeindex, <span class="r">program</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-makeindex_002c-style-file"><code>makeindex, style file</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-making-a-title-page">making a title page</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#titlepage">titlepage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-making-paragraphs">making paragraphs</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Making-paragraphs">Making paragraphs</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-marginal-notes">marginal notes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-masculine-ordinal-symbol">masculine ordinal symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-matching-brackets">matching brackets</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-matching-parentheses">matching parentheses</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-accents">math accents</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-environment"><code><code class="code">math</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#math">math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-environment-1"><code><code class="code">math</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-formulas">math formulas</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-functions">math functions</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-miscellany">math miscellany</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-miscellany">Math miscellany</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-mode">math mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-mode_002c-entering">math mode, entering</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-mode_002c-spacing">math mode, spacing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-mode_002c-spacing-1">math mode, spacing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-mode_002c-spacing-2">math mode, spacing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmathstrut">\mathstrut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-mode_002c-vertical-space">math mode, vertical space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csmash">\smash</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-styles">math styles</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math-symbols">math symbols</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math_002c-arrows"><code>math, arrows</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-math_002c-bold">math, bold</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mathematics_002c-boldface">mathematics, boldface</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cboldmath-_0026-_005cunboldmath">\boldmath &amp; \unboldmath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mathtools-package"><code class="code">mathtools</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mathtools-package-1"><code class="code">mathtools</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mathtools-package-2"><code class="code">mathtools</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mathtools-package-3"><code class="code">mathtools</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mathtools-package-4"><code class="code">mathtools</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csmash">\smash</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mathtools-package-5"><code class="code">mathtools</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-MetaPost-package"><code class="code">MetaPost</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mfirstuc-package"><code class="code">mfirstuc</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mhchem-package"><code class="code">mhchem</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-millimeter">millimeter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-minipage-environment"><code><code class="code">minipage</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-minipage_002c-creating-a">minipage, creating a</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-minted-package"><code class="code">minted</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-minted-package-1"><code class="code">minted</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-minted-package-2"><code class="code">minted</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mirrors-of-CTAN">mirrors of CTAN</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#CTAN">CTAN</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mm"><code>mm</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-modes">modes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-monospace-font">monospace font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-moving-arguments">moving arguments</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mpfootnote-counter">mpfootnote counter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mpfootnote-counter-1"><code>mpfootnote counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mu"><code>mu</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-mu_002c-math-unit">mu, math unit</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-multicolumn-text">multicolumn text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-multilingual-support">multilingual support</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-multind-package"><code class="code">multind</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-multiple-indexes">multiple indexes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-multiplication_002c-discretionary">multiplication, discretionary</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_002a">\*</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-N">N</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-name"><code>name</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry">\newglossaryentry</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-name-of-document-root">name of document root</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-NBSP">NBSP</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_007e">~</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-nested-_005cinclude_002c-not-allowed">nested <code class="code">\include</code>, not allowed</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cinclude-_0026-_005cincludeonly">\include &amp; \includeonly</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-new-class-commands">new class commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-construction">Class and package construction</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-new-command_002c-checking">new command, checking</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-new-command_002c-definition">new command, definition</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-new-commands_002c-defining">new commands, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-new-commands_002c-defining-1">new commands, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprovidecommand">\providecommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-new-line_002c-output-as-input">new line, output as input</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cobeycr-_0026-_005crestorecr">\obeycr &amp; \restorecr</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-new-line_002c-starting">new line, starting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_005c">\\</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-new-line_002c-starting-_0028paragraph-mode_0029">new line, starting (paragraph mode)</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewline">\newline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-new-page_002c-starting">new page, starting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewpage">\newpage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-newline_002c-in-_005cwrite">newline, in <code class="code">\write</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-noheader-option-for-filecontents"><code class="code">noheader</code> option for <code class="code">filecontents</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-non_002dbreaking-hyphen-character">non-breaking hyphen character</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-non_002dEnglish-characters">non-English characters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-nonstopmode">nonstopmode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-nosearch-option-for-filecontents"><code class="code">nosearch</code> option for <code class="code">filecontents</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-notes-in-the-margin">notes in the margin</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-notitlepage-option"><code>notitlepage <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-null-delimiter">null delimiter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-numbered-items_002c-specifying-counter">numbered items, specifying counter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cusecounter">\usecounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-numerals_002c-old_002dstyle">numerals, old-style</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-O">O</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-oblique-font">oblique font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-oe-ligature">oe ligature</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ogonek">ogonek</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-old_002dstyle-numerals">old-style numerals</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-one_002dcolumn-output">one-column output</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005conecolumn">\onecolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-onecolumn-option"><code>onecolumn <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-oneside-option"><code>oneside <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-open-a-file">open a file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005copenin-_0026-_005copenout">\openin &amp; \openout</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-openany-option"><code>openany <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-openbib-option"><code>openbib <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-opening-quote">opening quote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-openright-option"><code>openright <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-OpenType-fonts">OpenType fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-operating-system-information">operating system information</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-optional-arguments_002c-defining-and-using">optional arguments, defining and using</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-options_002c-class">options, class</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-options_002c-color-package">options, color package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Color-package-options">Color package options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-options_002c-command-line">options, command line</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-options_002c-document-class">options, document class</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-options_002c-document-class-1">options, document class</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-structure">Class and package structure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-options_002c-global">options, global</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-packages">Additional packages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-options_002c-graphics-package">options, graphics package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Graphics-package-options">Graphics package options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-options_002c-package">options, package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-structure">Class and package structure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-options_002c-package-1">options, package</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ordinals_002c-feminine-and-masculine">ordinals, feminine and masculine</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-oslash">oslash</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-OT1">OT1</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-outer-paragraph-mode">outer paragraph mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-output-directory-for-all-external-files">output directory for all external files</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-overbar-accent">overbar accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-overdot-accent_002c-math">overdot accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-overlining">overlining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-overview-of-LaTeX">overview of LaTeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Overview">Overview</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-overwrite-option-for-filecontents"><code class="code">overwrite</code> option for <code class="code">filecontents</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-P">P</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package-file-layout">package file layout</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-structure">Class and package structure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package-options">package options</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-structure">Class and package structure</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package-options-1">package options</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-abstract"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">abstract</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#abstract">abstract</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-adjustbox"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">adjustbox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Boxes">Boxes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-algorithm2e"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">algorithm2e</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amscd"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amscd</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsfonts"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsfonts</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsfonts-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsfonts</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#displaymath">displaymath</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-3"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#equation">equation</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-4"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#theorem">theorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-5"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-6"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-7"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbigl-_0026-_005cbigr-etc_002e">\bigl &amp; \bigr etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-8"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-9"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-functions">Math functions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-10"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-11"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-12"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character &amp; \colon</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-13"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colon-character-_0026-_005ccolon">Colon character &amp; \colon</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsmath-14"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsmath</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace &amp; \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsthm"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsthm</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#theorem">theorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-amsthm-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">amsthm</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005crule">\rule</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-answers"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">answers</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-appendix"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">appendix</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cappendix">\appendix</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-array"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">array</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-Asymptote"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">Asymptote</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-Asymptote-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">Asymptote</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstrut">\strut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-Asymptote-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">Asymptote</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-Asymptote-3"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">Asymptote</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-babel"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">babel</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cchapter">\chapter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-babel-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">babel</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-babel-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">babel</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-babel-3"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">babel</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctoday">\today</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-babel-4"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">babel</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-babel-5"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">babel</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-beamer"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">beamer</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#beamer-template">beamer template</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-bigfoot"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">bigfoot</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Footnotes-of-footnotes">Footnotes of footnotes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-bm"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">bm</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#bm">bm</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-caption"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">caption</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccaption">\caption</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-cleveref"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">cleveref</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Cross-references">Cross references</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-cleveref-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">cleveref</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cref">\ref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-cleveref-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">cleveref</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark">\footnotemark</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-cm_002dsuper"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">cm-super</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-comprehensive"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">comprehensive</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-cprotect"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">cprotect</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-cprotect-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">cprotect</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-datatool"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">datatool</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cread">\read</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-datetime"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">datetime</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctoday">\today</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-dcolumn"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">dcolumn</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#array">array</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-enumitem"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">enumitem</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-enumitem-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">enumitem</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#list">list</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-envlab"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">envlab</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakelabels">\makelabels</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-etoolbox"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">etoolbox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Class-and-package-commands">Class and package commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-eurosym"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">eurosym</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-eurosym-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">eurosym</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-expl3"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">expl3</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-expl3-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">expl3</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-fancyhdr"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">fancyhdr</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-fancyhdr-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">fancyhdr</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle">\pagestyle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-fancyvrb"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">fancyvrb</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-fancyvrb-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">fancyvrb</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-flafter"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">flafter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-float"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">float</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-fontspec"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">fontspec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-fontspec-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">fontspec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#OpenType-bold-math">OpenType bold math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-geometry"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">geometry</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-geometry-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">geometry</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-graphpap"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">graphpap</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cgraphpaper">\graphpaper</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-grfext"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">grfext</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareGraphicsExtensions">\DeclareGraphicsExtensions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-hyperref"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">hyperref</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark">\footnotemark</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-hyperref-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">hyperref</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnotemark">\footnotemark</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-hyperref-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">hyperref</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagenumbering">\pagenumbering</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-hyperref-3"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">hyperref</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-hyperref-4"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">hyperref</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-input">Command line input</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-indentfirst"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">indentfirst</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpart">\part</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-indentfirst-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">indentfirst</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cchapter">\chapter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-indentfirst-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">indentfirst</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csection">\section</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-indentfirst-3"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">indentfirst</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsection">\subsection</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-indentfirst-4"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">indentfirst</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection &amp; \paragraph &amp; \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-indentfirst-5"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">indentfirst</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindent-_0026-_005cnoindent">\indent &amp; \noindent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-index"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">index</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-latexsym"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">latexsym</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-listings"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">listings</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-listings-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">listings</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-listings-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">listings</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-lmodern"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">lmodern</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-macros2e"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">macros2e</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmakeatletter-_0026-_005cmakeatother">\makeatletter &amp; \makeatother</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-makeidx"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">makeidx</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprintindex">\printindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-mathtools"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">mathtools</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-formulas">Math formulas</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-mathtools-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">mathtools</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-mathtools-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">mathtools</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-mathtools-3"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">mathtools</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-mathtools-4"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">mathtools</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csmash">\smash</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-mathtools-5"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">mathtools</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-MetaPost"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">MetaPost</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-mfirstuc"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">mfirstuc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-mhchem"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">mhchem</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-minted"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">minted</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-minted-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">minted</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-minted-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">minted</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-multind"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">multind</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-pict2e"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">pict2e</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-polyglossia"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">polyglossia</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-polyglossia-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">polyglossia</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctoday">\today</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-polyglossia-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">polyglossia</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-polyglossia-3"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">polyglossia</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-PSTricks"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">PSTricks</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-setspace"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">setspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-shellesc"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">shellesc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-showidx"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">showidx</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-siunitx"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">siunitx</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-siunitx-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">siunitx</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_007e">~</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-suffix"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">suffix</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar">\@ifstar</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-tablefootnote"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">tablefootnote</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Footnotes-in-a-table">Footnotes in a table</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-texosquery"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">texosquery</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-textcase"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">textcase</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-textcomp"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">textcomp</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-TikZ"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">TikZ</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-TikZ-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">TikZ</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstrut">\strut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-TikZ-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">TikZ</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-tikz_002dcd"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">tikz-cd</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-titlesec"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">titlesec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-titlesec-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">titlesec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpart">\part</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-titlesec-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">titlesec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cchapter">\chapter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-titlesec-3"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">titlesec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csection">\section</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-titlesec-4"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">titlesec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsection">\subsection</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-titlesec-5"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">titlesec</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection &amp; \paragraph &amp; \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-tocbibbind"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">tocbibbind</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-tocloft"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">tocloft</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-tocloft-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">tocloft</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-ulem"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">ulem</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-unicode_002dmath"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">unicode-math</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#OpenType-bold-math">OpenType bold math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-unicode_002dmath-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">unicode-math</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-unicode_002dmath-2"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">unicode-math</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Greek-letters">Greek letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-url"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">url</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-verbatimbox"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">verbatimbox</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-xparse"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">xparse</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-xparse-1"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">xparse</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar">\@ifstar</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-xr"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">xr</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xr-package">xr package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-xr_002dhyper"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">xr-hyper</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xr-package">xr package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-xspace"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">xspace</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xspace-package">xspace package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-package_002c-xstring"><span class="r">package</span>, <code class="code">xstring</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-packages_002c-loading-additional">packages, loading additional</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-packages">Additional packages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page-break_002c-forcing">page break, forcing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak">\pagebreak &amp; \nopagebreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page-break_002c-preventing">page break, preventing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak">\pagebreak &amp; \nopagebreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page-breaking">page breaking</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-breaking">Page breaking</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page-counter"><code>page counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page-layout-parameters">page layout parameters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page-number_002c-cross-referencing">page number, cross referencing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpageref">\pageref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page-numbering-style">page numbering style</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagenumbering">\pagenumbering</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page-style_002c-this-page">page style, this page</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthispagestyle">\thispagestyle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page-styles">page styles</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page_002c-colored">page, colored</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Colored-pages">Colored pages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-page_005fprecedence"><code>page_precedence</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paired-delimiters">paired delimiters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cleft-_0026-_005cright">\left &amp; \right</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph">paragraph</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph-1">paragraph</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection &amp; \paragraph &amp; \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph-counter"><code>paragraph counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph-indentation">paragraph indentation</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent &amp; \parskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph-indentation_002c-in-minipage">paragraph indentation, in minipage</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph-indentations-in-quoted-text">paragraph indentations in quoted text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph-indentations-in-quoted-text_002c-omitting">paragraph indentations in quoted text, omitting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph-mode">paragraph mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph-mode-1">paragraph mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cparbox">\parbox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph-symbol">paragraph symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph_002c-ending">paragraph, ending</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpar">\par</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraph_002c-in-a-box">paragraph, in a box</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cparbox">\parbox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-paragraphs">paragraphs</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Making-paragraphs">Making paragraphs</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-parameters_002c-for-footnotes">parameters, for footnotes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-parameters_002c-page-layout">parameters, page layout</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-parameters_002c-substituting">parameters, substituting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-parent-directories_002c-cannot-write-to">parent directories, cannot write to</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite-and-security">\write and security</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-parentheses">parentheses</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Delimiters">Delimiters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-part">part</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-part-1">part</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpart">\part</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-part-counter"><code>part counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pattern_002c-current-tab-stops_002c-tabbing">pattern, current tab stops, <span class="r">tabbing</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pc"><code>pc</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-PDF-graphic-files">PDF graphic files</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pdflatex"><code>pdflatex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pdflatex-command"><code>pdflatex <span class="r">command</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pdflatex_002ddev"><code>pdflatex-dev</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pdfTeX">pdfTeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pdfTeX-engine">pdfTeX engine</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-period_002c-abbreviation_002dending">period, abbreviation-ending</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040">\@</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-period_002c-centered_002c-in-text">period, centered, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-period_002c-sentence_002dending">period, sentence-ending</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040">\@</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-period_002c-spacing-after">period, spacing after</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040">\@</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pica">pica</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pict2e-package"><code class="code">pict2e</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-picture-environment"><code><code class="code">picture</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#picture">picture</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pictures_002c-creating">pictures, creating</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#picture">picture</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pilcrow">pilcrow</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-placement-of-floats">placement of floats</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-platex"><code>platex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-platex_002ddev"><code>platex-dev</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-plural"><code>plural</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry">\newglossaryentry</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-PNG-files">PNG files</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cincludegraphics">\includegraphics</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-poetry_002c-an-environment-for">poetry, an environment for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verse">verse</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-point">point</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-polish-l">polish l</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-polyglossia-package"><code class="code">polyglossia</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-polyglossia-package-1"><code class="code">polyglossia</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctoday">\today</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-polyglossia-package-2"><code class="code">polyglossia</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-polyglossia-package-3"><code class="code">polyglossia</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-portrait-orientation">portrait orientation</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-position_002c-in-picture">position, in picture</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#picture">picture</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-postamble"><code>postamble</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-PostScript-point">PostScript point</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-postscript_002c-in-letters">postscript, in letters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cps">\ps</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pounds-symbol">pounds symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-preamble"><code>preamble</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-preamble_002c-defined">preamble, defined</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-prerelease-testing">prerelease testing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-prompt_002c-_002a">prompt, &lsquo;<samp class="samp">*</samp>&rsquo;</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Recovering-from-errors">Recovering from errors</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pronunciation">pronunciation</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Overview">Overview</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-PSTricks-package"><code class="code">PSTricks</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-pt"><code>pt</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-Q">Q</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-quad">quad</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-question-mark_002c-upside_002ddown">question mark, upside-down</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-quotation-environment"><code><code class="code">quotation</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-quotation-marks_002c-French">quotation marks, French</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-quote-environment"><code><code class="code">quote</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-quote_002c-single-straight">quote, single straight</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-quote_002c-straight-base">quote, straight base</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-quoted-text-with-paragraph-indentation_002c-displaying">quoted text with paragraph indentation, displaying</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-quoted-text-without-paragraph-indentation_002c-displaying">quoted text without paragraph indentation, displaying</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#quotation-_0026-quote">quotation &amp; quote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-R">R</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-radical">radical</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csqrt">\sqrt</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ragged-left-text">ragged left text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craggedleft">\raggedleft</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ragged-left-text_002c-environment-for">ragged left text, environment for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#flushright">flushright</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ragged-right-text">ragged right text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craggedright">\raggedright</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ragged-right-text_002c-environment-for">ragged right text, environment for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#flushleft">flushleft</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-read-a-file">read a file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cread">\read</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-redefining-a-command">redefining a command</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-redefining-environments">redefining environments</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewenvironment-_0026-_005crenewenvironment">\newenvironment &amp; \renewenvironment</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-reference_002c-forward">reference, forward</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Cross-references">Cross references</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-references_002c-resolving-forward">references, resolving forward</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-registered-symbol">registered symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-relation_002c-text-above">relation, text above</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstackrel">\stackrel</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-release-candidates">release candidates</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-remarks-in-the-margin">remarks in the margin</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Marginal-notes">Marginal notes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-report-class"><code>report <span class="r">class</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-classes">Document classes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-reporting-bugs">reporting bugs</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-reserved-characters">reserved characters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-resizing">resizing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cscalebox">\scalebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-resizing-1">resizing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cresizebox">\resizebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-restricted-shell-access">restricted shell access</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-right-angle-quotation-marks">right angle quotation marks</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-right-arrow_002c-in-text">right arrow, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-right-brace_002c-in-text">right brace, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-right-quote">right quote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-right-quote_002c-double">right quote, double</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-right-quote_002c-single">right quote, single</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-right_002dhand-equation-numbers">right-hand equation numbers</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-right_002djustifying-text">right-justifying text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craggedleft">\raggedleft</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-right_002djustifying-text_002c-environment-for">right-justifying text, environment for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#flushright">flushright</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-rigid-lengths">rigid lengths</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Lengths">Lengths</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ring-accent">ring accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ring-accent_002c-math">ring accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-robust-commands">robust commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cprotect">\protect</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-roman-font">roman font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-root-file">root file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-root-file-1">root file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-roots">roots</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csqrt">\sqrt</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-rotating-graphics">rotating graphics</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005crotatebox">\rotatebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-rotating-text">rotating text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005crotatebox">\rotatebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-rotation">rotation</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005crotatebox">\rotatebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-row_002c-tabbing">row, <span class="r">tabbing</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-rubber-lengths">rubber lengths</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Lengths">Lengths</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-rubber-lengths_002c-defining-new">rubber lengths, defining new</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewlength">\newlength</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-running-header-and-footer">running header and footer</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-running-header-and-footer-style">running header and footer style</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagestyle">\pagestyle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-S">S</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-samepage-environment"><code>samepage <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpagebreak-_0026-_005cnopagebreak">\pagebreak &amp; \nopagebreak</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sans-serif-font">sans serif font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-scaled-point">scaled point</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-scaling">scaling</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cscalebox">\scalebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-scaling-1">scaling</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cresizebox">\resizebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-script-fonts">script fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Calligraphic">Calligraphic</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-script-letters-for-math">script letters for math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-script-style">script style</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-scriptscript-style">scriptscript style</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-scrollmode">scrollmode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-secnumdepth"><code>secnumdepth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-secnumdepth-counter"><code>secnumdepth <span class="r">counter</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-section">section</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-section-1">section</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csection">\section</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-section-counter"><code>section counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-section-number_002c-cross-referencing">section number, cross referencing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cref">\ref</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-section-numbers_002c-printing">section numbers, printing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-section-symbol">section symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-section_002c-redefining">section, redefining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040startsection">\@startsection</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sectioning-commands">sectioning commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sectioning_002c-part">sectioning, part</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpart">\part</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-security-and-_005cwrite">security and <code class="code">\write</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite-and-security">\write and security</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-see-and-see-also-index-entries">see and see also index entries</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cindex">\index</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-self_002dcontained-sources">self-contained sources</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-series_002c-of-fonts">series, of fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-setspace-package"><code class="code">setspace</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-setting-counters">setting counters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csetcounter">\setcounter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sh_002c-used-by-_005cwrite18"><code>sh<span class="r">, used by <code class="code">\write18</code></span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-shapes_002c-of-fonts">shapes, of fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sharp-S-letters">sharp S letters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-shell-access">shell access</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-shell-escape">shell escape</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Command-line-options">Command line options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-SHELL_002c-environment-variables"><code>SHELL<span class="r">, environment variables</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-shellesc-package"><code class="code">shellesc</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-showidx-package"><code class="code">showidx</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Indexes">Indexes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-simulating-typed-text">simulating typed text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-single-angle-quotation-marks">single angle quotation marks</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-single-guillemets">single guillemets</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-single-left-quote">single left quote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-single-low_002d9-quotation-mark">single low-9 quotation mark</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-single-quote_002c-straight">single quote, straight</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-single-right-quote">single right quote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-siunitx-package"><code class="code">siunitx</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#minipage">minipage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-siunitx-package-1"><code class="code">siunitx</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_007e">~</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sizes-of-text">sizes of text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-skip-plain-TeX">skip <span class="r">plain TeX</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Lengths">Lengths</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-skip-register_002c-plain-TeX">skip register, plain TeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewlength">\newlength</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-slanted-font">slanted font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-slides-class"><code>slides <span class="r">class</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-classes">Document classes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sloppypar-environment">sloppypar environment</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#sloppypar">sloppypar</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sloppypar-environment-1"><code><code class="code">sloppypar</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#sloppypar">sloppypar</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-slot_002c-font">slot, font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextAccent">\DeclareTextAccent</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-small-caps-font">small caps font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sort"><code>sort</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry">\newglossaryentry</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-source-files_002c-making-self_002dcontained">source files, making self-contained</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sp"><code>sp</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-space-between-lines">space between lines</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cbaselineskip-_0026-_005cbaselinestretch">\baselineskip &amp; \baselinestretch</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-space_002c-inserting-horizontal">space, inserting horizontal</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chss">\hss</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-space_002c-inserting-vertical">space, inserting vertical</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddvspace">\addvspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-space_002c-negative-thin">space, negative thin</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace &amp; \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-space_002c-thin">space, thin</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace &amp; \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-space_002c-unbreakable">space, unbreakable</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_007e">~</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-space_002c-vertical">space, vertical</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cvspace">\vspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-spaces">spaces</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spaces">Spaces</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-spaces_002c-ignore-around-commands">spaces, ignore around commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cignorespaces-_0026-_005cignorespacesafterend">\ignorespaces &amp; \ignorespacesafterend</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-spaces_002c-ignore-around-commands-1">spaces, ignore around commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xspace-package">xspace package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-spacing-within-math-mode">spacing within math mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-spacing_002c-inter_002dsentence">spacing, inter-sentence</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfrenchspacing-_0026-_005cnonfrenchspacing">\frenchspacing &amp; \nonfrenchspacing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-spacing_002c-inter_002dsentence-1">spacing, inter-sentence</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnormalsfcodes">\normalsfcodes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-spacing_002c-math-mode">spacing, math mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-spacing_002c-math-mode-1">spacing, math mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmathstrut">\mathstrut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Spanish-ordinals_002c-feminine-and-masculine">Spanish ordinals, feminine and masculine</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-special-characters">special characters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Reserved-characters">Reserved characters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-special-characters-1">special characters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-special-insertions">special insertions</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Special-insertions">Special insertions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-specifier_002c-float-placement">specifier, float placement</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-splitting-the-input-file">splitting the input file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Splitting-the-input">Splitting the input</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-square-root">square root</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csqrt">\sqrt</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-stack-math">stack math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstackrel">\stackrel</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-star_002dvariants_002c-commands">star-variants, commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar">\@ifstar</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-starred-form_002c-defining-new-commands">starred form, defining new commands</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewcommand-_0026-_005crenewcommand">\newcommand &amp; \renewcommand</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-starting-a-new-page">starting a new page</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewpage">\newpage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-starting-a-new-page-and-clearing-floats">starting a new page and clearing floats</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage &amp; \cleardoublepage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-starting-and-ending">starting and ending</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Starting-and-ending">Starting and ending</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-starting-on-a-right_002dhand-page">starting on a right-hand page</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cclearpage-_0026-_005ccleardoublepage">\clearpage &amp; \cleardoublepage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-sterling-symbol">sterling symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-straight-double-quote_002c-base">straight double quote, base</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-straight-quote_002c-base">straight quote, base</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-straight-single-quote">straight single quote</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-stretch_002c-infinite-horizontal">stretch, infinite horizontal</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005chfill">\hfill</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-stretch_002c-infinite-vertical">stretch, infinite vertical</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cvfill">\vfill</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-stretch_002c-omitting-vertical">stretch, omitting vertical</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005craggedbottom">\raggedbottom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-strut">strut</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cfootnote">\footnote</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-strut-1">strut</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstrut">\strut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-strut_002c-math">strut, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmathstrut">\mathstrut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-styles-of-text">styles of text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-styles_002c-page">styles, page</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-styles">Page styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-subparagraph">subparagraph</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-subparagraph-1">subparagraph</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection &amp; \paragraph &amp; \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-subparagraph-counter"><code>subparagraph counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-subscript">subscript</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-subsection">subsection</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-subsection-1">subsection</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsection">\subsection</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-subsection-counter"><code>subsection counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-subsubsection">subsubsection</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-subsubsection-1">subsubsection</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection &amp; \paragraph &amp; \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-subsubsection-counter"><code>subsubsection counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-suffix-package"><code class="code">suffix</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar">\@ifstar</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-superscript">superscript</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Subscripts-_0026-superscripts">Subscripts &amp; superscripts</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-symbol"><code>symbol</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewglossaryentry">\newglossaryentry</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-symbol_002c-defining">symbol, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cDeclareTextSymbol">\DeclareTextSymbol</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-symbols_002c-arrows">symbols, arrows</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-symbols_002c-boldface">symbols, boldface</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#bm">bm</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-symbols_002c-math">symbols, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-symbols">Math symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-symbols_002c-text">symbols, text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-system-commands_002c-run-from-LaTeX">system commands, run from LaTeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-system-information">system information</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-T">T</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-T1">T1</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tab-stops_002c-using">tab stops, using</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tabbing-environment"><code><code class="code">tabbing</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabbing">tabbing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-table-counter"><code>table counter</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-table-environment"><code><code class="code">table</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#table">table</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-table-of-contents">table of contents</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-table-of-contents-entry_002c-create-dotted-line">table of contents entry, create dotted line</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040dottedtocline">\@dottedtocline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-table-of-contents-entry_002c-manually-adding">table of contents entry, manually adding</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddcontentsline">\addcontentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-table-of-contents-file">table of contents file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-table-of-contents_002c-avoiding-footnotes">table of contents, avoiding footnotes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Footnotes-in-section-headings">Footnotes in section headings</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-table-of-contents_002c-creating">table of contents, creating</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-table-of-contents_002c-sectioning-numbers-printed">table of contents, sectioning numbers printed</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tablefootnote-package"><code class="code">tablefootnote</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Footnotes-in-a-table">Footnotes in a table</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tables_002c-creating">tables, creating</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#table">table</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tabular-environment"><code><code class="code">tabular</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#tabular">tabular</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-template-_0028simple_0029_002c-article">template (simple), <code class="code">article</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#article-template">article template</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-template_002c-beamer">template, <code class="code">beamer</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#beamer-template">beamer template</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-template_002c-book">template, <code class="code">book</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#book-template">book template</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-template_002c-book-1">template, <code class="code">book</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Larger-book-template">Larger book template</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-templates_002c-document">templates, document</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-templates">Document templates</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-terminal-input_002foutput">terminal input/output</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Input_002foutput">Input/output</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-terminal_002c-writing-to">terminal, writing to</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-TeX-format-_0028_002efmt_0029-files">TeX format (<code class="code">.fmt</code>) files</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-TeX-logo">TeX logo</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-texosquery-package"><code class="code">texosquery</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite18">\write18</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-texput_002c-jobname-default"><code>texput<span class="r">, jobname default</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-text-style">text style</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-styles">Math styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-text-symbols">text symbols</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-text_002c-resizing">text, resizing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cscalebox">\scalebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-text_002c-resizing-1">text, resizing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cresizebox">\resizebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-text_002c-scaling">text, scaling</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cscalebox">\scalebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-text_002c-scaling-1">text, scaling</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cresizebox">\resizebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-textcase-package"><code class="code">textcase</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-textcomp-package"><code class="code">textcomp</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-thanks_002c-for-titlepage">thanks, for titlepage</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-thebibliography-environment"><code><code class="code">thebibliography</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#thebibliography">thebibliography</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-theindex"><code>theindex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Produce-the-index-manually">Produce the index manually</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-theindex-environment"><code><code class="code">theindex</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Produce-the-index-manually">Produce the index manually</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-theorem-environment"><code><code class="code">theorem</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#theorem">theorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-theorem_002dlike-environment">theorem-like environment</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem">\newtheorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-theorems_002c-defining">theorems, defining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cnewtheorem">\newtheorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-theorems_002c-typesetting">theorems, typesetting</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#theorem">theorem</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-thin-space">thin space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-thin-space-1">thin space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace &amp; \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-thin-space_002c-negative">thin space, negative</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spacing-in-math-mode">Spacing in math mode</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-thin-space_002c-negative-1">thin space, negative</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cthinspace-_0026-_005cnegthinspace">\thinspace &amp; \negthinspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-thorn_002c-Icelandic-letter">thorn, Icelandic letter</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Additional-Latin-letters">Additional Latin letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-three_002dquarters-em_002ddash">three-quarters em-dash</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tie">tie</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_007e">~</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tie_002dafter-accent">tie-after accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-TikZ-package"><code class="code">TikZ</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cline">\line</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-TikZ-package-1"><code class="code">TikZ</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cstrut">\strut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-TikZ-package-2"><code class="code">TikZ</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmbox-_0026-_005cmakebox">\mbox &amp; \makebox</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tikz_002dcd-package"><code class="code">tikz-cd</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Arrows">Arrows</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tilde-accent">tilde accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tilde-accent_002c-math">tilde accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tilde_002c-ASCII_002c-in-text">tilde, ASCII, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-title-page_002c-separate-or-run_002din">title page, separate or run-in</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-title-pages_002c-creating">title pages, creating</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#titlepage">titlepage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-title_002c-for-titlepage">title, for titlepage</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-titlepage-environment"><code><code class="code">titlepage</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#titlepage">titlepage</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-titlepage-option"><code>titlepage <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-titles_002c-making">titles, making</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmaketitle">\maketitle</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-titlesec-package"><code class="code">titlesec</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-titlesec-package-1"><code class="code">titlesec</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cpart">\part</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-titlesec-package-2"><code class="code">titlesec</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cchapter">\chapter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-titlesec-package-3"><code class="code">titlesec</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csection">\section</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-titlesec-package-4"><code class="code">titlesec</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsection">\subsection</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-titlesec-package-5"><code class="code">titlesec</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csubsubsection-_0026-_005cparagraph-_0026-_005csubparagraph">\subsubsection &amp; \paragraph &amp; \subparagraph</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tocbibbind-package"><code class="code">tocbibbind</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tocdepth"><code>tocdepth</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tocdepth-counter"><code>tocdepth <span class="r">counter</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Sectioning">Sectioning</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tocloft-package"><code class="code">tocloft</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Table-of-contents-etc_002e">Table of contents etc.</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tocloft-package-1"><code class="code">tocloft</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ccontentsline">\contentsline</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-today_0027s-date">today&rsquo;s date</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctoday">\today</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-tombstone">tombstone</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005crule">\rule</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-topmargin"><code>topmargin</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Page-layout-parameters">Page layout parameters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-topnumber"><code>topnumber</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-topnumber-1"><code>topnumber</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-totalnumber"><code>totalnumber</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-totalnumber-1"><code>totalnumber</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Floats">Floats</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-trademark-symbol">trademark symbol</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-transcript-file">transcript file</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-TrueType-fonts">TrueType fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-TS1-encoding">TS1 encoding</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-two_002dcolumn-output">two-column output</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005ctwocolumn">\twocolumn</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-two_002dthirds-em_002ddash">two-thirds em-dash</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-twocolumn-option"><code>twocolumn <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-twoside-option"><code>twoside <span class="r">option</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Document-class-options">Document class options</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-type-styles">type styles</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-typed-text_002c-simulating">typed text, simulating</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-typeface-sizes">typeface sizes</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-sizes">Font sizes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-typefaces">typefaces</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Fonts">Fonts</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-typewriter-font">typewriter font</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Font-styles">Font styles</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-typewriter-labels-in-lists">typewriter labels in lists</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#description">description</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-U">U</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-ulem-package"><code class="code">ulem</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-umlaut-accent">umlaut accent</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-unbreakable-space">unbreakable space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_007e">~</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-underbar">underbar</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Accents">Accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-underlining">underlining</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Over_002d-and-Underlining">Over- and Underlining</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-underscore_002c-in-text">underscore, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Unicode">Unicode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#inputenc-package">inputenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Unicode-input_002c-native">Unicode input, native</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-unicode_002dmath-package"><code class="code">unicode-math</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#OpenType-bold-math">OpenType bold math</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-unicode_002dmath-package-1"><code class="code">unicode-math</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Dots">Dots</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-unicode_002dmath-package-2"><code class="code">unicode-math</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Greek-letters">Greek letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-units_002c-of-length">units, of length</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-unofficial-nature-of-this-manual">unofficial nature of this manual</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#About-this-document">About this document</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-unordered-lists">unordered lists</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#itemize">itemize</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-uplatex"><code>uplatex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-uplatex_002ddev"><code>uplatex-dev</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-uppercase">uppercase</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-url-package"><code class="code">url</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-using-BibTeX">using BibTeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Using-BibTeX">Using BibTeX</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-UTF_002d8_002c-default-LaTeX-input-encoding">UTF-8, default LaTeX input encoding</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Overview">Overview</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-UTF_002d8_002c-engine-support-for">UTF-8, engine support for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-UTF_002d8_002c-font-support-for">UTF-8, font support for</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#fontenc-package">fontenc package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-V">V</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-variables_002c-a-list-of">variables, a list of</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Counters">Counters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-vector-symbol_002c-math">vector symbol, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-verbatim-environment"><code><code class="code">verbatim</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-verbatim-text">verbatim text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-verbatim-text_002c-inline">verbatim text, inline</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-verbatimbox-package"><code class="code">verbatimbox</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verbatim">verbatim</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-verse-environment"><code><code class="code">verse</code> <span class="r">environment</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#verse">verse</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-vertical-bar_002c-double_002c-in-text">vertical bar, double, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-vertical-bar_002c-in-text">vertical bar, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-vertical-mode">vertical mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Modes">Modes</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-vertical-space">vertical space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cvspace">\vspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-vertical-space-1">vertical space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005caddvspace">\addvspace</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-vertical-space-before-paragraphs">vertical space before paragraphs</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cparindent-_0026-_005cparskip">\parindent &amp; \parskip</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-vertical-spacing">vertical spacing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cphantom-_0026-_005cvphantom-_0026-_005chphantom">\phantom &amp; \vphantom &amp; \hphantom</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-vertical-spacing-1">vertical spacing</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cmathstrut">\mathstrut</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-vertical-spacing_002c-math-mode">vertical spacing, math mode</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005csmash">\smash</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-visible-space">visible space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cverb">\verb</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-visible-space-symbol_002c-in-text">visible space symbol, in text</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Text-symbols">Text symbols</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-W">W</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-weights_002c-of-fonts">weights, of fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-whatsit-item">whatsit item</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005cwrite">\write</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-white-space">white space</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Spaces">Spaces</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-wide-hat-accent_002c-math">wide hat accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-wide-tilde-accent_002c-math">wide tilde accent, math</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Math-accents">Math accents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-widths_002c-of-fonts">widths, of fonts</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Low_002dlevel-font-commands">Low-level font commands</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-Wright_002c-Joseph">Wright, Joseph</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Upper-and-lower-case">Upper and lower case</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-writing-external-files">writing external files</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#filecontents">filecontents</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-writing-letters">writing letters</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Letters">Letters</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
<tr><th id="Index_cp_letter-X">X</th><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-x_002dheight">x-height</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Units-of-length">Units of length</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xdvi-command"><code>xdvi <span class="r">command</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Output-files">Output files</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xdvipdfmx"><code>xdvipdfmx</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xelatex"><code>xelatex</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xelatex_002ddev"><code>xelatex-dev</code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-XeTeX">XeTeX</a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#TeX-engines">TeX engines</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xindex-program"><code>xindex <span class="r">program</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xindy-program"><code>xindy <span class="r">program</span></code></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#makeindex">makeindex</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xparse-package"><code class="code">xparse</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#LaTeX-command-syntax">LaTeX command syntax</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xparse-package-1"><code class="code">xparse</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#g_t_005c_0040ifstar">\@ifstar</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xr-package"><code class="code">xr</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xr-package">xr package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xr_002dhyper-package"><code class="code">xr-hyper</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xr-package">xr package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xspace-package"><code class="code">xspace</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#xspace-package">xspace package</a></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td class="printindex-index-entry"><a href="#index-xstring-package"><code class="code">xstring</code> <span class="r">package</span></a>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="printindex-index-section"><a href="#Jobname">Jobname</a></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="4"> <hr></td></tr>
</table>
<table class="cp-letters-footer-printindex"><tr><th>Jump to: &nbsp; </th><td><a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-1"><b>$</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-2"><b>&amp;</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-3"><b>*</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-4"><b>-</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-5"><b>.</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-6"><b>/</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-7"><b>1</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-8"><b>:</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-9"><b>[</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-10"><b>\</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-11"><b>^</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-12"><b>_</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-13"><b>{</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_symbol-14"><b>~</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<br>
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-A"><b>A</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-B"><b>B</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-C"><b>C</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-D"><b>D</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-E"><b>E</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-F"><b>F</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-G"><b>G</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-H"><b>H</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-I"><b>I</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-J"><b>J</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-K"><b>K</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-L"><b>L</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-M"><b>M</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-N"><b>N</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-O"><b>O</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-P"><b>P</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-Q"><b>Q</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-R"><b>R</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-S"><b>S</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-T"><b>T</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-U"><b>U</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-V"><b>V</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-W"><b>W</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
<a class="summary-letter-printindex" href="#Index_cp_letter-X"><b>X</b></a>
 &nbsp; 
</td></tr></table>
</div>

</div>
</div>


<hr/><div class='referenceinfo'> <a href='https://latexref.xyz/'> <i>Unofficial LaTeX2e reference manual</i></a></div>
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