#
# $Id: 64doc,v 1.8 1994/06/03 19:50:04 jopi Exp $
#
# This file is part of Commodore 64 emulator
#      and Program Development System.
#
# See README for copyright notice
#
# This file contains documentation for 6502/6510/8500/8502 instruction set.
#
#
# Written by
#   John West       (john@ucc.gu.uwa.edu.au)
#   Marko Mkel    (msmakela@cc.hut.fi)
#
#
# $Log: 64doc,v $
# Revision 1.8  1994/06/03  19:50:04  jopi
# Patchlevel 2
#
# Revision 1.7  1994/04/15  13:07:04  jopi
# 65xx Register descriptions added
#
# Revision 1.6  1994/02/18  16:09:36  jopi
#
# Revision 1.5  1994/01/26  16:08:37  jopi
# X64 version 0.2 PL 1
#
# Revision 1.4  1993/11/10  01:55:34  jopi
#
# Revision 1.3  93/06/21  13:37:18  jopi
#  X64 version 0.2 PL 0
#
# Revision 1.2  93/06/21  13:07:15  jopi
# *** empty log message ***
#
#

 Note: To extract the uuencoded ML programs in this article most
       easily you may use e.g. "uud" by Edwin Kremer <edwin@zlotty>,
       which extracts them all at once.



    Documentation for the NMOS 65xx/85xx Instruction Set

        6510 Instructions by Addressing Modes
        6502 Registers
        6510/8502 Undocumented Commands
        Register selection for load and store
        Decimal mode in NMOS 6500 series
        6510 features
        Different CPU types
        6510 Instruction Timing
        How Real Programmers Acknowledge Interrupts
        Memory Management
        Autostart Code
        Notes
        References


                6510 Instructions by Addressing Modes

off- ++++++++++ Positive ++++++++++  ---------- Negative ----------
set  00      20      40      60      80      a0      c0      e0      mode

+00  BRK     JSR     RTI     RTS     NOP*    LDY     CPY     CPX     Impl/immed
+01  ORA     AND     EOR     ADC     STA     LDA     CMP     SBC     (indir,x)
+02   t       t       t       t      NOP*t   LDX     NOP*t   NOP*t     ? /immed
+03  SLO*    RLA*    SRE*    RRA*    SAX*    LAX*    DCP*    ISB*    (indir,x)
+04  NOP*    BIT     NOP*    NOP*    STY     LDY     CPY     CPX     Zeropage
+05  ORA     AND     EOR     ADC     STA     LDA     CMP     SBC     Zeropage
+06  ASL     ROL     LSR     ROR     STX     LDX     DEC     INC     Zeropage
+07  SLO*    RLA*    SRE*    RRA*    SAX*    LAX*    DCP*    ISB*    Zeropage

+08  PHP     PLP     PHA     PLA     DEY     TAY     INY     INX     Implied
+09  ORA     AND     EOR     ADC     NOP*    LDA     CMP     SBC     Immediate
+0a  ASL     ROL     LSR     ROR     TXA     TAX     DEX     NOP     Accu/impl
+0b  ANC**   ANC**   ASR**   ARR**   ANE**   LXA**   SBX**   SBC*    Immediate
+0c  NOP*    BIT     JMP     JMP ()  STY     LDY     CPY     CPX     Absolute
+0d  ORA     AND     EOR     ADC     STA     LDA     CMP     SBC     Absolute
+0e  ASL     ROL     LSR     ROR     STX     LDX     DEC     INC     Absolute
+0f  SLO*    RLA*    SRE*    RRA*    SAX*    LAX*    DCP*    ISB*    Absolute

+10  BPL     BMI     BVC     BVS     BCC     BCS     BNE     BEQ     Relative
+11  ORA     AND     EOR     ADC     STA     LDA     CMP     SBC     (indir),y
+12   t       t       t       t       t       t       t       t         ?
+13  SLO*    RLA*    SRE*    RRA*    SHA**   LAX*    DCP*    ISB*    (indir),y
+14  NOP*    NOP*    NOP*    NOP*    STY     LDY     NOP*    NOP*    Zeropage,x
+15  ORA     AND     EOR     ADC     STA     LDA     CMP     SBC     Zeropage,x
+16  ASL     ROL     LSR     ROR     STX  y) LDX  y) DEC     INC     Zeropage,x
+17  SLO*    RLA*    SRE*    RRA*    SAX* y) LAX* y) DCP*    ISB*    Zeropage,x

+18  CLC     SEC     CLI     SEI     TYA     CLV     CLD     SED     Implied
+19  ORA     AND     EOR     ADC     STA     LDA     CMP     SBC     Absolute,y
+1a  NOP*    NOP*    NOP*    NOP*    TXS     TSX     NOP*    NOP*    Implied
+1b  SLO*    RLA*    SRE*    RRA*    SHS**   LAS**   DCP*    ISB*    Absolute,y
+1c  NOP*    NOP*    NOP*    NOP*    SHY**   LDY     NOP*    NOP*    Absolute,x
+1d  ORA     AND     EOR     ADC     STA     LDA     CMP     SBC     Absolute,x
+1e  ASL     ROL     LSR     ROR     SHX**y) LDX  y) DEC     INC     Absolute,x
+1f  SLO*    RLA*    SRE*    RRA*    SHA**y) LAX* y) DCP*    ISB*    Absolute,x


	ROR intruction is available on MC650x microprocessors after
	June, 1976.


        Legend:

        t       Jams the machine
        *t      Jams very rarely
        *       Undocumented command
        **      Unusual operation
        y)      indexed using Y instead of X
        ()      indirect instead of absolute

        Note that the NOP instructions do have other addressing modes
        than the implied addressing. The NOP instruction is just like
        any other load instruction, except it does not store the
        result anywhere nor affects the flags.


                6502 Registers

  The NMOS 65xx processors are not ruined with too many registers. In
addition to that, the registers are mostly 8-bit. Here is a brief
description of each register:

       PC   Program Counter

            This register points the address from which the next
            instruction byte (opcode or parameter) will be fetched.
            Unlike other registers, this one is 16 bits in length. The
            low and high 8-bit halves of the register are called PCL
            and PCH, respectively.

            The Program Counter may be read by pushing its value on
            the stack. This can be done either by jumping to a
            subroutine or by causing an interrupt.

       S    Stack pointer

            The NMOS 65xx processors have 256 bytes of stack memory,
            ranging from $0100 to $01FF. The S register is a 8-bit
            offset to the stack page. In other words, whenever
            anything is being pushed on the stack, it will be stored
            to the address $0100+S.

            The Stack pointer can be read and written by transfering
            its value to or from the index register X (see below) with
            the TSX and TXS instructions.

       P    Processor status

            This 8-bit register stores the state of the processor. The
            bits in this register are called flags. Most of the flags
            have something to do with arithmetic operations.

            The P register can be read by pushing it on the stack
            (with PHP or by causing an interrupt). If you only need to
            read one flag, you can use the branch instructions.
            Setting the flags is possible by pulling the P register
            from stack or by using the flag set or clear instructions.

            Following is a list of the flags, starting from the 8th
            bit of the P register (bit 7, value $80):

            N   Negative flag

                This flag will be set after any arithmetic operations
                (when any of the registers A, X or Y is being loaded
                with a value). Generally, the N flag will be copied
                from the topmost bit of the register being loaded.

                Note that TXS (Transfer X to S) is not an arithmetic
                operation. Also note that the BIT instruction affects
                the Negative flag just like arithmetic operations.
                Finally, the Negative flag behaves differently in
                Decimal operations (see description below).

            V   oVerflow flag

                Like the Negative flag, this flag is intended to be
                used with 8-bit signed integer numbers. The flag will
                be affected by addition and subtraction, the
                instructions PLP, CLV and BIT, and the hardware signal
                -SO. Note that there is no SEV instruction, even though
                the MOS engineers loved to use East European abbreviations,
                like DDR (Deutsche Demokratische Republik vs. Data
                Direction Register). (The Russian abbreviation for their
                former trade association COMECON is SEV.) The -SO
                (Set Overflow) signal is available on some processors,
                at least the 6502, to set the V flag. This enables
                response to an I/O activity in equal or less than
                three clock cycles when using a BVC instruction branching
                to itself ($50 $FE).

                The CLV instruction clears the V flag, and the PLP and
                BIT instructions copy the flag value from the bit 6 of
                the topmost stack entry or from memory.

                After a binary addition or subtraction, the V flag
                will be set on a sign overflow, cleared otherwise.
                What is a sign overflow?  For instance, if you are
                trying to add 123 and 45 together, the result (168)
                does not fit in a 8-bit signed integer (upper limit
                127 and lower limit -128). Similarly, adding -123 to
                -45 causes the overflow, just like subtracting -45
                from 123 or 123 from -45 would do.

                Like the N flag, the V flag will not be set as
                expected in the Decimal mode. Later in this document
                is a precise operation description.

                A common misbelief is that the V flag could only be
                set by arithmetic operations, not cleared.

            1   unused flag

                To the current knowledge, this flag is always 1.

            B   Break flag

                This flag is used to distinguish software (BRK)
                interrupts from hardware interrupts (IRQ or NMI). The
                B flag is always set except when the P register is
                being pushed on stack when jumping to an interrupt
                routine to process only a hardware interrupt.

                The official NMOS 65xx documentation claims that the
                BRK instruction could only cause a jump to the IRQ
                vector ($FFFE). However, if an NMI interrupt occurs
                while executing a BRK instruction, the processor will
                jump to the NMI vector ($FFFA), and the P register
                will be pushed on the stack with the B flag set.

            D   Decimal mode flag

                This flag is used to select the (Binary Coded) Decimal
                mode for addition and subtraction. In most
                applications, the flag is zero.

                The Decimal mode has many oddities, and it operates
                differently on CMOS processors. See the description
                of the ADC, SBC and ARR instructions below.

            I   Interrupt disable flag

                This flag can be used to prevent the processor from
                jumping to the IRQ handler vector ($FFFE) whenever the
                hardware line -IRQ is active. The flag will be
                automatically set after taking an interrupt, so that
                the processor would not keep jumping to the interrupt
                routine if the -IRQ signal remains low for several
                clock cycles.

            Z   Zero flag

                The Zero flag will be affected in the same cases than
                the Negative flag. Generally, it will be set if an
                arithmetic register is being loaded with the value
                zero, and cleared otherwise. The flag will behave
                differently in Decimal operations.

            C   Carry flag

                This flag is used in additions, subtractions,
                comparisons and bit rotations. In additions and
                subtractions, it acts as a 9th bit and lets you to
                chain operations to calculate with bigger than 8-bit
                numbers. When subtracting, the Carry flag is the
                negative of Borrow: if an overflow occurs, the flag
                will be clear, otherwise set. Comparisons are a
                special case of subtraction: they assume Carry flag
                set and Decimal flag clear, and do not store the
                result of the subtraction anywhere.

                There are four kinds of bit rotations. All of them
                store the bit that is being rotated off to the Carry
                flag. The left shifting instructions are ROL and ASL.
                ROL copies the initial Carry flag to the lowmost bit
                of the byte; ASL always clears it. Similarly, the ROR
                and LSR instructions shift to the right.

       A    Accumulator

            The accumulator is the main register for arithmetic and
            logic operations. Unlike the index registers X and Y, it
            has a direct connection to the Arithmetic and Logic Unit
            (ALU). This is why many operations are only available for
            the accumulator, not the index registers.

       X    Index register X

            This is the main register for addressing data with
            indices. It has a special addressing mode, indexed
            indirect, which lets you to have a vector table on the
            zero page.

       Y    Index register Y

            The Y register has the least operations available. On the
            other hand, only it has the indirect indexed addressing
            mode that enables access to any memory place without
            having to use self-modifying code.



                6510/8502 Undocumented Commands

         -- A brief explanation about what may happen while
                using don't care states.


        ANE $8B         A = (A | #$EE) & X & #byte
                        same as
                        A = ((A & #$11 & X) | ( #$EE & X)) & #byte

                        In real 6510/8502 the internal parameter #$11
                        may occasionally be #$10, #$01 or even #$00.
                        This occurs when the video chip starts DMA
                        between the opcode fetch and the parameter fetch
                        of the instruction.  The value probably depends
                        on the data that was left on the bus by the VIC-II.

        LXA $AB         C=Lehti:   A = X = ANE
                        Alternate: A = X = (A & #byte)

                        TXA and TAX have to be responsible for these.

        SHA $93,$9F     Store (A & X & (ADDR_HI + 1))
        SHX $9E         Store (X & (ADDR_HI + 1))
        SHY $9C         Store (Y & (ADDR_HI + 1))
        SHS $9B         SHA and TXS, where X is replaced by (A & X).

                        Note: The value to be stored is copied also
                        to ADDR_HI if page boundary is crossed.

        SBX $CB         Carry and Decimal flags are ignored but the
                        Carry flag will be set in substraction. This
                        is due to the CMP command, which is executed
                        instead of the real SBC.

        ARR $6B         This instruction first performs an AND
                        between the accumulator and the immediate
                        parameter, then it shifts the accumulator to
                        the right. However, this is not the whole
                        truth. See the description below.

Many undocumented commands do not use AND between registers, the CPU
just throws the bytes to a bus simultaneously and lets the
open-collector drivers perform the AND. I.e. the command called 'SAX',
which is in the STORE section (opcodes $A0...$BF), stores the result
of (A & X) by this way.

More fortunate is its opposite, 'LAX' which just loads a byte
simultaneously into both A and X.


        $6B  ARR

This instruction seems to be a harmless combination of AND and ROR at
first sight, but it turns out that it affects the V flag and also has
a special kind of decimal mode. This is because the instruction has
inherited some properties of the ADC instruction ($69) in addition to
the ROR ($6A).

In Binary mode (D flag clear), the instruction effectively does an AND
between the accumulator and the immediate parameter, and then shifts
the accumulator to the right, copying the C flag to the 8th bit. It
sets the Negative and Zero flags just like the ROR would. The ADC code
shows up in the Carry and oVerflow flags. The C flag will be copied
from the bit 6 of the result (which doesn't seem too logical), and the
V flag is the result of an Exclusive OR operation between the bit 6
and the bit 5 of the result.  This makes sense, since the V flag will
be normally set by an Exclusive OR, too.

In Decimal mode (D flag set), the ARR instruction first performs the
AND and ROR, just like in Binary mode. The N flag will be copied from
the initial C flag, and the Z flag will be set according to the ROR
result, as expected. The V flag will be set if the bit 6 of the
accumulator changed its state between the AND and the ROR, cleared
otherwise.

Now comes the funny part. If the low nybble of the AND result,
incremented by its lowmost bit, is greater than 5, the low nybble in
the ROR result will be incremented by 6. The low nybble may overflow
as a consequence of this BCD fixup, but the high nybble won't be
adjusted. The high nybble will be BCD fixed in a similar way. If the
high nybble of the AND result, incremented by its lowmost bit, is
greater than 5, the high nybble in the ROR result will be incremented
by 6, and the Carry flag will be set. Otherwise the C flag will be
cleared.

To help you understand this description, here is a C routine that
illustrates the ARR operation in Decimal mode:

        unsigned
           A,  /* Accumulator */
           AL, /* low nybble of accumulator */
           AH, /* high nybble of accumulator */

           C,  /* Carry flag */
           Z,  /* Zero flag */
           V,  /* oVerflow flag */
           N,  /* Negative flag */

           t,  /* temporary value */
           s;  /* value to be ARRed with Accumulator */

        t = A & s;                      /* Perform the AND. */

        AH = t >> 4;                    /* Separate the high */
        AL = t & 15;                    /* and low nybbles. */

        N = C;                          /* Set the N and */
        Z = !(A = (t >> 1) | (C << 7)); /* Z flags traditionally */
        V = (t ^ A) & 64;               /* and V flag in a weird way. */

        if (AL + (AL & 1) > 5)          /* BCD "fixup" for low nybble. */
          A = (A & 0xF0) | ((A + 6) & 0xF);

        if (C = AH + (AH & 1) > 5)      /* Set the Carry flag. */
          A = (A + 0x60) & 0xFF;        /* BCD "fixup" for high nybble. */



        $CB  SBX   X <- (A & X) - Immediate

The 'SBX' ($CB) may seem to be very complex operation, even though it
is a combination of the subtraction of accumulator and parameter, as
in the 'CMP' instruction, and the command 'DEX'. As a result, both A
and X are connected to ALU but only the subtraction takes place. Since
the comparison logic was used, the result of subtraction should be
normally ignored, but the 'DEX' now happily stores to X the value of
(A & X) - Immediate.  That is why this instruction does not have any
decimal mode, and it does not affect the V flag. Also Carry flag will
be ignored in the subtraction but set according to the result.

 Proof:

begin 644 vsbx
M`0@9$,D'GL(H-#,IJC(U-JS"*#0T*:HR-@```*D`H#V1*Z`_D2N@09$KJ0>%
M^QBE^VEZJ+$KH#F1*ZD`2"BI`*(`RP`(:-B@.5$K*4#P`E@`H#VQ*SAI`)$K
JD-Z@/[$K:0"1*Y#4J2X@TO\XH$&Q*VD`D2N0Q,;[$+188/_^]_:_OK>V
`
end

 and

begin 644 sbx
M`0@9$,D'GL(H-#,IJC(U-JS"*#0T*:HR-@```'BI`*!-D2N@3Y$KH%&1*ZD#
MA?L8I?M*2)`#J1@LJ3B@29$K:$J0`ZGX+*G8R)$K&/BXJ?2B8\L)AOP(:(7]
MV#B@3;$KH$\Q*Z!1\2L(1?SP`0!H1?TIM]#XH$VQ*SAI`)$KD,N@3[$K:0"1
9*Y#!J2X@TO\XH%&Q*VD`D2N0L<;[$))88-#X
`
end

These test programs show if your machine is compatible with ours
regarding the opcode $CB. The first test, vsbx, proves that SBX does
not affect the V flag. The latter one, sbx, proves the rest of our
theory. The vsbx test tests 33554432 SBX combinations (16777216
different A, X and Immediate combinations, and two different V flag
states), and the sbx test doubles that amount (16777216*4 D and C flag
combinations). Both tests have run successfully on a C64 and a Vic20.
They ought to run on C16, +4 and the PET series as well. The tests
stop with BRK, if the opcode $CB does not work as expected. Successful
operation ends in RTS. As the tests are very slow, they print dots on
the screen while running so that you know that the machine has not
jammed. On computers running at 1 MHz, the first test prints
approximately one dot every four seconds and a total of 2048 dots,
whereas the second one prints half that amount, one dot every seven
seconds.

If the tests fail on your machine, please let us know your processor's
part number and revision. If possible, save the executable (after it
has stopped with BRK) under another name and send it to us so that we
know at which stage the program stopped.

The following program is a Commodore 64 executable that Marko M"akel"a
developed when trying to find out how the V flag is affected by SBX.
(It was believed that the SBX affects the flag in a weird way, and
this program shows how SBX sets the flag differently from SBC.)  You
may find the subroutine at $C150 useful when researching other
undocumented instructions' flags. Run the program in a machine
language monitor, as it makes use of the BRK instruction. The result
tables will be written on pages $C2 and $C3.

begin 644 sbx-c100
M`,%XH`",#L&,$,&,$L&XJ8*B@LL7AOL(:(7\N#BM#L$M$,'M$L$(Q?OP`B@`
M:$7\\`,@4,'N#L'0U.X0P=#/SB#0[A+!T,<``````````````)BJ\!>M#L$M
L$,'=_\'0":T2P=W_PM`!8,K0Z:T.P2T0P9D`PID`!*T2P9D`PYD`!<C0Y``M
`
end


Other undocumented instructions usually cause two preceding opcodes
being executed. However 'NOP' seems to completely disappear from 'SBC'
code $EB.

The most difficult to comprehend are the rest of the instructions
located on the '$0B' line.

All the instructions located at the positive (left) side of this line
should rotate either memory or the accumulator, but the addressing
mode turns out to be immediate! No problem. Just read the operand, let
it be ANDed with the accumulator and finally use accumulator
addressing mode for the instructions above them.

RELIGION_MODE_ON
/* This part of the document is not accurate.  You can
   read it as a fairy tale, but do not count on it when
   performing your own measurements. */

The rest two instructions on the same line, called 'ANE' and 'LXA'
($8B and $AB respectively) often give quite unpredictable results.
However, the most usual operation is to store ((A | #$ee) & X & #$nn)
to accumulator. Note that this does not work reliably in a real 64!
In the Commodore 128 the opcode $8B uses values 8C, CC, EE, and
occasionally 0C and 8E for the OR instead of EE,EF,FE and FF used in
the C64. With a C128 running at 2 MHz #$EE is always used.  Opcode $AB
does not cause this OR taking place on 8502 while 6510 always performs
it. Note that this behaviour depends on processor and/or video chip
revision.

Let's take a closer look at $8B (6510).

        A <- X & D & (A | VAL)

        where VAL comes from this table:

       X high   D high  D low   VAL
        even     even    ---    $EE (1)
        even     odd     ---    $EE
        odd      even    ---    $EE
        odd      odd      0     $EE
        odd      odd     not 0  $FE (2)

(1) If the bottom 2 bits of A are both 1, then the LSB of the result may
    be 0. The values of X and D are different every time I run the test.
    This appears to be very rare.
(2) VAL is $FE most of the time. Sometimes it is $EE - it seems to be random,
    not related to any of the data. This is much more common than (1).

  In decimal mode, VAL is usually $FE.


Two different functions have been discovered for LAX, opcode $AB. One
is A = X = ANE (see above) and the other, encountered with 6510 and
8502, is less complicated A = X = (A & #byte). However, according to
what is reported, the version altering only the lowest bits of each
nybble seems to be more common.

What happens, is that $AB loads a value into both A and X, ANDing the
low bit of each nybble with the corresponding bit of the old
A. However, there are exceptions. Sometimes the low bit is cleared
even when A contains a '1', and sometimes other bits are cleared. The
exceptions seem random (they change every time I run the test). Oops -
that was in decimal mode. Much the same with D=0.

What causes the randomness?  Probably it is that it is marginal logic
levels - when too much wired-anding goes on, some of the signals get
very close to the threshold. Perhaps we're seeing some of them step
over it. The low bit of each nybble is special, since it has to cope
with carry differently (remember decimal mode). We never see a '0'
turn into a '1'.

Since these instructions are unpredictable, they should not be used.

There is still very strange instruction left, the one named SHA/X/Y,
which is the only one with only indexed addressing modes. Actually,
the commands 'SHA', 'SHX' and 'SHY' are generated by the indexing
algorithm.

While using indexed addressing, effective address for page boundary
crossing is calculated as soon as possible so it does not slow down
operation. As a result, in the case of SHA/X/Y, the address and data
are processed at the same time making AND between them to take place.
Thus, the value to be stored by SAX, for example, is in fact (A & X &
(ADDR_HI + 1)).  On page boundary crossing the same value is copied
also to high byte of the effective address.

RELIGION_MODE_OFF

                Register selection for load and store

   bit1 bit0     A  X  Y
    0    0             x
    0    1          x
    1    0       x
    1    1       x  x

So, A and X are selected by bits 1 and 0 respectively, while
 ~(bit1|bit0) enables Y.

Indexing is determined by bit4, even in relative addressing mode,
which is one kind of indexing.

Lines containing opcodes xxx000x1 (01 and 03) are treated as absolute
after the effective address has been loaded into CPU.

Zeropage,y and Absolute,y (codes 10x1 x11x) are distinquished by bit5.


                 Decimal mode in NMOS 6500 series

  Most sources claim that the NMOS 6500 series sets the N, V and Z
flags unpredictably when performing addition or subtraction in decimal
mode. Of course, this is not true. While testing how the flags are
set, I also wanted to see what happens if you use illegal BCD values.

  ADC works in Decimal mode in a quite complicated way. It is amazing
how it can do that all in a single cycle. Here's a C code version of
the instruction:

 [ Warning: this code is NOT accurate. ]

        unsigned
           A,  /* Accumulator */
           AL, /* low nybble of accumulator */
           AH, /* high nybble of accumulator */

           C,  /* Carry flag */
           Z,  /* Zero flag */
           V,  /* oVerflow flag */
           N,  /* Negative flag */

           s;  /* value to be added to Accumulator */

        AL = (A & 15) + (s & 15) + C;         /* Calculate the lower nybble. */

        AH = (A >> 4) + (s >> 4) + (AL > 15); /* Calculate the upper nybble. */


        Z = ((A + s + C) & 255 != 0);         /* Zero flag is set just
                                                 like in Binary mode. */

        if (AL > 9) AL += 6;                  /* BCD fixup for lower nybble. */

        /* Negative and Overflow flags are set with the same logic than in
           Binary mode, but after fixing the lower nybble. */

        N = (AH & 8 != 0);
        V = ((AH << 4) ^ A) & 128 && !((A ^ s) & 128);

        if (AH > 9) AH += 6;                  /* BCD fixup for upper nybble. */

        /* Carry is the only flag set after fixing the result. */

        C = (AH > 15);
        A = ((AH << 4) | (AL & 15)) & 255;


  The C flag is set as the quiche eaters expect, but the N and V flags
are set after fixing the lower nybble but before fixing the upper one.
They use the same logic than binary mode ADC. The Z flag is set before
any BCD fixup, so the D flag does not have any influence on it.

Proof: The following test program tests all 131072 ADC combinations in
       Decimal mode, and aborts with BRK if anything breaks this theory.
       If everything goes well, it ends in RTS.

begin 600 dadc
M 0@9",D'GL(H-#,IJC(U-JS"*#0T*:HR-@   'BI&*  A/N$_$B@+)$KH(V1
M*Q@(I?PI#X7]I?LI#V7]R0J0 FD%J"D/A?VE^RGP9?PI\ C $) ":0^JL @H
ML ?)H) &""@X:5\X!?V%_0AH*3W@ ! ""8"HBD7[$ JE^T7\, 28"4"H**7[
M9?S0!)@) J@8N/BE^V7\V A%_= G:(3]1?W0(.;[T(?F_-"#:$D8\ )88*D=
0&&4KA?NI &4LA?RI.&S[  A%

end


				Decimal Mode
	 AC  +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +a +b +c +d +e +f +10 +11

	 59  60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 6a 6b 6c 6d 6e  69 70
	 5a  61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 6a 6b 6c 6d 6e 6f  70 71
	 5b  62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 6a 6b 6c 6d 6e 6f 60  71 72
	 5c  62 64 65 66 67 68 69 6a 6b 6c 6d 6e 6f 60 61  72 73
	 5d  64 65 66 67 68 69 6a 6b 6c 6d 6e 6f 60 61 62  73 74
	 5e  65 66 67 68 69 6a 6b 6c 6d 6e 6f 60 61 62 63  74 75
	 5f  66 67 68 69 6a 6b 6c 6d 6e 6f 60 61 62 63 64  75 76
	 60  61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75  70 71

			Table 1: Sample results
     The triangular area (5b+f, 5f+b, 5f+f) with significantly smaller
     results is due to the fact that Carry cannot reach value of "2".


  All programs in this chapter have been successfully tested on a Vic20
and a Commodore 64 and a Commodore 128D in C64 mode. They should run on
C16, +4 and on the PET series as well. If not, please report the problem
to Marko M"akel"a. Each test in this chapter should run in less than a
minute at 1 MHz.

SBC is much easier. Just like CMP, its flags are not affected by
the D flag.

Proof:

begin 600 dsbc-cmp-flags
M 0@9",D'GL(H-#,IJC(U-JS"*#0T*:HR-@   'B@ (3[A/RB XH8:66HL2N@
M09$KH$R1*XII::BQ*Z!%D2N@4)$K^#BXI?OE_-@(:(7].+BE^^7\"&A%_? !
5 .;[T./F_-#?RA"_8!@X&#CEY<7%

end


  The only difference in SBC's operation in decimal mode from binary mode
is the result-fixup:

        unsigned
           A,  /* Accumulator */
           AL, /* low nybble of accumulator */
           AH, /* high nybble of accumulator */

           C,  /* Carry flag */
           Z,  /* Zero flag */
           V,  /* oVerflow flag */
           N,  /* Negative flag */

           s;  /* value to be added to Accumulator */

        AL = (A & 15) - (s & 15) - !C;        /* Calculate the lower nybble. */

        if (AL & 16) AL -= 6;                 /* BCD fixup for lower nybble. */

        AH = (A >> 4) - (s >> 4) - (AL & 16); /* Calculate the upper nybble. */

        if (AH & 16) AH -= 6;                 /* BCD fixup for upper nybble. */

        /* The flags are set just like in Binary mode. */

        C = (A - s - !C) & 256 != 0;
        Z = (A - s - !C) & 255 != 0;
        V = ((A - s - !C) ^ s) & 128 && (A ^ s) & 128;
        N = (A - s - !C) & 128 != 0;

        A = ((AH << 4) | (AL & 15)) & 255;


  Again Z flag is set before any BCD fixup. The N and V flags are set
at any time before fixing the high nybble. The C flag may be set in any
phase.

  Decimal subtraction is easier than decimal addition, as you have to
make the BCD fixup only when a nybble overflows. In decimal addition,
you had to verify if the nybble was greater than 9. The processor has
an internal "half carry" flag for the lower nybble, used to trigger
the BCD fixup. When calculating with legal BCD values, the lower nybble
cannot overflow again when fixing it.
So, the processor does not handle overflows while performing the fixup.
Similarly, the BCD fixup occurs in the high nybble only if the value
overflows, i.e. when the C flag will be cleared.

  Because SBC's flags are not affected by the Decimal mode flag, you
could guess that CMP uses the SBC logic, only setting the C flag
first. But the SBX instruction shows that CMP also temporarily clears
the D flag, although it is totally unnecessary.

  The following program, which tests SBC's result and flags,
contains the 6502 version of the pseudo code example above.

begin 600 dsbc
M 0@9",D'GL(H-#,IJC(U-JS"*#0T*:HR-@   'BI&*  A/N$_$B@+)$KH':1
M*S@(I?PI#X7]I?LI#^7]L /I!1@I#ZBE_"GPA?VE^RGP"#CE_2GPL KI7RBP
M#ND/.+ )*+ &Z0^P NE?A/T%_87]*+BE^^7\"&BH.+CXI?OE_-@(1?W0FVB$
8_47]T)3F^]">YOS0FFA)&- $J3C0B%A@

end

  Obviously the undocumented instructions RRA (ROR+ADC) and ISB
(INC+SBC) have inherited also the decimal operation from the official
instructions ADC and SBC. The program droradc proves this statement
for ROR, and the dincsbc test proves this for ISB. Finally,
dincsbc-deccmp proves that ISB's and DCP's (DEC+CMP) flags are not
affected by the D flag.

begin 644 droradc
M`0@9",D'GL(H-#,IJC(U-JS"*#0T*:HR-@```'BI&*``A/N$_$B@+)$KH(V1
M*S@(I?PI#X7]I?LI#V7]R0J0`FD%J"D/A?VE^RGP9?PI\`C`$)`":0^JL`@H
ML`?)H)`&""@X:5\X!?V%_0AH*3W@`!`""8"HBD7[$`JE^T7\,`28"4"H**7[
M9?S0!)@)`J@XN/BE^R;\9_S8"$7]T"=HA/U%_=`@YOO0A>;\T(%H21CP`EA@
2J1T892N%^ZD`92R%_*DX;/L`
`
end

begin 644 dincsbc
M`0@9",D'GL(H-#,IJC(U-JS"*#0T*:HR-@```'BI&*``A/N$_$B@+)$KH':1
M*S@(I?PI#X7]I?LI#^7]L`/I!1@I#ZBE_"GPA?VE^RGP"#CE_2GPL`KI7RBP
M#ND/.+`)*+`&Z0^P`NE?A/T%_87]*+BE^^7\"&BH.+CXI?O&_.?\V`A%_="9
::(3]1?W0DN;[T)SF_-"8:$D8T`2I.-"&6&#\
`
end

begin 644 dincsbc-deccmp
M`0@9",D'GL(H-#,IJC(U-JS"*#0T*:HR-@```'B@`(3[A/RB`XH8:7>HL2N@
M3Y$KH%R1*XII>ZBQ*Z!3D2N@8)$KBFE_J+$KH%61*Z!BD2OX.+BE^^;\Q_S8
L"&B%_3BXI?OF_,?\"&A%_?`!`.;[T-_F_-#;RA"M8!@X&#CFYL;&Q\?GYP#8
`
end



                 6510 features

   o  PHP always pushes the Break (B) flag as a `1' to the stack.
      Jukka Tapanim"aki claimed in C=lehti issue 3/89, on page 27 that the
      processor makes a logical OR between the status register's bit 4
      and the bit 8 of the stack pointer register (which is always 1).
      He did not give any reasons for this argument, and has refused to clarify
      it afterwards. Well, this was not the only error in his article...

   o  Indirect addressing modes do not handle page boundary crossing at all.
      When the parameter's low byte is $FF, the effective address wraps
      around and the CPU fetches high byte from $xx00 instead of $xx00+$0100.
      E.g. JMP ($01FF) fetches PCL from $01FF and PCH from $0100,
      and LDA ($FF),Y fetches the base address from $FF and $00.

   o  Indexed zero page addressing modes never fix the page address on
      crossing the zero page boundary.
      E.g. LDX #$01 : LDA ($FF,X) loads the effective address from $00 and $01.

   o  The processor always fetches the byte following a relative branch
      instruction. If the branch is taken, the processor reads then the
      opcode from the destination address. If page boundary is crossed, it
      first reads a byte from the old page from a location that is bigger
      or smaller than the correct address by one page.

   o  If you cross a page boundary in any other indexed mode,
      the processor reads an incorrect location first, a location that is
      smaller by one page.

   o  Read-Modify-Write instructions write unmodified data, then modified
      (so INC effectively does LDX loc;STX loc;INX;STX loc)

   o  -RDY is ignored during writes
      (This is why you must wait 3 cycles before doing any DMA --
      the maximum number of consecutive writes is 3, which occurs
      during interrupts except -RESET.)

   o  Some undefined opcodes may give really unpredictable results.

   o  All registers except the Program Counter remain unmodified after -RESET.
      (This is why you must preset D and I flags in the RESET handler.)


                Different CPU types

The Rockwell data booklet 29651N52 (technical information about R65C00
microprocessors, dated October 1984), lists the following differences between
NMOS R6502 microprocessor and CMOS R65C00 family:

 1. Indexed addressing across page boundary.
        NMOS: Extra read of invalid address.
        CMOS: Extra read of last instruction byte.

 2. Execution of invalid op codes.
        NMOS: Some terminate only by reset. Results are undefined.
        CMOS: All are NOPs (reserved for future use).

 3. Jump indirect, operand = XXFF.
        NMOS: Page address does not increment.
        CMOS: Page address increments and adds one additional cycle.

 4. Read/modify/write instructions at effective address.
        NMOS: One read and two write cycles.
        CMOS: Two read and one write cycle.

 5. Decimal flag.
        NMOS: Indeterminate after reset.
        CMOS: Initialized to binary mode (D=0) after reset and interrupts.

 6. Flags after decimal operation.
        NMOS: Invalid N, V and Z flags.
        CMOS: Valid flag adds one additional cycle.

 7. Interrupt after fetch of BRK instruction.
        NMOS: Interrupt vector is loaded, BRK vector is ignored.
        CMOS: BRK is executed, then interrupt is executed.



                6510 Instruction Timing

  The NMOS 6500 series processors always perform at least two reads
for each instruction. In addition to the operation code (opcode), they
fetch the next byte. This is quite efficient, as most instructions are
two or three bytes long.

  The processors also use a sort of pipelining. If an instruction does
not store data in memory on its last cycle, the processor can fetch
the opcode of the next instruction while executing the last cycle. For
instance, the instruction EOR #$FF truly takes three cycles. On the
first cycle, the opcode $49 will be fetched. During the second cycle
the processor decodes the opcode and fetches the parameter #$FF. On
the third cycle, the processor will perform the operation and store
the result to accumulator, but simultaneously it fetches the opcode
for the next instruction. This is why the instruction effectively
takes only two cycles.

  The following tables show what happens on the bus while executing
different kinds of instructions.

  Interrupts

     NMI and IRQ both take 7 cycles. Their timing diagram is much like
     BRK's (see below). IRQ will be executed only when the I flag is
     clear. IRQ and BRK both set the I flag, whereas the NMI does not
     affect its state.

     The processor will usually wait for the current instruction to
     complete before executing the interrupt sequence. To process the
     interrupt before the next instruction, the interrupt must occur
     before the last cycle of the current instruction.

     There is one exception to this rule: the BRK instruction. If a
     hardware interrupt (NMI or IRQ) occurs before the fourth (flags
     saving) cycle of BRK, the BRK instruction will be skipped, and
     the processor will jump to the hardware interrupt vector. This
     sequence will always take 7 cycles.

     You do not completely lose the BRK interrupt, the B flag will be
     set in the pushed status register if a BRK instruction gets
     interrupted. When BRK and IRQ occur at the same time, this does
     not cause any problems, as your program will consider it as a
     BRK, and the IRQ would occur again after the processor returned
     from your BRK routine, unless you cleared the interrupt source in
     your BRK handler. But the simultaneous occurrence of NMI and BRK
     is far more fatal. If you do not check the B flag in the NMI
     routine and subtract two from the return address when needed, the
     BRK instruction will be skipped.

     If the NMI and IRQ interrupts overlap each other (one interrupt
     occurs before fetching the interrupt vector for the other
     interrupt), the processor will most probably jump to the NMI
     vector in every case, and then jump to the IRQ vector after
     processing the first instruction of the NMI handler. This has not
     been measured yet, but the IRQ is very similar to BRK, and many
     sources state that the NMI has higher priority than IRQ. However,
     it might be that the processor takes the interrupt that comes
     later, i.e. you could lose an NMI interrupt if an IRQ occurred in
     four cycles after it.

     After finishing the interrupt sequence, the processor will start
     to execute the first instruction of the interrupt routine. This
     proves that the processor uses a sort of pipelining: it finishes
     the current instruction (or interrupt sequence) while reading the
     opcode of the next instruction.

     RESET does not push program counter on stack, and it lasts
     probably 6 cycles after deactivating the signal. Like NMI, RESET
     preserves all registers except PC.


  Instructions accessing the stack

     BRK

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- -----------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  read next instruction byte (and throw it away),
                       increment PC
        3  $0100,S  W  push PCH on stack (with B flag set), decrement S
        4  $0100,S  W  push PCL on stack, decrement S
        5  $0100,S  W  push P on stack, decrement S
        6   $FFFE   R  fetch PCL
        7   $FFFF   R  fetch PCH


     RTI

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- -----------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  read next instruction byte (and throw it away)
        3  $0100,S  R  increment S
        4  $0100,S  R  pull P from stack, increment S
        5  $0100,S  R  pull PCL from stack, increment S
        6  $0100,S  R  pull PCH from stack


     RTS

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- -----------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  read next instruction byte (and throw it away)
        3  $0100,S  R  increment S
        4  $0100,S  R  pull PCL from stack, increment S
        5  $0100,S  R  pull PCH from stack
        6    PC     R  increment PC


     PHA, PHP

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- -----------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  read next instruction byte (and throw it away)
        3  $0100,S  W  push register on stack, decrement S


     PLA, PLP

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- -----------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  read next instruction byte (and throw it away)
        3  $0100,S  R  increment S
        4  $0100,S  R  pull register from stack


     JSR

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- -------------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  fetch low address byte, increment PC
        3  $0100,S  R  internal operation (predecrement S?)
        4  $0100,S  W  push PCH on stack, decrement S
        5  $0100,S  W  push PCL on stack, decrement S
        6    PC     R  copy low address byte to PCL, fetch high address
                       byte to PCH



  Accumulator or implied addressing

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- -----------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  read next instruction byte (and throw it away)


  Immediate addressing

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  fetch value, increment PC


  Absolute addressing

     JMP

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- -------------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  fetch low address byte, increment PC
        3    PC     R  copy low address byte to PCL, fetch high address
                       byte to PCH


     Read instructions (LDA, LDX, LDY, EOR, AND, ORA, ADC, SBC, CMP, BIT,
                        LAX, NOP)

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  fetch low byte of address, increment PC
        3    PC     R  fetch high byte of address, increment PC
        4  address  R  read from effective address


     Read-Modify-Write instructions (ASL, LSR, ROL, ROR, INC, DEC,
                                     SLO, SRE, RLA, RRA, ISB, DCP)

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  fetch low byte of address, increment PC
        3    PC     R  fetch high byte of address, increment PC
        4  address  R  read from effective address
        5  address  W  write the value back to effective address,
                       and do the operation on it
        6  address  W  write the new value to effective address


     Write instructions (STA, STX, STY, SAX)

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  fetch low byte of address, increment PC
        3    PC     R  fetch high byte of address, increment PC
        4  address  W  write register to effective address


  Zero page addressing

     Read instructions (LDA, LDX, LDY, EOR, AND, ORA, ADC, SBC, CMP, BIT,
                        LAX, NOP)

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  fetch address, increment PC
        3  address  R  read from effective address


     Read-Modify-Write instructions (ASL, LSR, ROL, ROR, INC, DEC,
                                     SLO, SRE, RLA, RRA, ISB, DCP)

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  fetch address, increment PC
        3  address  R  read from effective address
        4  address  W  write the value back to effective address,
                       and do the operation on it
        5  address  W  write the new value to effective address


     Write instructions (STA, STX, STY, SAX)

        #  address R/W description
       --- ------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1    PC     R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC     R  fetch address, increment PC
        3  address  W  write register to effective address

  Zero page indexed addressing

     Read instructions (LDA, LDX, LDY, EOR, AND, ORA, ADC, SBC, CMP, BIT,
                        LAX, NOP)

        #   address  R/W description
       --- --------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1     PC      R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2     PC      R  fetch address, increment PC
        3   address   R  read from address, add index register to it
        4  address+I* R  read from effective address

       Notes: I denotes either index register (X or Y).

              * The high byte of the effective address is always zero,
                i.e. page boundary crossings are not handled.


     Read-Modify-Write instructions (ASL, LSR, ROL, ROR, INC, DEC,
                                     SLO, SRE, RLA, RRA, ISB, DCP)

        #   address  R/W description
       --- --------- --- ---------------------------------------------
        1     PC      R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2     PC      R  fetch address, increment PC
        3   address   R  read from address, add index register X to it
        4  address+X* R  read from effective address
        5  address+X* W  write the value back to effective address,
                         and do the operation on it
        6  address+X* W  write the new value to effective address

       Note: * The high byte of the effective address is always zero,
               i.e. page boundary crossings are not handled.


     Write instructions (STA, STX, STY, SAX)

        #   address  R/W description
       --- --------- --- -------------------------------------------
        1     PC      R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2     PC      R  fetch address, increment PC
        3   address   R  read from address, add index register to it
        4  address+I* W  write to effective address

       Notes: I denotes either index register (X or Y).

              * The high byte of the effective address is always zero,
                i.e. page boundary crossings are not handled.


  Absolute indexed addressing

     Read instructions (LDA, LDX, LDY, EOR, AND, ORA, ADC, SBC, CMP, BIT,
                        LAX, LAE, SHS, NOP)

        #   address  R/W description
       --- --------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1     PC      R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2     PC      R  fetch low byte of address, increment PC
        3     PC      R  fetch high byte of address,
                         add index register to low address byte,
                         increment PC
        4  address+I* R  read from effective address,
                         fix the high byte of effective address
        5+ address+I  R  re-read from effective address

       Notes: I denotes either index register (X or Y).

              * The high byte of the effective address may be invalid
                at this time, i.e. it may be smaller by $100.

              + This cycle will be executed only if the effective address
                was invalid during cycle #4, i.e. page boundary was crossed.


     Read-Modify-Write instructions (ASL, LSR, ROL, ROR, INC, DEC,
                                     SLO, SRE, RLA, RRA, ISB, DCP)

        #   address  R/W description
       --- --------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1    PC       R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2    PC       R  fetch low byte of address, increment PC
        3    PC       R  fetch high byte of address,
                         add index register X to low address byte,
                         increment PC
        4  address+X* R  read from effective address,
                         fix the high byte of effective address
        5  address+X  R  re-read from effective address
        6  address+X  W  write the value back to effective address,
                         and do the operation on it
        7  address+X  W  write the new value to effective address

       Notes: * The high byte of the effective address may be invalid
                at this time, i.e. it may be smaller by $100.


     Write instructions (STA, STX, STY, SHA, SHX, SHY)

        #   address  R/W description
       --- --------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1     PC      R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2     PC      R  fetch low byte of address, increment PC
        3     PC      R  fetch high byte of address,
                         add index register to low address byte,
                         increment PC
        4  address+I* R  read from effective address,
                         fix the high byte of effective address
        5  address+I  W  write to effective address

       Notes: I denotes either index register (X or Y).

              * The high byte of the effective address may be invalid
                at this time, i.e. it may be smaller by $100. Because
                the processor cannot undo a write to an invalid
                address, it always reads from the address first.


  Relative addressing (BCC, BCS, BNE, BEQ, BPL, BMI, BVC, BVS)

        #   address  R/W description
       --- --------- --- ---------------------------------------------
        1     PC      R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2     PC      R  fetch operand, increment PC
        3     PC      R  Fetch opcode of next instruction,
                         If branch is taken, add operand to PCL.
                         Otherwise increment PC.
        4+    PC*     R  Fetch opcode of next instruction.
                         Fix PCH. If it did not change, increment PC.
        5!    PC      R  Fetch opcode of next instruction,
                         increment PC.

       Notes: The opcode fetch of the next instruction is included to
              this diagram for illustration purposes. When determining
              real execution times, remember to subtract the last
              cycle.

              * The high byte of Program Counter (PCH) may be invalid
                at this time, i.e. it may be smaller or bigger by $100.

              + If branch is taken, this cycle will be executed.

              ! If branch occurs to different page, this cycle will be
                executed.


  Indexed indirect addressing

     Read instructions (LDA, ORA, EOR, AND, ADC, CMP, SBC, LAX)

        #    address   R/W description
       --- ----------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1      PC       R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2      PC       R  fetch pointer address, increment PC
        3    pointer    R  read from the address, add X to it
        4   pointer+X   R  fetch effective address low
        5  pointer+X+1  R  fetch effective address high
        6    address    R  read from effective address

       Note: The effective address is always fetched from zero page,
             i.e. the zero page boundary crossing is not handled.

     Read-Modify-Write instructions (SLO, SRE, RLA, RRA, ISB, DCP)

        #    address   R/W description
       --- ----------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1      PC       R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2      PC       R  fetch pointer address, increment PC
        3    pointer    R  read from the address, add X to it
        4   pointer+X   R  fetch effective address low
        5  pointer+X+1  R  fetch effective address high
        6    address    R  read from effective address
        7    address    W  write the value back to effective address,
                           and do the operation on it
        8    address    W  write the new value to effective address

       Note: The effective address is always fetched from zero page,
             i.e. the zero page boundary crossing is not handled.

     Write instructions (STA, SAX)

        #    address   R/W description
       --- ----------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1      PC       R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2      PC       R  fetch pointer address, increment PC
        3    pointer    R  read from the address, add X to it
        4   pointer+X   R  fetch effective address low
        5  pointer+X+1  R  fetch effective address high
        6    address    W  write to effective address

       Note: The effective address is always fetched from zero page,
             i.e. the zero page boundary crossing is not handled.

  Indirect indexed addressing

     Read instructions (LDA, EOR, AND, ORA, ADC, SBC, CMP)

        #    address   R/W description
       --- ----------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1      PC       R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2      PC       R  fetch pointer address, increment PC
        3    pointer    R  fetch effective address low
        4   pointer+1   R  fetch effective address high,
                           add Y to low byte of effective address
        5   address+Y*  R  read from effective address,
                           fix high byte of effective address
        6+  address+Y   R  read from effective address

       Notes: The effective address is always fetched from zero page,
              i.e. the zero page boundary crossing is not handled.

              * The high byte of the effective address may be invalid
                at this time, i.e. it may be smaller by $100.

              + This cycle will be executed only if the effective address
                was invalid during cycle #5, i.e. page boundary was crossed.


     Read-Modify-Write instructions (SLO, SRE, RLA, RRA, ISB, DCP)

        #    address   R/W description
       --- ----------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1      PC       R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2      PC       R  fetch pointer address, increment PC
        3    pointer    R  fetch effective address low
        4   pointer+1   R  fetch effective address high,
                           add Y to low byte of effective address
        5   address+Y*  R  read from effective address,
                           fix high byte of effective address
        6   address+Y   R  read from effective address
        7   address+Y   W  write the value back to effective address,
                           and do the operation on it
        8   address+Y   W  write the new value to effective address

       Notes: The effective address is always fetched from zero page,
              i.e. the zero page boundary crossing is not handled.

              * The high byte of the effective address may be invalid
                at this time, i.e. it may be smaller by $100.


     Write instructions (STA, SHA)

        #    address   R/W description
       --- ----------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1      PC       R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2      PC       R  fetch pointer address, increment PC
        3    pointer    R  fetch effective address low
        4   pointer+1   R  fetch effective address high,
                           add Y to low byte of effective address
        5   address+Y*  R  read from effective address,
                           fix high byte of effective address
        6   address+Y   W  write to effective address

       Notes: The effective address is always fetched from zero page,
              i.e. the zero page boundary crossing is not handled.

              * The high byte of the effective address may be invalid
                at this time, i.e. it may be smaller by $100.


  Absolute indirect addressing (JMP)

        #   address  R/W description
       --- --------- --- ------------------------------------------
        1     PC      R  fetch opcode, increment PC
        2     PC      R  fetch pointer address low, increment PC
        3     PC      R  fetch pointer address high, increment PC
        4   pointer   R  fetch low address to latch
        5  pointer+1* R  fetch PCH, copy latch to PCL

       Note: * The PCH will always be fetched from the same page
               than PCL, i.e. page boundary crossing is not handled.



                How Real Programmers Acknowledge Interrupts

  With RMW instructions:

        ; beginning of combined raster/timer interrupt routine
        LSR $D019       ; clear VIC interrupts, read raster interrupt flag to C
        BCS raster      ; jump if VIC caused an interrupt
        ...             ; timer interrupt routine

        Operational diagram of LSR $D019:

          #  data  address  R/W
         --- ----  -------  ---  ---------------------------------
          1   4E     PC      R   fetch opcode
          2   19    PC+1     R   fetch address low
          3   D0    PC+2     R   fetch address high
          4   xx    $D019    R   read memory
          5   xx    $D019    W   write the value back, rotate right
          6  xx/2   $D019    W   write the new value back

        The 5th cycle acknowledges the interrupt by writing the same
        value back. If only raster interrupts are used, the 6th cycle
        has no effect on the VIC. (It might acknowledge also some
        other interrupts.)



  With indexed addressing:

        ; acknowledge interrupts to both CIAs
        LDX #$10
        LDA $DCFD,X

        Operational diagram of LDA $DCFD,X:

          #  data  address  R/W  description
         --- ----  -------  ---  ---------------------------------
          1   BD     PC      R   fetch opcode
          2   FD    PC+1     R   fetch address low
          3   DC    PC+2     R   fetch address high, add X to address low
          4   xx    $DC0D    R   read from address, fix high byte of address
          5   yy    $DD0D    R   read from right address


        ; acknowledge interrupts to CIA 2
        LDX #$10
        STA $DDFD,X

        Operational diagram of STA $DDFD,X:

          #  data  address  R/W  description
         --- ----  -------  ---  ---------------------------------
          1   9D     PC      R   fetch opcode
          2   FD    PC+1     R   fetch address low
          3   DC    PC+2     R   fetch address high, add X to address low
          4   xx    $DD0D    R   read from address, fix high byte of address
          5   ac    $DE0D    W   write to right address


  With branch instructions:

        ; acknowledge interrupts to CIA 2
                LDA #$00  ; clear N flag
                JMP $DD0A
        DD0A    BPL $DC9D ; branch
        DC9D    BRK       ; return

        You need the following preparations to initialize the CIA registers:

                LDA #$91  ; argument of BPL
                STA $DD0B
                LDA #$10  ; BPL
                STA $DD0A
                STA $DD08 ; load the ToD values from the latches
                LDA $DD0B ; freeze the ToD display
                LDA #$7F
                STA $DC0D ; assure that $DC0D is $00

        Operational diagram of BPL $DC9D:

          #  data  address  R/W  description
         --- ----  -------  ---  ---------------------------------
          1   10    $DD0A    R   fetch opcode
          2   91    $DD0B    R   fetch argument
          3   xx    $DD0C    R   fetch opcode, add argument to PCL
          4   yy    $DD9D    R   fetch opcode, fix PCH
        ( 5   00    $DC9D    R   fetch opcode )


        ; acknowledge interrupts to CIA 1
                LSR       ; clear N flag
                JMP $DCFA
        DCFA    BPL $DD0D
        DD0D    BRK

        ; Again you need to set the ToD registers of CIA 1 and the
        ; Interrupt Control Register of CIA 2 first.

        Operational diagram of BPL $DD0D:

          #  data  address  R/W  description
         --- ----  -------  ---  ---------------------------------
          1   10    $DCFA    R   fetch opcode
          2   11    $DCFB    R   fetch argument
          3   xx    $DCFC    R   fetch opcode, add argument to PCL
          4   yy    $DC0D    R   fetch opcode, fix PCH
        ( 5   00    $DD0D    R   fetch opcode )


        ; acknowledge interrupts to CIA 2 automagically
                ; preparations
                LDA #$7F
                STA $DD0D       ; disable all interrupt sources of CIA2
                LDA $DD0E
                AND #$BE        ; ensure that $DD0C remains constant
                STA $DD0E       ; and stop the timer
                LDA #$FD
                STA $DD0C       ; parameter of BPL
                LDA #$10
                STA $DD0B       ; BPL
                LDA #$40
                STA $DD0A       ; RTI/parameter of LSR
                LDA #$46
                STA $DD09       ; LSR
                STA $DD08       ; load the ToD values from the latches
                LDA $DD0B       ; freeze the ToD display
                LDA #$09
                STA $0318
                LDA #$DD
                STA $0319       ; change NMI vector to $DD09
                LDA #$FF        ; Try changing this instruction's operand
                STA $DD05       ; (see comment below).
                LDA #$FF
                STA $DD04       ; set interrupt frequency to 1/65536 cycles
                LDA $DD0E
                AND #$80
                ORA #$11
                LDX #$81
                STX $DD0D       ; enable timer interrupt
                STA $DD0E       ; start timer

                LDA #$00        ; To see that the interrupts really occur,
                STA $D011       ; use something like this and see how
        LOOP    DEC $D020       ; changing the byte loaded to $DD05 from
                BNE LOOP        ; #$FF to #$0F changes the image.

        When an NMI occurs, the processor jumps to Kernal code, which jumps to
        ($0318), which points to the following routine:

        DD09    LSR $40         ; clear N flag
                BPL $DD0A       ; Note: $DD0A contains RTI.

        Operational diagram of BPL $DD0A:

          #  data  address  R/W  description
         --- ----  -------  ---  ---------------------------------
          1   10    $DD0B    R   fetch opcode
          2   11    $DD0C    R   fetch argument
          3   xx    $DD0D    R   fetch opcode, add argument to PCL
          4   40    $DD0A    R   fetch opcode, (fix PCH)


  With RTI:

        ; the fastest possible interrupt handler in the 6500 family
                ; preparations
                SEI
                LDA $01         ; disable ROM and enable I/O
                AND #$FD
                ORA #$05
                STA $01
                LDA #$7F
                STA $DD0D       ; disable CIA 2's all interrupt sources
                LDA $DD0E
                AND #$BE        ; ensure that $DD0C remains constant
                STA $DD0E       ; and stop the timer
                LDA #$40
                STA $DD0C       ; store RTI to $DD0C
                LDA #$0C
                STA $FFFA
                LDA #$DD
                STA $FFFB       ; change NMI vector to $DD0C
                LDA #$FF        ; Try changing this instruction's operand
                STA $DD05       ; (see comment below).
                LDA #$FF
                STA $DD04       ; set interrupt frequency to 1/65536 cycles
                LDA $DD0E
                AND #$80
                ORA #$11
                LDX #$81
                STX $DD0D       ; enable timer interrupt
                STA $DD0E       ; start timer

                LDA #$00        ; To see that the interrupts really occur,
                STA $D011       ; use something like this and see how
        LOOP    DEC $D020       ; changing the byte loaded to $DD05 from
                BNE LOOP        ; #$FF to #$0F changes the image.

        When an NMI occurs, the processor jumps to Kernal code, which
        jumps to ($0318), which points to the following routine:

        DD0C    RTI

        How on earth can this clear the interrupts? Remember, the
        processor always fetches two successive bytes for each
        instruction.

        A little more practical version of this is redirecting the NMI
        (or IRQ) to your own routine, whose last instruction is JMP
        $DD0C or JMP $DC0C.  If you want to confuse more, change the 0
        in the address to a hexadecimal digit different from the one
        you used when writing the RTI.

        Or you can combine the latter two methods:

        DD09    LSR $xx  ; xx is any appropriate BCD value 00-59.
                BPL $DCFC
        DCFC    RTI

        This example acknowledges interrupts to both CIAs.


  If you want to confuse the examiners of your code, you can use any
of these techniques. Although these examples use no undefined opcodes,
they do not necessarily run correctly on CMOS processors. However, the
RTI example should run on 65C02 and 65C816, and the latter branch
instruction example might work as well.

  The RMW instruction method has been used in some demos, others were
developed by Marko M"akel"a. His favourite is the automagical RTI
method, although it does not have any practical applications, except
for some time dependent data decryption routines for very complicated
copy protections.



                Memory Management


The processor's point of view

  The Commodore 64 has access to more memory than its processor can
directly handle. This is possible by banking the memory. There are
five user configurable inputs that affect the banking. Three of them
can be controlled by program, and the rest two serve as control lines
on the memory expansion port.

  The 6510 MPU has an integrated I/O port with six I/O lines. This
port is accessed through the memory locations 0 and 1. The location 0
is the Data Direction Register for the Peripheral data Register, which
is mapped to the other location. When a bit in the DDR is set, the
corresponding PR bit controls the state of a corresponding Peripheral
line as an output. When it is clear, the state of the Peripheral line
is reflected by the Peripheral register. The Peripheral lines are
numbered from 0 to 5, and they are mapped to the DDR and PR bits 0 - 5,
respectively. The 8502 processor, which is used in the Commodore 128,
has seven Peripheral lines in its I/O port. The pin P6 is connected to
the ASC/CC key (Caps lock in English versions).

  The I/O lines have the following functions:

     Direction  Line  Function
     ---------  ----  --------
        out      P5   Cassette motor control. (0 = motor spins)
        in       P4   Cassette sense. (0 = PLAY button depressed)
        out      P3   Cassette write data.
        out      P2   CHAREN
        out      P1   HIRAM
        out      P0   LORAM

  The default value of the DDR register is $2F, so all lines except
Cassette sense are outputs. The default PR value is $37 (Datassette
motor stopped, and all three memory management lines high).
If you turn any memory management line to input, the external pull-up
resistors make it to look like it is outputting logical "1". This
is actually why the computer always switches the ROMs in upon startup:
Pulling the -RESET line low resets all Peripheral lines to inputs,
thus setting all three processor-driven memory management lines to
logical "1" level.

  The two remaining memory management lines are -EXROM and -GAME on
the cartridge port. Each line has a pull-up resistor, so the lines
are "1" by default.

  Even though the memory banking has been implemented with a 82S100
Programmable _Logic_ Array, there is only one control line that seems
to behave logically at first sight, the -CHAREN line. It is mostly
used to choose between I/O address space and the character generator
ROM. The following memory map introduces the oddities of -CHAREN and
the other memory management lines. It is based on the memory maps in
the Commodore 64 Programmer's Reference Guide, pp. 263 - 267, and some
errors and inaccuracies have been corrected.

  The leftmost column of the table contains addresses in hexadecimal
notation. The columns aside it introduce all possible memory
configurations. The default mode is on the left, and the absolutely
most rarely used Ultimax game console configuration is on the right.
(Has anybody ever seen any Ultimax games?) Each memory configuration
column has one or more four-digit binary numbers as a title. The bits,
from left to right, represent the state of the -LORAM, -HIRAM, -GAME
and -EXROM lines, respectively. The bits whose state does not matter
are marked with "x". For instance, when the Ultimax video game
configuration is active (the -GAME line is shorted to ground), the
-LORAM and -HIRAM lines have no effect.


      default                      001x                       Ultimax
       1111   101x   1000   011x   00x0   1110   0100   1100   xx01
10000
----------------------------------------------------------------------
 F000
       Kernal RAM    RAM    Kernal RAM    Kernal Kernal Kernal ROMH(*
 E000
----------------------------------------------------------------------
 D000  IO/C   IO/C   IO/RAM IO/C   RAM    IO/C   IO/C   IO/C   I/O
----------------------------------------------------------------------
 C000  RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM     -
----------------------------------------------------------------------
 B000
       BASIC  RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    BASIC  ROMH   ROMH    -
 A000
----------------------------------------------------------------------
 9000
       RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    ROML   RAM    ROML   ROML(*
 8000
----------------------------------------------------------------------
 7000

 6000
       RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM     -
 5000

 4000
----------------------------------------------------------------------
 3000

 2000  RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM     -

 1000
----------------------------------------------------------------------
 0000  RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM    RAM
----------------------------------------------------------------------

    *) Internal memory does not respond to write accesses to these
       areas.


    Legend: Kernal      E000-FFFF       Kernal ROM.

            IO/C        D000-DFFF       I/O address space or Character
                                        generator ROM, selected by
                                        -CHAREN. If the CHAREN bit is
                                        clear, the character generator
                                        ROM will be selected. If it is
                                        set, the I/O chips are
                                        accessible.

            IO/RAM      D000-DFFF       I/O address space or RAM,
                                        selected by -CHAREN. If the
                                        CHAREN bit is clear, the
                                        character generator ROM will
                                        be selected. If it is set, the
                                        internal RAM is accessible.

            I/O         D000-DFFF       I/O address space.
                                        The -CHAREN line has no effect.

            BASIC       A000-BFFF       BASIC ROM.

            ROMH        A000-BFFF or    External ROM with the -ROMH line
                        E000-FFFF       connected to its -CS line.

            ROML        8000-9FFF       External ROM with the -ROML line
                                        connected to its -CS line.

            RAM         various ranges  Commodore 64's internal RAM.

            -           1000-7FFF and   Open address space.
                        A000-CFFF       The Commodore 64's memory chips
                                        do not detect any memory accesses
                                        to this area except the VIC-II's
                                        DMA and memory refreshes.

    NOTE:   Whenever the processor tries to write to any ROM area
            (Kernal, BASIC, CHAROM, ROML, ROMH), the data will get
            "through the ROM" to the C64's internal RAM.

            For this reason, you can easily copy data from ROM to RAM,
            without any bank switching. But implementing external
            memory expansions without DMA is very hard, as you have to
            use a 256 byte window on the I/O1 or I/O2 area, like
            GEORAM, or the Ultimax memory configuration, if you do not
            want the data to be written both to internal and external
            RAM.

            However, this is not true for the Ultimax video game
            configuration. In that mode, the internal RAM ignores all
            memory accesses outside the area $0000-$0FFF, unless they
            are performed by the VIC, and you can write to external
            memory at $1000-$CFFF and $E000-$FFFF, if any, without
            changing the contents of the internal RAM.


A note concerning the I/O area

  The I/O area of the Commodore 64 is divided as follows:

     Address range  Owner
     -------------  -----
       D000-D3FF    MOS 6567/6569 VIC-II Video Interface Controller
       D400-D7FF    MOS 6581 SID Sound Interface Device
       D800-DBFF    Color RAM (only lower nybbles are connected)
       DC00-DCFF    MOS 6526 CIA Complex Interface Adapter #1
       DD00-DDFF    MOS 6526 CIA Complex Interface Adapter #2
       DE00-DEFF    User expansion #1 (-I/O1 on Expansion Port)
       DF00-DFFF    User expansion #2 (-I/O2 on Expansion Port)

  As you can see, the address ranges for the chips are much larger
than required. Because of this, you can access the chips through
multiple memory areas. The VIC-II appears in its window every $40
addresses. For instance, the addresses $D040 and $D080 are both mapped
to the Sprite 0 X co-ordinate register. The SID has one register
selection line less, thus it appears at every $20 bytes. The CIA chips
have only 16 registers, so there are 16 copies of each in their memory
area.

  However, you should not use other addresses than those specified by
Commodore. For instance, the Commodore 128 mapped its additional I/O
chips to this same memory area, and the SID responds only to the
addresses D400-D4FF, also when in C64 mode. And the Commodore 65, or
the C64DX, which unfortunately did not make its way to the market,
could narrow the memory window reserved for its CSG 4567 VIC-III.


The video chip

  The MOS 6567/6569 VIC-II Video Interface Controller has access to
only 16 kilobytes at a time. To enable the VIC-II to access the whole
64 kB memory space, the main memory is divided to four banks of 16 kB
each. The lines PA0 and PA1 of the second CIA are the inverse of the
virtual VIC-II address lines VA14 and VA15, respectively. To select a
VIC-II bank other than the default, you must program the CIA lines to
output the desired bit pair. For instance, the following code selects
the memory area $4000-$7FFF (bank 1) for the video controller:

    LDA $DD02 ; Data Direction Register A
    ORA #$03  ; Set pins PA0 and PA1 to outputs
    STA $DD02
    LDA $DD00
    AND #$FC  ; Mask the lowmost bit pair off
    ORA #$02  ; Select VIC-II bank 1 (the inverse of binary 01 is 10)
    STA $DD00

  Why should you set the pins to outputs? Hardware RESET resets all
I/O lines to inputs, and thanks to the CIA's internal pull-up
resistors, the inputs actually output logical high voltage level. So,
upon -RESET, the video bank 0 is selected automatically, and older
Kernals could leave it uninitialized.

  Note that the VIC-II always fetches its information from the
internal RAM, totally ignoring the memory configuration lines. There
is only one exception to this rule: The character generator ROM.
Unless the Ultimax mode is selected, VIC-II "sees" character generator
ROM in the memory areas 1000-1FFF and 9000-9FFF. If the Ultimax
configuration is active, the VIC-II fetches all data from the internal
RAM.


Accessing the memory places 0 and 1

  Although the addresses 0 and 1 of the processor are hard-wired to
its on-chip I/O port registers, you can access the memory places 0 and
1. The video chip always reads from RAM (or character generator ROM),
so you can use it to read also from 0 and 1. Enable the bit-map screen
and set the start address of the graphics screen to 0. Now you can see
these two memory locations in the upper left corner. Alternatively,
you could set the character generator start address to 0, in which
case you would see these locations in @ characters (code 0). Or, you
can activate a sprite with start address 0. Whichever method you
choose, you can read these locations with sprite collision registers.
Define a sprite consisting of only one dot, and move it to read the 8
bits of each byte with the sprite to sprite or sprite to background
collision registers.

  But how can you write to these locations? If you execute the command
POKE 53265,59, you will see that the memory place 1 changes its value
wildly. If you disable the interrupts (POKE53664,127), it will remain
stable. How is this possible? When the processor writes to 0 or 1, it
will put the address on the address bus and set the R/-W line to indicate
a write cycle, but it does not put the data on the data bus. Thus, it
writes "random" data. Of course this data is not truly random. Actually
it is something that the video chip left on the bus on its clock half.
So, if you want to write a certain value on 0 or 1, you have to make the
video chip to read that value just before the store cycle. This requires
very accurate timing, but it can be achieved even with a carefully
written BASIC program. Just wait the video chip to be in the top or
bottom border and the beam to be in the middle of the screen (not in the
side borders). At this area, the video chip will always read the last
byte of the video bank (by default $3FFF). Now, if you store anything to
the I/O port registers 0 or 1 while the video chip is refreshing this
screen area, the contents of the memory place $3FFF will be written to
the respective memory place (0 or 1).  Note that this trick does not work
reliably on all computers.  You need good RF protection, as the data bus
will not be driven at all when the value remains on it.

  On the C128 in its 2 MHz mode, you can write to the memory places
with an easier kludge.  Just make sure that the video chip is not
performing the memory refresh (as it would slow down to 1 MHz in that
case), and use some instruction that reads from a proper memory location
before writing to 0 or 1.  Indexed zero-page addressing modes are good
for it.  I tested this trick with LDX#1 followed by STA $FF,X.  As you
can read from the instruction timing section of this document, the
instruction first reads from $FF (the base address) and then writes to 0.
The timing can be done with a simple LDA$D012:CMP$D012:BEQ *-3 loop.
But in the C128 mode you can relocate the stack page to zero page, so
this trick is not really useful.

  You can also read the memory places 0 and 1 much faster than with
sprite collisions. Just make the video chip to read from 0 or 1, and
then read from non-connected address space ($DE00-$DFFF on a stock C64;
also $D700-$D7FF on C128's). Actually, you can produce a complete map
of the video timing on your computer by making a loop that reads from
open address space, pausing one frame and one cycle in between. And if
you are into copy protections, you could write a program on the open
address space. Just remember that there must be a byte on the bus for
each clock cycle.

  These tricks unfortunately do not work reliably on all units. So far
I have had the opportunity to try it on three computers, two of which
were Commodore 128 DCR's (C128's housed in metal case with a 1571 floppy
disk drive, whose controller is integrated on the mother board). One
C128DCR drove some of its data bits too heavily to high state.  No wonder,
since its housing consisted of some newspapers spread on the floor.



                Autostart Code

  Although this document concentrates on hardware, there is one thing
that you must know about the firmware to get complete control over
your computer. As the Commodore 64 always switches the ROMs on upon
-RESET, you cannot relocate the RESET vector by writing something in
RAM. Instead, you have to use the Autostart code that will be
recognized by the KERNAL ROM. If the memory places from $8004 through
$8008 contain the PETSCII string 'CBM80' (C3 C2 CD 38 30), the RESET
routine jumps to ($8000) and the default NMI handler jumps to ($8002).

  Some programs that load into RAM take advantage of this and don't
let the machine to be reset. You don't have to modify the ROM to get
rid of this annoying behaviour. Simply ground the -EXROM line for the
beginning of the RESET sequence.



                Notes

  See the MCS 6500 Microcomputer Family Programming Manual for less
information.


References:
  C64 Memory Maps       C64 Programmer's Reference Guide, pp. 262-267
                        C64 Schematic Diagram
  6510 Block Diagram    C64 Programmer's Reference Guide,  p. 404
  Instruction Set       C64 Programmer's Reference Guide, pp. 254-255, 416-417
			C64/128 Real Programmer's Revenge Guide
                        C=Lehti magazine 4/87